GERNSBACKS EDUCATIONAL LIBRARY N27

HOW READ

RADIAGRAMS
CRY5TA L

CONDEN_5

PHONES

--A SIMPLE CRYSTAL SET -

RADIO PUBLICATIONS, 25 W.BROADWAY, NEW YORK ,NY.

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Rote to Read Radio Diagrams 1

INTRODUCTION
IF you are the average beginner in radio, you prefer picture diagrams to
the schematic diagrams, which use symbols. The symbols are unfamiliar
to you and, therefore, bewildering. But when, after two or three hours'
study, you have learned to understand the symbols, you will find schematic
diagrams far simpler to read and easier to trace than the pictorial diagrams,
with their confusing mazes of wiring.
Symbols are really the short -hand of radio. With a few simple lines,
they can show any unit used in radio work. Not only that, but they lend
themselves to better arrangement, and more clearly show the relationship
between various parts. Charts of many of the most frequently employed
symbols are given on the following seven pages.
In each of the charts, the name and derivation of each symbol is shown.
wherever possible. For example, the curlicue which symbolises a coil can
be traced to the turns of wire which comprise a coil; the. Audio Frequency
Transformer symbol shows two such windings in relation to a core; etc.
Numerous simple diagrams of simple radio circuits are also shown.
To familiarize you with schematic (symbolic) circuits, each has below it
the corresponding picture diagram. As an aid to learning to read the
schematics, it is suggested that you lay a piece of paper over the picture
diagram and the textual explanation which accompanies each drawing.
If you are unable to read it, refer to the picture diagram. The symbols
and pictures are in precisely the same position, in so far as possible. Try to
read the schematic diagram with the aid of the picture diagram.
After having familiarized yourself with the symbol chart, you should
be able to take the point of your pencil and reason out what happens in
the circuit. In Figure 2, for example, you should be able to say, "The
antenna is connected to one side of the phones and the cat -whisker of the
crystal detector. The other side of the phones and the crystal of the detector
are connected to ground."
To get the most benefit from the "Explanation" pages, it is suggested
that you follow a certain procedure.
First, as has been said, study the symbol charts given in the preceding
pages, until you are familiar with the meaning of the most commonly used
symbols.
Second, Take some sheets of paper and cover up all of a symbol page
extent for the symbols themselves. Try to write the name of the part each
symbol represents.
Third, take some sheets of paper and cover up all of a symbol page
except for the names of the units. Try to draw the symbol for each name
given.
Fourth, have someone call off the names to you in no regular order.
Draw the symbol for each and write the name of the unit under it. Check
and practise as above.
 2 How to Read Radio Diagrams

ALTERNATOR

,,,
0 LOOP
AERIAL

,,
ARC

x
.

-8- A
L
AM MED.:T.4 "A" BATTERY ANTENNA OR
AERIAL

I' ' MI

ALTERNATOR - The upper sym- the other two lines which angle
bol shown is based upon the upward from it indicate the feed-
brushes and slip -rings of an alter- ers from an old-fashioned multi -
nating current generator. The wire antenna, represented by the
lower symbol, much used because flatline across the top. Though
it is more easily drawn, has at antennas of this sort are no long-
its center the symbol for alter- er widely used for radio recep-
nating current, which indicates tion, the symbol has persisted. It
the type of current which the is used to indicate an antenna or
generator produces. aerial irrespective of design.
AMMETER-While the upper sym- LOOP AERIAL-Most loop aerials
bol is still used, the lower one is were simply a piece of wire space -
favored by most draftsmen. The wound on a large rectangular
letter "A" at its center shows that frame. Therefore the symbol was
the instrument represented is an a rough representation of this,
ammeter. Were it a milliammeter, showing two turns of the loop
the symbol would show an "MA"; and a pair of connections.
a voltmeter, a "V"; and a milli - "A" BATTERY-The symbol rep-
voltmeter an "MV". Thus each sents a number of cells in series.
unit is readily identified. ARC-The arc, much used in the
ANTENNA OR AERIAL-The sin- days of spark transmission, was
gle long line which projects at a simple drawing of the two elec-
the bottom of this symbol rep- trodes, with an X, indicating the
resents the lead-in wire, while arc, between them.
How to Read Radio Diagram. 3

"B" BATTERY - The symbol for any other shape, a fixed condenser
the "B" battery is much like that consists, essentially, of two me-
for the "A" battery, except that tallic plates, with a dielectric
more cells are shown, for the "A" (non-conductor) between them.
usually consists of from 1 to 3 Therefore the symbol shows con-
cells in series, while the "B" may nections to two plates, with a
have from 15 cells (for a 22T/2 - space between them, to indicate
volt battery) to 120 cells (for a that there is no connection be-
180 -voltbattery). Each pair of tween the plates. The capacity of
lines means one cell. Not all of the condenser is shown by figures.
these cells are drawn, however, VARIABLE CONDENSER - Irre-
the voltage being indicated by spective of its size or shape, a
figures. variable condenser consists of two
BUZZER-As a buzzer consists of or more metal plates with a dielec-
a winding around an iron core tric (generally air) between them.
which attracts an arm used to The symbol may be much like
complete the circuit, the symbol that for the fixed condenser, with
shows this arrangement clearly. a diagonal arrow added to show
The parallel lines are the core; variability or, as in the lower sym-
the arm makes contact at the little bol, one of the tires may be
arrow head. curved and provided with an arrow
FIXED CONDENSER-No matter head, to show that it is a rotary
whether it is flat, tubular or of plate or group of plates.

1.
VARIABLE FIXED
BATTERY CONDENSER
CONDENSER

I" Z. 1
1
7 ,,,...,..,- Ti7 -cza_ T
BUZZER CONNECTION

1 c,
CONDENSERTRIMMER

.efill 1
-4......6:5P IP;>--
T
4 How to Road Radio Diagrams

NO COUPLED VARIABLE
CONNECTION COILS INDUCTANCE
....sic
II
,....
,

,,...,
___...
1E ,,.,
,_ ,.,,,,_
COIL COUPLED COILS, CRYSTAL
VARIABLE DETECTOR

_vs illis--t,
....--,-----1---- --...--::...-
---,. I IP "..'
---..,...z___-_-..--
.-.._,----
'-------- 41r '
I1 1
ii

TRIMMER CONDENSER-A trim- for a coil is therefore nothing

mer condenser is variable, but more than a line with a number
not as widely nor as easily as of loops in it, to represent the
a standard variable condenser, for turns. The inductance of the coil
its shaft is slotted for a screw- is given in figures; the same sym-
driver instead of being provided bol is used to indicate a radio -
with a knob. The decrease in var- frequency choke coil.
iability is indicated by omitting VARIABLE INDUCTANCE-Some
the head of the arrow. coils may have any predetermined
CONNECTION - When two wires number of their coils connected
are brought together and a drop into or out of the circuit at will.
of solder applied, the connection This can be done by means of
looks much as it appears in the one or more sliders, as shown
symbol. above, or by means of a number
NO CONNECTION-Sometimes, in of connections made between
drawing a diagram, it is neces- various turns and a number of
sary to cross lines over each switch taps. A movable metal arm
other. To make it clear that there allows the circuit to be made to
is no connection between the the desired tap. This is shown
wires these lines represent, one of in the lower part of the illustra-
them is curved where it crosses tion.
the other, to indicate that there is COUPLED COILS-Sometimes, as
space or insulation between them. in radio -frequency transformers,
COIL-A coil consists of a number it is desired to have two coils so
of turns of wire, and the symbol arranged that there is inductive
How to Read Radio Diagrams 5

coupling (a form of magnetic employed. The symbol merely rep-

linkage without direct connec- resents the two electrodes of the
tion) between them. When this gap.
is done, the coils are placed closely QUENCHED GAP-Like the above,
together, as the symbol shows. this has virtually faded from the
COUPLED COILS, VARIABLE - radio picture. It had large plates
When the coupling between two to cool the gap, and these are
coils, the variability is indicated indicated in the symbol. It is
sliding or rotating one of the much like the battery symbol, ex-
coils, the variability is indicated cept that the lines are all of the
by the arrow run diagonally across same thickness.
the symbol, as shown. GROUND - In normal receiving
CRYSTAL DETECTOR-This unit practice, the ground connection
generally consists of a mineral may be a water pipe, the frame
crystal used in conjunction with of a building, a radiator, a pipe
a fine wire "cat's whisker" which driven into moist soil, or any-
is moved about its surface until thing which makes good contact
a sensitive spot is found. The with moist earth-as do all of the
heavy line in the symbol indicates units mentioned. So the symbol
the crystal; the arrow head, the is highly simplified. It is merely
cat's whisker. Even if the cat's a little cross-section of a piece of
whisker is fixed, the symbol re- ground, showing a few layers of
mains the same. soil. It is always given the tri-
SPARK GAP-Once widely used in angular form to make it readily
radio, this is now seldom if ever recognizable.

SPARK GAP KEY GROUND

---

QUENCHED

it
LOUD SPEAKER MICROPHONE
GAP

_ Irkir '
6 How to Read Radio Diagrams

CONDENSER I RESISTOR PHONOGRAPH

MICROPHONE PICK-UP
(mAGNETic TYPE)

$11441#14i

PIEZOELECTRIC VARIABLE TWISTED PA!R

RESISTOR Vi
ct:

,-, 11

,..._
q---

KEY-A key is an easily operated be used to indicate a condenser

switch, normally in the open po- microphone. Its position in the
sition. And that is precisely what circuit help show what it is.
the symbol shows. PHONOGRAPH PICK-UP - The
LOUD SPEAKER-If of the mag- magnetic pick-up consists of a
netic type, it may be represented coil of wire surrounding an arma-
simply by a horn, as shown in ture to which the needle is at-
the schematic illustration. In rep- tached, as the upper symbol
resenting a dynamic speaker, the shows. The crystal pick-up has
symbol shows the big field the needle attached to a piezo-
winding, the metal core (parallel electric crystal which is clamped
lines), and the small voice coil between two contact plates. In
which is attached to the paper each, the arrow head indicates the
cone. needle.
MICROPHONE - The double -but- PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL -
ton carbon microphone is sym- Different from the detector crys-
bolized by two short, thick points tal, this one generates electricity
to indicate the carbon buttons, when subjected to strains. As the
with a long, thin line, represent- symbol indicates, it is clamped
ing the diaphragm, between them. between two metal plates. The
For other microphones, see same symbol sometimes is used
Transmitter. for a crystal microphone.
CONDENSER MICROPHONE -A RESISTOR-You can readily under-
condenser with a thin and a thick stand that, as every conductor of-
plate (much like a battery) may fers a certain amount of rests-
Row to Rood Radio Dlogroww 7

tance to the passage of electric show an ordinary variable resistor

current, a longer wire (of the - particularly when the circuit
same size and material) offers can be opened entirely by moving
more resistance than a shorter the arm from the element.
wire. Therefore the symbol for TWISTED PAIR-Twisted wires,
resistance is the jagged line, often used for lead-ins and for
which is longer than a straight heater connections, are shown
line would be in reaching from merely by a pair of intertwined
one point to another. The same lines, as in the illustration on the
symbol is used irrespective of the preceding page.
material or design of the resistor, SWITCH-A convenient means of
and its resistance is shown in opening or closing a circuit.
figures. TELEPHONE RECEIVERS - This
RESISTOR (VARIABLE) - One is merely simplified
means of showing that a resistor symbol a
is variable is by putting an arrow drawing of a pair of head -phones
diagonally across it, as shown. (the two small circles). The
But sometimes the resistor is of curved line which joins them rep-
a particular type. It may be con- resents both the head -band and
nected at both ends, with a mov- the connection between the
able contact on the resistance ele phones.
ment. Thin is shown at the lower TRANSMITTER (MICROPHONE)
portion of the illustration. At This is the diagram most usually
times this same symbol, with one used to indicate any type of trans-
of the ends unconnected, is used mitter or microphone except the
instead of the other symbol, to double -button carbon type. Let.
SWITCH TRANSFORMER TRANSMITTER

il
(AUDIO FREQUENCY) (MICROPHONE)

Ah.,
in 3

;141.0r.
de-
Jill
AUTOFORMER TRANSFORMER ,...-
TELEPHONE (PUSH-PULL)
RECEIVERS e----

!Af- ff
''°!Ir

..........
e to
iNONT
ammo
 NOW to Road Radio Diagrams

CHOKE COIL VOLTMETER VACUUM TUBE

(AUCIO FA20(Etrf)

Co
CI
--....

POWER DYNAMO OR

.
SOCK ET

VI013) e
TRANSFORMER MOTOR

110- All . :31:

tering generally shows whether AUTOFORMER-This is simply a

it indicates a crystal, single -button transformer with a single winding,
carbon, dynamic, velocity or ca- tapped so that one part of it may
pacity microphone. Circuit connec- be used as the primary, the other
tions may also indicate this. part as the secondary. The symbol
TRANSFORMER (AUDIO FRE- shows this clearly.
QUENCY)-An audio frequency TRANSFORMER (POWER) -A
transformer consists of two coils transformer designed to handle
of wire wound on the same iron high voltage and considerable cur-
core, and this is readily followed rent. Used to step up line voltage
in the symbol. There are the two in power packs. May have addi-
coils, with the parallel lines be- tional step-down windings for
tween them, to represent the core. filaments of tubes.
The primary is distinguished TRANSFORMER (PUSH-PULL)-
from the secondary by being In some circuits, the plate of
drawn with fewer turns in many one tube is used to feed the grids
diagrams; in others, the primary of two tubes connected in "push-
is marked "P" and the secondary, pull", and a special type of trans-
"S". Occasionally no special former, with a center -tapped sec-
means of distinguishing is used, ondary, is used. This push-pull in-
in which case the primary is the put transformer is shown at the
top of the illustration. If the
winding connected to the plate plates of these tubes are to be
circuit of one tube, the secondary connected to a loud speaker, a
being connected to the grid cir- push-pull output transformer,
cuit of another. (Continued on Page 28)
How to Read Radio Diagrams 9

EXPLANATION
You know the symbol for the
aerial. Here it is, in Figure 1, con-
nected right to one side of a crys-
tal which "detects" the signals the
aerial picks up.
In order to hear these signals,
you need a pair of phones, so the
other side of the crystal is connect-
ed to this unit.
Both sides of the phones must be
connected, for best results, so the
other side of the phones is con-
nected to ground.
That is i rally all there :s to read-
ing diagrams-you simply have to
figure out what has to be done and
connect up the units to do it.
Every circuit must be complete,
there must NEVER be any "loose
ends" in radio.
One of the most important of all
circuits is the antenna (or aerial)
circuit. This consists of the aerial
wire and the ground, and any units
connected between them.
Later, in other books, you will
learn of circuits which operate
without any apparent ground con-
nection, hut the ground is always
there. For example, in electric sets,
it may be one side of the electric
lighting lines.
Antennas may be anywhere from
25 to 100 feet long; generally speak-
ing, the longer the antenna, the
more numerous and stronger the
signals you will pick up, you will
have more trouble separating one
station from another, and you will
get more interference and static
noises, on the broadcast band.
The phones should be 2,000 ohms
or upward; 75 ohm phones, such as
are used on telephones, will not do.
Fig. 1
10 How to &tad Radio Diagrams

EXPLANATION
Is the diagram in Figure 2 the
same as the preceding one?
True, it has the same parts, but
if you inspect it closely, you will
see that they are connected differ-
ently. It is NOT the same.
In the preceding diagram, the
crystal detector and the headphones
were in series. In the diagram on
this page, the crystal detector and
head -phones are in parellel.
Trace the circuit. Tne antenna
connects to one side of both the
crystal and the phones. The other
side of the crystal and the phones
connect to the ground.
This makes entirely different ac-
tion take place in the circuit.
To understand this, you must
know that a radio wave is alternat-
ing current, shaped or "modulated"
by a lower ("audio") frequency. In
older to work the phones, this radio
wave must be rectified or changed
into direct current. The detector,
whether it is a crystal or a tube,
does this.
The crystal offers great resistance
to one-half of the radio wave, but
passes the other half freely. That
is known as "detector action."
In the preceding circuit, half of
the wave is retarded, and the other
half passes through the crystal and
the phones. That is 'what always
happens in series circuits of any
type - the same current passes
through all the units which are con-
nected in series.
In the circuit on this page, the
half of the wave that passes through
the crystal goes directly to ground;
nearly all of the half that is retarded
passes through the phones.
Fig. 2
How to Road Radio Diagram. 11

EXPLANATION
What have we in Figure 31 A
new element -a fixed condenser -
added to the circuit of Figure 1.
No device niade by man' is per-
fect. Therefore, sonic of the radio
frequency current gets by the de-
tector. The phones offer a great
deal of opposition to the passage
of radio frequency currents, and this
makes the circuit work less perfect-
ly than we would wish. .001 -
But currents of this sort, though MP.
they do not pass freely through coils
of many turns of fine wire (such as
the windings of a phone or a pair
of phones) do pass very easily
through condensers.
For this reason the condenser has
been added. It affords a free path
for the radio frequency currents
and, equally important, it keeps them
from passing through the phones.
They would not injure the phones
in any way, but they would, make
reception weaker, for one-half of
the alternating current radio wave
would tend to cancel out the other
half. It would not cancel it com-
pletely, because the half that leaked
through the detector would be much
weaker than the half that passed
easily through the detector, but it
would make reception poorer. The
condenser takes care of it.
You will see that the condenser
is marked ".001 mfd." That is the
measure of its capacity-what lay-
men call "its size." Sometimes a
condenser of greater or lesser ca-
pacity will work better, depending
upon the phones and crystal used.
Experiment - trying one condenser
after another - will show which
works best.
Fig. 3
12 How to Radii Radio Diagrams

EXPLANATION
The diagram, Figure 4, is wrong.
A mistake has been put into it de-
liberately. Do you see what it is?
True, it is the circuit of Figure
2, with a condenser added as in Fig-
ure 3, but there is something differ-
ent.
The condenser is across the crys-
tal as well as across the phones.
Remember what you read about
parallel circuits when studying the
explanation of Figure 2.
In this circuit, the radio frequency
currents would not only be by-
passed around the phone, but around
T the crystal as well, at least in part.
For that reason the crystal could not
function as perfectly as though the
condenser were not there, though
one station might be heard.

TUNED CIRCUITS
All of the circuits given thus far
have been untuned circuits. That is,
they will pick up any signals which
reach their antennas, but will be
efficient only on a wave which hap-
pens to be of approximately the
same length as the antenna. If two
radio waves are being received at
the same time, the circuits given
cannot be adjusted to cut one sig-
nal out so that the other can be
heard in comfort.
A tuned circuit is needed to adjust
the receiving circuit to resonance
with the various stations' waves.
This is done most simply by adding
a coil of wire in series with the
aerial; the more turns of wire that
are added, other things being equal,
the longer the wave -lengths which
will be received.
Fig. 4
Row to Road Radio Dia:roma 13

EXPLANATION
Do you recognize this circuit in
Figure 5?
Just as Figure 3 was developed
from Figure 1, so the circuit on this
page is developed from Figure 3.
It is the same as Figure 3 except
that an extra unit has been added.
This new unit is a single -slide
tuner, connected between the an-
tenna and the crystal. It could have
been connected between the phones
and the ground instead, but the re-
sults are usually (although not al-
ways) better when it is connected
as shown.
A single -slide tuner is simply
coil of wire with a slider arranged
to be movable along it, to make
contact with any of the turns of
the coil. By moving the slider,
more or fewer of the turns can be
connected in the circuit, at will.
When making a tuner that em-
ploys sliders, it is easiest to use an
insulated wire. Enameled wire is
perfectly satisfactory and costs less
than cotton covered or silk covered.
When the coil is made, the insula-
tion must be scraped off the wire
where the slider touches it. This
can be done easily with a piece of
sandpaper held over the end of a
finger and tubbed back and forth
along the coil, following the path
the slider will take.
The coil can be wound on an
empty oatmeal box. Put on about
150 turns of No. 22 wire. Wind the
turns close together if you use an
insulated wile; if you use a wire
that is not insulated, you will have
to leave a tiny space between each
turn so that the wire does not short
circuit. This is hard to do neatly.
Fig. S
14 How to Read Radio Diagrams

EXPLANATION
In Figure 6, we have something
a little different.
If the coil were omitted, this dia-
gram would be exactly the same
as the one shown in Figure 3. But
the coil is connected between the
aerial and ground. It is in parallel
with the detector -phone circuit, and
thus is actually a part of the cir-
cuit.
There is a fact called "resonance".
When, a circuit is in resonance
with an incoming wave, the natural
frequency (or wavelength) of the
circuit is the same as that of the
wave being received, and the result
is that the signal is received strong-
ly. Moving the slider along the coil
permits the circuit to be brought to
resonance, just as in Figure 5.
Another explanation of this ac-
tion is that when the coil is cor-
rectly tuned by means of the slider,
it offers a very high resistance to
the passage of the one particular
wave to which it is tuned, and but
little resistance to all other waves.
Thus the wave which is wanted is
forced to go through the crystal
and phones, while the others flow
through the coil to the ground and
therefore do not interfere.
The second explanation is easier
to understand, and while it means
much the same as the first one, is
not quite so accurate technically and
therefore is less commonly used.
However, it may give *Ile reader
a clearer underst:Indp.n the ac-
tion of the circuit.
Resonance is one of the parts of
radio which is often difficfilt for
the beginner to understand, and it
is beyond the scope of this volume.
Fig. 6
How to Read Radio Diagrams 11

EXPLANATION
Except for one detail, Figure 7
is the same as Figure 6. Instead of
a slide tuner, it has a tapped coil.
The tapped coil can be easily
mounted, because the connections
to the various turns can be made
to switch points inserted through
the panel, and used together with
a switch arm.
By tapping the coil correctly, any
desired number of turns may be
connected into the circuit-but not
every turn has to be tapped. If this
were not possible, a 100 -turn coil
would need 100 taps, and this would
be extremely inconvenient. Only 19
taps are needed to use from 1 to 100
turns of a 100 turn coil.
In winding the coil, make one turn
of the wire, then twist a little piece
of the wire so it stands up from the
coil, and wind the next turn, twist-
ing a loop on it in the same way.
Do this on each of the first ten
turns. Then wind nine turns in
the regular way, make a little loop
on the 20th, nine more regular turns
and the 30th turn with a loop in it,
and so forth, for the rest of the
coil, tapping each tenth ,:urn.
Connect the first ten taps (the
ones on every turn) to one group
of switch points, which will be con-
tacted by one switch arm. Connect
the other nine taps (the ones on
every tenth turn) to a second group
of switch points, to be contacted by
a second switch arm. Make your
rough tuning adjustments with the
second switch, the fine adjustments
with the first switch. If you num-
ber the switch points, you can make
a record of where every station is
tuned in.
Fig. 7
16 How to Road Radio Diagrams

EXPLANATION
Notice the similarity between
Figure 8 and Figure 6.
A two -slide tuner has replaced the
single -slide tuner.
One end of the coil is connected
to ground; the antenna connects to
one slider and the detector to the
other. In Figure 6, the detector was
connected directly to the antenna,
and when the slider tuned the an-
tenna circuit, it also tuned the de-
tector circuit. Now these two cir-
cuits may be tuned separately, each
by means of the slider to which it
is connected.
This will give appreciably better
results than the single -slide tuner,
because each circuit can be tuned
separately, instead of a compro-
mise reached. The single -slide tun-
er simply tunes to a point which is
between the best tuning of the de-
tector circuit and the best tuning
of the antenna circuit.
A tuner of this sort is made ex-
actly the same as a single -slide tun-
er, with but one exception. This is
that there are two rods, each with
its slider. It is connected as shown
in the figure on this page.
At first one might think that the
two sliders could be mounted on
the same rod, but this is not so.
The reason is that for some stations
the antenna slider will have to be
nearer tile end of the coil and that
for other stations the detector slid-
er will have to be nearer the end
of the coil. If they were on the
same rod, this could not be done
without stopping to change connec-
tions-a great nuisance.
The two -slide tuner is used in
most of the so-called "long dis-
tance" crystal sets.
Fig. 8
Row to Road Radio Diagrams 17

EXPLANATION
Here is something new againl
Figure 9 shows the first two -cir-
cuit set which has been presented
in these pages. All the others have
been single -circuit diagrams, for the
antenna circuit was coupled direct-
ly to the detector circuit.
In this circuit, however, you will
see that there are two coils instead
of one. The two coils together form
a radio -frequency transformer of
sorts. The antenna and ground are
connected to the primary, which is
inside the secondary. The detector -
secondary, which may be a simple
single -slide tuner but which is more
easily made as a tapped coil, as
shown.
Notice the arrow running through
the two coils. That, as you have
that the coupling
between the primary and secondary
can be varied at will. This is usual-
ly done by winding the primary, on
-a smaller form, which fits inside
the secondary and monnted on a
shaft which can be rotated by means
of a knob.
This circuit is a great improve-
ment over those previously given.
for although it does not make the
set more sensitive than the one
given in Figure 8, it makes it far
more selective. In other words, it
helps the listener tune -out unwan-
ted stations.
Not only does it make it possible
for the antenna circuit and the de-
tector circuit to be tuned perfectly;
it also enables the listener to de-
crease the amount of energy fed
from the antenna circuit to the de-
tector circuit. Thus, when two sta-
(Continued on Page 31)
Fig. 9
18 How to Read Radio Diagrams
EXPLANATION
Here, too, is a new element enter-
ing the circuit; it is the variable
condenser. It is connected between
the aerial and the antenna coil, and
is used to tune the antenna circuit,
as seen in Figure 10.
Coils with sliders or with taps are
more of a bother to tune, for the
slider must be pushed back and
forth, or if a tapped coil is used,
two switches must be manipulated.
Nor are coils of these types as effi-
cient as might be desired, for there
are losses of energy due to currents
set up in the turns which are cut
out of the circuit.
Putting a condenser in series with
the circuit is the electrical equiva-
lent of taking some turns off the
coil. Using a smaller condenser has
the effect of taking off more turns
than using a larger condenser.
Therefore the use of a variable con-
denser permits the user to secure
the effect of taking off a fraction of
a turn, a complete turn, a few turns,
or a large number of turns, simply
by twisting the condenser shaft to
move the plates in and out of mesh.
Better yet, with the slider or with
the tapped coil, every adjustment
meant changing the coil by one com-
plete turn. There are no such steps
in the adjustment of the variable
condenser-the variation is smooth
and gradual instead of being in
steps. The user can secure the ef-
fects of removing 1/10 of a turn,
or turns with equal ease. As
a result, the circuit can be tuned
more accurately than with taps or
sliders.
Like fixed condensers, variable
condensers are rated as to capacity
(Continued on Page 24)
Fig. 10
How to Read Radio Diagrams 19

EXPLANATION
As you see in Figure 11, another
variable condenser has been added
to the circuit, to tune the secondary
coil. A condenser in parallel with a
coil acts in precisely the opposite
way that a condenser in series does.
That is, as the capacity is increased,
this acts like adding more turns.
Now, in this circuit, no taps or
sliders at all are needed to tune the
antenna circuit or the detector cir-
cuit. They are brought to reso-
nance with the incoming wave by
means of the condensers.
Circuits of this sort are seldom
used with crystal detectors, for vari- fr
able condensers are not as cheap as
sliders or switches. They are, how-
ever, used in vacuum tube circuits,
which will be considered next.
Before going on to vacuum tube
circuits, however, review Figures 1
to 11, inclusive. Be sure that you
understand how connections are
made between units, and the func-
tions of the various units you have
studied thus far.
Every tuned radio circuit has ca-
pacity and inductance. A coil is an
inductance, and even if there is no
condenser used with it, some little
"distributed capacity" exists between
the turns of the coil.
Even in the circuit of Figures 1
and 2, where no condensers or coils
are used, inductance and capacity
exist-the former, in the windings
of the phones; the latter between
aerial and ground, and in the wir-
ing of the set, particularly in the
phone cords.
Remember that there must be in-
ductance and capacity in all the cir-
cuits which follow.
Fig. 11
 HMO to Read Rafe Diagrams

EXPLANATION
You recognize the symbol, Fig-
ure 12. for a simple three -element
vacuum tube, which contains grid,
filament and plate.
Connected to this tube are two
batteries-the "A" battery to pro-
vide current to heat the filament;
the "B" battery to supply voltage
and current to the plate circuit.
The filament is a wire which is
so treated that it emits a cloud of
electrons when it is heated by the
passage of current from the "A"
battery. The electrical charge of
electrons is said to be negative,
It is a fact that unlike charges of
electricity attract each other. There-
fore the electrons are attracted by
the plate which, as you see, is con-
nected to the positive end of the
"B" battery.
An explanation of how and why
current flows in the plate circuit
would be long, and technically be-
yond the scope of this book. How-
ever, you can believe that electricity
from the "B" battery flows through
the filament, from the filament to
the plate, from the plate through
any coils or resistances which may
be between the plate and the bat-
tery, and back to the battery. The
circuit just described is the external
plate circuit.
There is another equally impor-
tant circuit in the tube-the grid
circuit. The electrons from the fila-
ment must pass through the grid
to reach the plate, and some of
them are attracted to the grid.
These must flow back to the fila-
ment through any coils or resistors
in the external grid circuit.
The third circuit is the filament
(Continued on Page 26)
12
How to Read Radio Diagrams 21

EXPLANATION
You are not expected to under-
stand this diagram thoroughly, for
you will never build a set of the
sort shown in Figure 13. It uses a
special type of detector which is
called a "diode" as it has but two
elements instead of the three just
described.
It is given for a special purpose,
for it is virtually the link between
the crystal detector and the three -
element vacuum tube described
upon the preceding page.
Diodes came out before three -ele-
ment tubes and, as the latter were
far more efficient, were soon dis-
continued. But a few years ago,
they came back strong in certain
circuits (such as for use as second
detector in superheterodynes with
automatic volume control). How-
ever, they are never used today
in the circuit shown on this page.
In this circuit, the tube functions
as a simple rectifier or detector.
Notice how similar the secondary
circuit is to that given in Figure
11. Except for the fact that it has
a two -element tube instead of a
crystal, and that the antenna and
ground are directly connected, it
is the same.
Compare this diode tube, which
has only plate and filament, to the
three -element tube shown in Fig-
ure 12. The grid, added by Dr. Lee
de Forest, is what really put radio
on the map. That little grid acts
as a valve. When the incoming
wave gives it a negative charge, it
retards the electron flow from fila-
ment to plate; when it is given a
positive charge it accelerates the
flow of electrons from filament to
(Continued on Page 25)
13
22 How to Road Radio Diagram*
EXPLANATION
Figure 14 presents the simplest of
standard tube circuits. Compare it
to the one given in Figure 13.
Also refer back to Figure 12 and
the explanation thereof, you will
see that the tuning unit and an ad-
ditional resistance and fixed con-
denser have been added to the tun-
ing units (coil and variable conden-
ser) the grid circuit. You will also
notice that the headphones have
been added to the plate circuit. And
a variable resistance has been put
into the filament circuit, as was ex-
plained.
The resistor (usually from 2,000-
000 to 6,000,000 ohms-or, more sim-
ply, 2 to 6 megohms) completes the
grid circuit, allowing the electrons
to leak slowly hack to the filament.
But this resistor, which passes the
direct current of electrons, offers
tremendous resistance to the pass-
age of the high -frequency alterna-
ting currents which are the radio
waves, and it is these radio waves
which must reach the grid in order
to make the tube operate.
As you were told in the explana-
tion of Figure 3, the high -frequency
currents flow easily through a con-
denser, For this reason, a fixed
condenser (generally .00025 mid.) is
connected in parallel with the re-
sistor. The condenser is called a
grid condenser, and the resistor is
called a grid leak, from their uses.
As you read in the explanation of
Figure 2, these elements are con-
nected in parallel.
Direct currents cannot flow
through condensers, so the grid
leak is used to afford a path for the
electrons; alternating currents can,
(Continued on Page 29)
Fig. 14
How to Read Radio Diagram. 23

EXPLANATION
Figure 15 shows the same set as told, they pass through condensers.
that presented in Figure 14, but Therefore, a variable condenser is
with a great improvement added. placed between the plate and the
This new feature is regeneration, grid coil. The radio -frequency cur-
and the set shown is known as a rents are thus caused to flow
single -circuit regenerative set. through this coil again. This has
As you were told in the explana- the effect of reducing the resistance
tion of Figure 3, some of the radio of the grid circuit, and making the
frequency wave escapes past the set far more efficient.
detector. Up until this circuit, such The more the plates of the feed-
currents have been by-passed to back condenser, controlling this
ground by means of a fixed con- action, are in mesh, the more the ef-
denser across the phones, and the fect of the R. F. (radio frequency)
energy wasted. This circuit no long- currents, because the condenser's
er wastes the energy. capacity is increased.
Notice the coil between the plate A fixed condenser cannot be used
of the tube and the phones. It is a for this purpose because if the cap-
radio -frequency choke coil, and of- acity is too low, there is not enough
fers high resistance to radio fre- feed -back, and if its capacity is too
quency currents, though it permits high, there is too much feed -back
the detected audio -frequency part of and the set howls or whistles.
the signal and the plate current In fact, it becomes a transmitter
from the battery to pass without when it whistles, and if a key is
appreciable hindrance. connected between the tuning coil
The radio -frequency currents, im- and the ground, it can be used to
peded by the choke, have to go send signals in Continental or
somewhere and, as you have been Morse code.

111111111111

Fig. 15
24 How to Read Radio Diagrams

A+ - 8- A+ A- 8 -

Fig. 16
EXPLANATION
One of the greatest drawbacks of fraction of an inch. The greater
the set shown in Figure 15 was the their separation, the more sharply
fact that every time it was careless- the set will tune, and the less it will
ly tuned, it howled, and that these radiate; but if they are too far apart,
howls (caused by electrical oscilla- the set becomes less sensitive and
tions in the tube) radiated and loses volume.
could be heard for blocks. This Heretofore, we have always tuned
ruined reception for everyone try- the coils in the set, but this circuit
ing to listen -in in the same area as makes use of an untuned antenna
the set. coil, which serves merely to trans-
Another of the set's disadvan- fer energy from the antenna to the
tages was its inability to tune very grid circuit. It has comparatively
sharply. Two powerful or nearby few turns; if the grid coil is, say,
stations, broadcasting on almost the 120 turns on a 2 -inch form, the an-
same frequency (i.e., wave -length) tenna coil will have only from 5 to
would interfere with each other; 15 turns.
their signals could not be separated. A set of this sort is remarkably
To overcome these difficulties, the efficient, and this circuit is the basis
circuit was developed as indicated of many sensitive short-wave sets
in Figure 16, on this page. An an- in use today. It can be built at a
tenna coil and a grid coil replace cost for parts of less than $5.00.
the single tuning coil that was used
in the preceding circuit, and this (Continued from Page 18)
new two -coil unit was called a two - in microfarads. In the case of the
circuit tuner. It has, as you see, a variable condenser, the capacity
coil in the antenna circuit and a given is the capacity with the plates
separate coil in the grid circuit. completely meshed. It is decreased
These two coils are wound on the as the plates are brought out of
same form, and are separated by a mesh.
How to Read Radio Diagrams 25
EXPLANATION coupling (transfer of electrical en-
The three -circuit regenerative set, ergy) between the tickler coil and
shown in Figure 17, operates in grid coil when the two coils are in
much the same way as the two - the same direction; this coupling is
circuit set of Figure 16. decreased more and more as the
Notice, however, that there is this
tickler is turned from this position.
difference: The choke coil and
The tickler is usually wound on a
feed -back condenser are omitted.
smaller coil than the grid coil, so
Instead there is an additional coil, that it can fit partly inside it, and
known as the tickler, which serves has from 3/4 to 3/4 as many turns
the same purpose. The plate cur- of wire.
rent, together with its R. F. com- NOTE ON TUBE FILAMENTS
ponent, must pass through the tick- The detector grid returns shown
ler coil to get from the plate to the in these diagrams are connected to
battery. the positive side of the tube fila-
As you have already learned, when ments ("A"-4-). Such connections
alternating current is flowing are used with the -01A, 27, 30, 56,
through one coil, it induces (i.e. 76 and other tubes. The grid re-
sets up) a like current in another turns of -00A tubes are made to
coil placed close to it. That is how the negative side of the filaments
energy is transferred from the an- ("A"-).
tenna coil to the grid coil. In exactly
the same way, the R.F. in the plate (Continued from Page 21)
circuit is fed back to the grid cir- plate. When the degree of the pos-
cuit by means of the tickler coil. itive or negative charge maintained
The amount of feed -back is con- on it is increased or decreased, sim-
trolled by having the tickler coil ilar action takes place.
mounted on a shaft which can be You will understand this better
rotated by means of a knob. There when you have studied the next
is the greatest amount of inductive diagram, Figure 14.

Fig. 17
26 How to Road Radio Diagams

EXPLANATION
Here, in Figure 18, is the circuit The plate circuit of this A.F. stage
just described, but with an impor- is completed through a loud speak-
tant addition-a stage of audio -fre- er or, if you prefer, a pair of phones.
quency amplification. No by-pass condenser is needed
Adding this stage does not make across the A.F. stage's output.
the set any more sensitive or se- One thing you must notice care-
lective; it makes it louder. While fully is the way in which the grid
the preceding sets will work head- circuit of this stage is completed.
phones with good volume, they are The return, instead of being to the
not loud enough to operate a loud positive filament lead (i.e., wire)
speaker. The addition of a stage which is the correct grid return for
of A.F. (audio -frequency) amplifi- most detector tubes, is made to the
cation will permit a speaker to be negative filament lead. This is
operated at low volume; two stage necessary in all A.F. amplifier tubes.
will give ample volume for any This can he done by connecting
home, as you will be told later. them to the negative side of the
The phones are no longer in the filament in single -stage amplifiers,
detector plate circuit; instead there but two -stage amplifiers, handling
is the primary of an A.F. transfor- stronger signals, need a greater
mer which is by-passed with a small negative grid bias.
fixed condenser to afford a path for
the R.F. to slip by without passing
through the condenser windings, (Continued from Page 20)
just as the phones were.
The secondary of this transformer circuit, consisting simply of the fila-
is the grid coil of the audio stage. ment, the "A" battery, and any re-
As there is no need to detect in sistor that may be in series with
this stage, the grid leak and grid them to regulate the filament tem-
condenser, used in the detector perature and thus the emission of
stage, are omitted. the electrons.
How to Road Radio Diagrams 27

EXPLANATION
Figure 19 shows a two -stage greatly amplified signal, and re-
audio amplifier connected to the quires more power. In fact, special
tuner and detector of Figure 17. power tubes, such as the 20, 31, 33,
This circuit will work a loud speak- 112-A and others give best tone
er with perfectly satisfactory vol- when used in the output stage.
ume, and good tone. While the volume can be con-
It has several features not previ- trolled by adjusting the filament
ously discussed. rheostats (variable resistors in the
First, you will notice, it makes filament circuits) or the tickler coil,
use of "C" batteries-that is, bat- this is not the best method. A far
teries in the grid circuits-of the better volume control is the resistor
amplifier tubes. These are drawn R connected across the secondary
just as are "A" and "B" batteries; of the first A.F. transformer. Mov-
their use in the circuit marks them ing the slider -arm along this resis-
as "C" batteries. tor reduces the volume the more
The positive terminal of the "C" nearly it approaches the grid end
battery is always connected to the of the resistor. There is practically
filament circuit, just as is the nega- full volume when the arm is at the
tive terminal of the "B" battery. "C" battery end of the resistor.
You will also notice how the "B" Another feature of this circuit is
and "C" batteries are tapped to pro- the output choke. The plate cur-
vide the correct "B" voltages for rent of a power tube is so great that
detector, first audio and second
audio plates, and the correct "C" it might damage the windings of the
voltages for the two audio stages. loud speaker. It is therefore caused
Normally, higher "B" and "C" to flow through the A.F. choke con-
voltages are used on the second nected in the plate circuit of ,the
audio stage than on the first, for last tube. This choke passes the
this second tube must handle a (Continued on Page 32)

Fig. 19
28 How to Read Radio Diagrams

Fig. 20
EXPLANATION
Figure 20 represents a stage of nected as shown, a negative bias is
push-pull amplification, as used in kept on the grids of both tubes in
an audio output stage. It can be used the push-pull stage, and a positive
in place of the last stage shown in bias on their plates. But when the
the preceding diagram, Figure 19. signal impresses a more negative
It makes use of two tubes for a charge on one grid, it makes the
single audio amplifier stage. They other less negative, and vice versa.
are connected into the circuit by Thus one tube is "pushing" while
means of special push-pull trans- the other is "pulling" the signal.
formers. The push-pull input trans- The output of such a stage is far
former has a center -tapped secon- greater than that of the same two
dary; the push-pull output trans- tubes with their grids connected to-
former, a center -tapped primary. gether and their plates connected
When the transformers are con- together would be.
(Continued from Page 8)
shown in the lower part of the mediately clear, refer to Coil and
illustration, is used. Its primary Transformer, Audio Frequency.
is center -tapped. Between two The choke differs from the audio
push-pull stages, an inter -stage frequency transformer in that it
push-pull transformer, with both has but a single winding.
primary and_. secondary center - VOLTMETER - See the explana-
tapped, is used. tion given for Ammeter.
CHOKE COIL (AUDIO FRE-
QUENCY) - Either of the two DYNAMO or MOTOR-This sym-
symbols shown may be used to bol represents two brushes touch-
designate this unit, for each ing the commutator of a D.C.
shows that the coil is wound upon generator, or a motor.
an iron core. If this is not im- (Continued on Page 30)
Row to Road Radio Diagrams 29

EXPLANATION most moderately priced transform-

ers, but the amplification (increase
Another type of amplifier is seen of signal strength) per stage is not
in Figure 21. This is a resistance so great. Therefore, instead of two
coupled amplifier. It does not use stages of transformer coupled, three
transformers, as did those previously stages of resistance coupled ampli-
discussed, but employs fixed resist- fication are needed.
ors in the plate and grid circuits of However, resistors and fixed con-
the tubes, as shown. densers are inexpensive, and there
Although its accepted name is is generally a saving of expense.
"resistance coupled" it would be The plate resistors are 250,000 ohms,
more accurate to call it condenser the grid resistors 1 to 2 megohms,
coupled, for the true coupling is and the coupling condensers, .006
through the fixed condensers which mfd. to .25 mfd.
couple the plate of each tube to the
grid of the next. An A.F. choke is generally used
As you have gathered, when a in the output, as few resistors will
signal is flowing through an ampli- carry the current supplied in the
fier, its audio component is a pulsa- plate circuit of the power tube.
tion which acts much like an al- (Continued from Page 22)
ternating current. The plate re-
sistors offer opposition to the pass- so the grid condenser affords their
age of these pulsations, which are path.
impressed the condensers
upon The radio waves reaching the grid
(known as coupling condensers, but through this condenser vary the
more often as blocking condensers) charge on the grid many thousands
and thus are conveyed along to the of times per second. The grid con-
grids of the following tubes. trols the plate current, and thus the
The tonal quality it is possible to signal is heard in the phones. As
secure through resistance coupling the plate current is far greater than
is far better than that obtainable the radio currents which control it,
through the use of cheap or even the signal is more loudly heard.

,
I
7
%

A -Ci ,,) . , ll lil p il

ZIP:.
' i

II --

T
"
PET
c ..
MAD
s.5
.,..V,
.8
DEE
. . -C .5
1.0. 4 -CP
.A ....

Fig. 21
30 How to Read Radio Diagrams

Fig. 22
EXPLANATION
In the few preceding diagrams, R.F. (radio frequency) stage's plate
we have been considering audio fre- coil in Figure 22. Having no grid
quency amplifiers. As you were told leak and condenser, the tube does
they do not make the set more not act as a detector. Certain bias-
sensitive or selective. sing (not used) could also make it
The diagram, Figure 22, on this detect.
page, shows another type of ampli- If a standard three -element tube,
fiers-a radio frequency amplifier- such as the 01A, is used in the R.F.
which does add to the set's sensitiv- stage, there is the problem of giving
ity and selectivity. it the correct grid bias. It will be
Refer back to Figure 16. The an- inefficient if the bias is too positive,
tenna coil and grid coil used in that and will cause howling noises to
circuit are the same as those used come from the phones or loud
in the R.F. stage here. The detector speaker if it is too negative. There-
stage (the second tube and its as- fore, a potentiometer type of vari-
sociated units) makes use of a coil able resistance may be used, con-
assembly similar to the three -cir- nected as at R in the diagram.
cuit tuner of Figure 17, but with a There are many other ways of
few more turns on its primary. The keeping the R.F. stage from oscil-
primary, which was the antenna lating (the cause of howling), but
coil in Figure 17, has become the the best is to use a screen grid tube.
(Continued from Page 28) mon tubes for electric (house
VACUUM TUBE - The tube most lighting lines) operation has
frequently used in battery cir- cathode, grid and plate. The
cuits has three elements, the fila- cathode (corresponding to the
ment, grid and plate, and is repre- filament) is heated by a separate
sented as shown at the top of the part called the heater, which is
illustration. One of the most com- not considered as an element.
How to Read Radio Diagram. 31

EXPLANATION
Figure 23, herewith, is precisely applied to the screen grid may be
the same circuit as that of Figure obtained from a tap on the "B" bat-
22, except that a screen -grid (four - tery which supplies the plates of the
element) tube has been substituted tubes in the circuit. You will notice
for the three -element tube of the that the voltage applied to the
earlier diagram. screen grid is lower than that ap-
The added element is the screen plied to the plate.
grid. The element called the grid The screen grid attracts elec-
in preceding explanations remains trons, too, and some current flows
the same as heretofore, but its name in the screen grid circuit, but as it
changes. It is now called the con- is an open coil or mesh, and as the
trol grid to distinguish it from the plate is at a higher potential, most
screen -grid, for its function is to of the electrons are attracted
enable the incoming wave to con- through the screen grid to the plate.
trol the electron flow in the tube. The screen grid prong is in the
The addition of the screen grid position occupied by the grid prong
serves two purposes. It makes it of a three -element tube.
impossible for the tube to oscillate
and so eliminates the chance of (Continued from Page 17)
howling originating in the R.F.
stage; it also can be made to am- tions are heard, and their signals
plify the signal much more than cannot be completely separated, the
can a three -element tube. listener can tune until the wanted
Its grid bias may be obtained by station is louder than the unwanted
connecting the grid return to the one, and then move the sliding coil
negative side of the filament bat- of the loose -coupler (as this unit is
tery, or to a "C" battery, as shown called) until the unwanted station
in the illustration. The positive bias is no longer heard.

TO
PANART
0,
A FT

Fig. 23
32 How to Read Radio Diagrams
..,ili.
71'
CCs0 ,-
0,.... -CLOW

it
R II -12

0E7 -
__
i -,M1
-Anti
111
12

- +Lc,

MI I III .2., .....,

1.112
II5V
A.C.

Fig. 24
EXPLANATION
Figure 24 shows a "B" and "C" up. The larger they are, the better
eliminator or power pack. the filter, and the more it costs.
The transformer at the left is a To get different voltages for the
power transformer, and its primary various stages of the set, a voltage
is connected to the A.C. electric divider, R. is used. As it is connected
light lines of the house. It has two across the lines, it always draws
secondaries. One of these steps up some current through itself, and is
the voltage to supply "B" and "C" therefore often called a "bleeder."
voltage to the set. The other steps, This resistor is usually provided
the voltage down to heat the fila- with contacts which can be fast-ned
ment of the rectifier tube. at any desired points, so that the
In this diagram, a full -wave recti- desired voltages may be tapped off.
fier is used. It is really just two It works much like the potentiome-
diodes (See Figure 13) in the same ter resistance described in Figure 22.
tube and using the same filament Qther fixed condensers, usually
for both plates. It enables the power about 1 mfd. are used to by-pass
pack to make use of both halves of each tap to ground.
the alternating current cycle.
The rectifier changes the A.C. to
pulsating D.C. - and the set needs (Continued from Page 27)
smooth D.C. Therefore one or more plate current but impedes the A.F.
audio chokes are put in series with pulsations, which flow through the
the high voltage lead, as shown. In large condenser C and the speaker,
addition, large capacity fixed con- and so back to the plate circuit.
densers are connected between the A switch has also been added in
high voltage and low voltage leads, the "A" battery lead, so that the set
as shown. These condensers may be can be turned on and off without
of any capacity from about 2 mfd. having to readjust the rheostats.
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 Radio for the Beginner
By HUGO GERNSBACK

Chapter I

HISTORIC

THE true art of radio was un- deavored to send a message without
questionably discovered by Hein- wires over miles where Hertz used
rich Hertz, a German professor, yards. Instead of the wire hoop,
living at Frankfort. His first tech- Marconi devised and used a more
nical papers on his epoch-making sensitive apparatus. He found that
invention were published in 1887. an instrument called the coherer
Hertz was the first to send electric was enormously sensitive to the new
waves through space by means of electric waves, and soon was trans-
an electric spark. His apparatus was mitting signals for many hundreds
simple; he had an electric spark of yards on the estate of his father
coil that made intermittent sparks, in Italy. By diligent labor he in-
and by proper arrangement of this creased this distance and shortly
station, he could receive sparks at was telegraphing without wires
a distance by the simple arrange- across the English channel. Not
ment of cutting a single wire hoop many years later, he transmitted
and leaving a small gap. Between the letter "S" in telegraphic code
the two free ends, small sparks across the Atlantic by means of
jumped whenever sparks were made wireless.
to jump on his spark cod a few Radio telephony, contrary to pop-
yards away. ular opinion is not a new invention
Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian either. It was first invented by Val-
youth, read of these experiments demar Poulsen, the "Danish Edi-
and being gifted along these lines,
he duplicated Hertz's experiments. son." Instead of using a crashing
Soon his mind conceived the idea of spark at his sending station, he used
using the invention for transmitting a silent electric arc, with certain
intelligence over a distance. He en - adjuncts.
1
2 Radio for the Beginner

Chapter II
WAVE ANALOGIES
The analogy between water waves
and radio waves can be carried a
step further. We have seen how
waves may be produced; now let us
study how they may be received.
Take, for instance, a tank of water
20 or 30 feet in length. At the two
opposite ends, platforms have been
built, as illustrated in Fig. 2. On
one of these platforms a large
paddle has been arranged, so that
a person may operate its handle.
Now, if the paddle is moved back
and forth, a series of waves extend-
ing in all directions from this source
What is a radio wave? It is not of creation will be formed. The
any different physically than a sound waves spread further and further
wave or a wave in the ocean. If away from the paddle in concentric
we throw a heavy stone in a still rings until their strength is com-
lake, it makes a splash. This wave pletely expended. In this instance
rapidly extends in the form of cir- the tank is small, and the waves
cles, as shown in Fig. 1. are sufficiently powerful to reach
Radio for M. Boginnor 3
the opposite end, where the other
platform is built.
On the other platform, located
at the other end of the tank, we
have a smaller paddle, on the handle
of which a hammer has been ar-
ranged to strike a gong. It is ob-
vious that the waves moving the
paddle will cause the gong to ring,
informing the operator on that plat-
form that the operator on the other
platform is moving the paddle and
creating waves on the surface of
the water. By skillful manipulation
of the larger paddle, it is possible
to cause the smaller paddle to ring
the bell periodically, as desired; and
if a series of signals has been pre- are set up in the air in all directions
arranged, the operator with the from the bell. Whether you are on
larger paddle may communicate cer- the street level, 100 feet below, or
tain information by properly oper- in a building on the same level as
ating its handle. This represents the bell-in all these positions you
both the transmitting and receiving will clearly hear the ringing of the
stations of the wireless telegraph, the bell (Fig. 3). The sound waves are
larger paddle being the transmitter, propagated in every direction in
and the conducting medium being the form of waves, invisible to the
the water, while the smaller paddle eye, but "visible" to the ear. These
is the receiver. It is exactly so in waves are exactly of the same shape
radio. If, by means of certain elec- as are the ocean waves or water
trical apparatus connected to an waves, with the difference that the
aerial, we excite this aerial elec- sound waves go out in the air in
trically, waves are set up in the the form of spheres. In other words,
space exactly as water waves are the first sound wave leaving the
set up on the lake. Radio waves, bell would be a sort of invisible
just as do the water waves, branch globe all around it. The wave rap-
out in all directions. With the water idly spreads out, becoming larger
waves this is not so true. A true and larger, always remaining, how-
water wave, as we know, is carried ever, in the form of a sphere. If
along only upon the surface of the the sound waves did not go out
water. A few feet below the water in the form of spheres, it would
and immediately above the water, not be possible for us to hear them
no water waves are found. A better in all directions as we have seen
analogy would be sound waves. in Fig. 3.
Take, for instance, a church bell. Sound waves that leave a bell
By giving it a blow with a hammer, branch out, above, below, sideways;
we excite this bell. Sound waves in fact in all directions. It is exactly
4 Radio for the Beginner
so in radio. The aerial of the broad- it at all. The reason is that the vi-
casting station, or other radio trans- brations that reach our ears norm-
mitting station radiates as does a ally are too weak to be intercepted
bell. Both are transmitters of waves. by our small ears. By enlarging our
We can hear a bell even if win- ears, as shown in Fig. 4, we inter-
dows are closed. The invisible sound cept many more weak sound waves,
waves pass through the window and these waves, all being collected
panes. Radio waves do exactly the into our ears-bunched together, so
same thing, except that they pass to speak-are sufficient to impress
through solids far better than do the diaphragm in the ear. This holds
sound waves. Radio waves even pass true in radio as well. If we have a
through mountains, providing these transmitting station, or a broad-
mountains do not contain ores or casting station, we can hear it only
other metallic substances. Radio up to a certain distance with a given
waves also pass through the water apparatus. If we take a small aerial
just as sound waves do. But, as we which we can liken to a normal
all know, the farther away we go ear, we can use it only for a given
from a ringing bell, the more dif- distance, let us say 25 miles. If we
ficult it is to hear it. The reason is move this aerial 30 miles away
that the original wave, as we increase from the radio broadcasting station
the distance between ourselves and we can no longer hear it. The case
the bell, becomes larger and larger here is exactly as with the sound
and soon covers a tremendous area. waves. The radio waves now have
Finally there comes a point where to cover much larger areas, and
we no longer can hear the bell. there are not enough waves, so to
speak, to leave any impression upon
our small aerial. If, however, we
were to double or triple the size
of the aerial, we would do physically
the same thing as we were doing
when we attached the two horns
to our ears. By having a larger
or increased aerial with more wires,
we would, by means of this, inter-
cept more waves than we could with
a small normal aerial; consequently
with such an aerial we could hear
the broadcasting station again, even
though we were removed 35 miles
If, now we were to take two from it. The analogy between the
horns and point them in the direc- sound wave and the radio wave
tion of the bell, as shown in Fig. 4, holds pretty true, all the way
and apply the ear pieces to our ears, through. Of course, in radio we
we would be able to hear the bell have other means to bring in the
again, although without these appli- signals even if we are removed still
ances, we would not be able to hear greater distances. It would not al-
Radio for the Beginner
ways be practical to make the aerial
tremendously large in order to hear
greater distances, also we' would
not expect to hear our bell 20 miles
away by means of even large horns.
We would have to devise some
other more sensitive means to hear
the bell, and there are such means
at hand today in super -sensitive I-°',1.1= FIG
electrical microphones which mag-
nify the very weakest sounds. So cause it embraces the total make-up
too in radio it is not necessary to of one complete wave.
build a larger and larger aerial, the In radio we have the same sort
more we remove ourselves from the of waves, and these waves go out
broadcasting or transmitting station. into space in all directions, as we
Instead, we use more sensitive ap- have learned before. In radio we
paratus which will magnify the can make a wave length from a
sounds in an electrical manner, so fraction of one meter up to several
that we can hear the station even thousand meters and over. This all
though we are removed thousands depends upon the apparatus we use.
of miles from it. RADIO TELEGRAPH AND
Let us now return to our stone RADIO TELEPHONE WAVES
which we dropped into the water. In radio telegraphy we simply
If we were to place our eye on a hear the plain wave in our telephone
level with the water, and someone receivers. If the operator in the
was to throw a stone into a quiet transmitting station presses his key,
surface of water, what would we groups of waves are sent out into
see? Fig. 5 shows this. Any water space as long as the key is de-
wave is composed of two distinct pressed. At the receiving side we
parts, the crest and the trough. In hear the waves making a buzzing
other words, the water first comes sound for the length'of time that
up, then dips below the original the key is depressed at the sending
surface, then up again above the station. If the key is pressed down
original surface etc. In our illustra- for a second, we hear a buzz for
tion, we have shown in dotted lines a second. If the key is depressed
the original surface of the water. for' two seconds we hear the buzz
The disturbance of the stone has for two seconds, and by means of
caused the water to expand into this buzzing sound the telegraphie
waves. Now then, the wave length signals are reproduced. Usually a
is that portion which extends from code such as the Morse or the
Continental is used. For instance, a
crest to crest. In Fig. 5 we see what short buzz will be the letter "E"
a wave length consists of. It starts while "SOS" would stand for the
at the top of the crest, covers the following --------- (a short
trough and again up to the crest. dash being a short buzz, a long
This is exactly one wave length, be - dash being a long buzz).
 Radio for the Beginner
also. Exactly the same thing hap-
pens when the human speech is im-
pressed upon the radio carrier wave.
By certain means too technical to
go into here, the vibrations made
by the voice are carried along upon
the carrier wave, exactly as the
cork is carried upon the water wave.
At the receiving side we only hear
the words or music, for the reason
that the carrier wave is inaudible.
Hence, nothing but the words or
speech are heard by us in our loud
speakers.
Radio waves travel with the speed
of light, namely, the enormous speed
In radio telephony (broadcasting) of 186.000 miles per second. We,
however, we have a different and therefore, can understand that if a
more complicated action. In the first message is sent out anywhere on
place, we hear sounds, words, and our globe, it will be received at any
music exactly as they are produced place almost instantaneously; the
at the broadcasting or transmitting greatest distance that a radio wave
station. Two distinct things happen. or a message could travel would
The aerial is made to send out a be 12.000 miles, for the reason that
radio wave that is continuous. This the circumference of the earth is
wave cannot be heard by the human 24,000 miles. You will see, therefore,
ear with ordinary receiving appa- that a radio wave would travel
ratus. It is what is technically called around the earth at the rate of al-
C.W. or Continuous Wave. It is most eight times in one second.
also used to carry along the human POPULAR MISCONCEPTION
speech. At this point we must re- AS TO RADIO WAVES
sort again to our water wave. Sup- Many people have an idea that
pose we throw a stone into a river. radio waves broadcast by a trans-
At the same time that the stone is mitting or broadcasting station,
thrown we also throw a cork into change their form as they are sent
the water, at the same spot. What out into space. The length of the
happens? The cork is carried along wave never changes between the
by the current as shown in Fig. 6. transmitting and the receiving sta-
First we see the cork in position 1. tions.
A little later we see it in position 2. It stands to reason that if all
Still later in position 4 as shown stations were to send at exactly the
on the dotted lines. The cork, there- same wave length, we would get
fore, is carried along by the wave nothing but a jumble.
as well as by the current. As the Suppose you have six pianos in
waves progrest, the cork progresses one room, which are all tuned alike;
Radio for the Beginner 7

if we have six players sitting down A or E. In other words the two

at the pianos and each hits the same pianos are now transmitting at dif-
key, we will only hear that one note, ferent sound wave lengths, the wave
let us say A. You could not pos- length of E being different from
sibly detect it if five were striking the wave length of A, and vice
the key A, because all of the players versa. It is exactly so in radio, only
are transmitting on the same sound we have better means in radio be-
wave length which transmits only cause we can tune out entirely one
the note A. Suppose, however, that station or another by means of
one operator is striking the key A tuning appliances so that we can
while another strikes the key E. We hear either one at will. That is the
can immediately eliminate one or reason why different transmitting
the other, and by a little concentra- stations send on different wave
tion of our car, we can hear either lengths.

Chapter III
TRANSMITTING
General
There are several ways of trans- length of the longest string of his
mitting by radio; the oldest and piano is, so the radio engineer will
historical method is shown in Fig. know on what wave length a given
7. Here we have an ordinary spark aerial will send.
coil such as is used in automobiles, Roughly speaking, an aerial 100
a few dry cells, a key and the so- feet long will give a wave length of
called spark gap which may con- about 140 meters, while an aerial
sist of wire nails or better two zinc 200 feet long will give a wave length
balls. Every time we press the key of exactly twice the length of the
a spark jumps across the open space shorter one or 280 meters.
in the spark gap. By connecting Suppose, with our little outfit
one end of an aerial to the ground, shown in Fig. 7, we wish to send
which may be a water pipe, or a out a wave length of a thousand
steam radiator, radio waves are sent meters; we could do this by making
out into space. We might compare an aerial 833 feet in length. That
this to a string held between two however, would not be practicable
nails and plucked with the finger, because not in all instances could
when we would hear some sort of we find that much room for the
noise. aerial.
Just exactly as a manufacturer of We, therefore, resort to another
a piano knows what the sound wave means, and we build an aerial in-
 Rail. for the Ilogimoor
further down his fingers slide, the
higher and higher the note becomes.
He does here exactly the same thing
as the slider does on our sending
tuning coil, that is, he changes his
sound wave length. Fig. 9.
In other words, if he wants a long
sound wave he slides his finger
down the small end of the violin,
and if he wants a short sound wave,
he slides his finger towards his chin.
This changes the sound wave length
doors which we attach to the orig- in exactly the same way as our
inal aerial-a sort of sending tuning sending coil changes the radio wave
coil, which we show in Fig. 8. This length. Both are fundamentally the
tuning coil is the same wire which same.
we use for the aerial, wrapped
around a frame or tube, as shown
in Fig. 8. This coil means simply
the additional wire which is neces-
sary to lengthen our aerial in order
to make it long enough to give us
our thousand meters. By means of
the slider, which runs up and down
the wire convolutions, we now have
the means of changing the wave
length merely by adding more or
less wire. If this is not entirely
plain, take a violin as an example..
When the violinist wishes to trans-
mit a certain sound wave he plucks When Marconi first rigged up his
his string first without touching his little sending station, as shown in
hand to it. As he presses down on Fig. 7. he naturally could only send
the string, he automatically makes out radio telegraphic signals. Every
it shorter and shorter, and the time he pressed the key, radio waves
were sent out. When he pressed
the key for a second, a buzzing
noise was heard for a second in the
distant receiving telephone receiv-
ers.If he pressed the key for two
seconds, a buzzing sound for two
seconds was heard. By this means
the telegraphic code is made up. At
the present time, the Continental
code is used almost exclusively, and
today, as in Marconi'. time, when
 Radio for the Beginner 9
the operator at his transmitter
presses down his key for a short
duration, this is interpreted as a dot
at the receiving side, and when he FIG.I0 A
presses his key down for a longer
period this heoomes a dash on the
other end. By means cf dots and PO 108
dashes, the telegraphic code is made
up.
In Fig. 7, we showed a simple in Fig. 10B, must be better and
sender. Of course, it goes without clearer than the interrupted waves
saying that soon after Marconi sent out in Fig. 10A. This is the
started his experiments, more com- day of the Continuous Wave com-
plicated sending apparatus was de- monly called C. W. It is the Con-
signed. tinuous Wave that makes broad-
casting possible.
There are now many different Let us make a comparison again,
transmitters in use, as for instance, which can be easily understood, and
the vacuum tube which may be used which may serve to make the inter-
for transmitting. This has the ad- rupted wave and the Continuous
vantage of giving rise to what is Wave clear in our minds. Take a
called continuous waves; this is number of pipes as shown in Fig.
made clear by the diagram shown 11A; one person stands at one end
in Fig. 10A. When we press the key and another at the other end. One
of the old Marconi outfit, we send talks into this interrupted pipe,
out into space radio waves which which may he 100 feet long, and as
have somewhat the form shown in will be readily seen the person at
Fig. 10A. These waves start with a the other end will have a great dis-
high pitch, as we might say, and advantage in hearing the speaker
die out rapidly. This happens a because the pipe, being interrupted
great many thousand times each so many times, breaks up the
second, but these waves are not speech. This is the analogy for
continuous. They are small wave- spark waves. Now turn to Fig. 11B;
lets, as we might term them, which here we have a long pipe the same
are disrupted and do not form a as we use in our speaking tubes,
continuous line. Look at Fig. 10B;
this is what we might term a con-
tinuous wave and is a wave which
is sent out by a vacuum tube trans-
mitter such as is now used univers- 110.11A
ally at broadcast stations. As long
as the sending set is transmitting,
a continuous wave is sent out into
space which does not vary. It does
not take a technical mind to know C10.115
that the waves sent out, as shown
10 Radio for the Beginner

which is free from Interruptions, through. This continuous long pipe

and is continuous all the way stands for a continuous wave. This
through. You can readily understand of course, is not a strict analogy,
why the person at the other end will but may se: ye to implant in the
have no trouble in hearing what the reader's mind the difference between
speaker says, for the reason that the an interrupted spark wave and a
pipe is continuous all the way continuous wave.

Chapter IV
RECEIVING
General
No matter what receiving station instrument a broadcasting station
you have, it can receive either radio could possibly he heard five to ten
telegraphy or radio telephony. The miles, but Ill) further. Next came
receiving station has the exact coun- the crystal detectors; with a good
terpart in your ear, which receives one we may hear the broadcast sta-
any and all sound and noises that tion at a distance of 25 miles or
arc floating about in the air. So it more. Still later came the auction
is with the radio receiving station; or vacuum tube. This instrument,
with it you can hear, if properly ad- being enormously more sensitive
justed, any and all disturbances that than a crystal detector, at once in-
arc flung out into space by the creased the range up to a thousand
various broadcast stations. Receiv- miles and over.
ing instruments are becoming more Bow do we get more sensitive
and more sensitive for which reason radio receivers? A single vacuum
we can hear the sending station tube is only able to detect radio
further and further away. If we signals for a given distance. By add-
have a broadcast station which is ing more vacuum tubes, more
sending out a band concert, and if "stages" as we call them in radio
we were to use Marconi's first in- parlance, we step up the faint sig-
strument, the coherer, for receiving nals until fim.11y a radio signal that
purposes, it would not he possible could not be heard at all with a
for us to receive this concert at all pair of telephone receivers, and a
because Marconi's coherer is totally crystal detector, will roar out of
unsuited to receive broadcast radio the loud -speaker with ear-splitting
music. After Marconi's coherer came strength. If conditions are not right,
the auto-coherer a somewhat more for instance, if our insulation is bad,
sensitive instrument. With such an or if the adjustments of the appara-
Radio for the Beginner 11

tus are not correct, we will hear Presence of steel buildings also
the signals faintly, and often not tend to cut down the receiving
at all. Receiving radio waves is not range. Thus, for instance, if a crystal
any different from receiving light of moderate sensitivity is located
waves. If you go to the opera you in the heart of the New York
would not think of using the opera downtown district, we will hear
glass unless it was properly ad- practically nothing from the neigh-
justed - tuned - to your particular boring broadcast stations, unless of
eye. You also would not have the course the aerial extends above the
lenses covered with finger marks. buildings. All these facts should be
You know in advance that you borne in mind when erecting a good
would not see much of the opera if receiving station.
you were to do that. The same thing
holds true of your receiving set. We Another point to be remembered
must have perfect insulation; all is that reception during the night
metal parts that carry the current time as a rule is better than during
must make good contact-all parts the day. The reason for this is that
must be perfectly adjusted. Only during the day time the sun's rays
in this case will the receiving be ionize the air, which means that the
100 per cent., or rather approaching sunlight makes the air partly con-
it,because we have not as yet ductive. That cuts down the receiv-
reached the stage where we can ing range as well. It is not a rare
receive 100 per cent. occurrence that distant stations are
We have mentioned before that heard twice as far during the night
radio waves pass as readily through time as during the day.
a stone wall as through the air. It,
therefore, does not surprise us that STAT I C
we can have a modern radio receiver A few words as to this greatest
in our library without an outdoor nuisance that the radio man has to
aerial at all and the waves will be contend with. Static disturbance is
received just as well as if the radio nothing but atmospheric electricity.
set was stationed on top of the roof We are not bothered much with sta-
or out in the yard. This is true only tic in the winter time, but during
if the detecting apparatus of the set the months of May, June, July.
is very sensitive, otherwise we will August and September, there is
not be able to detect the waves, al- plenty of it, particularly, if we have
though they are there. an aerial extending up into the air.
As a general thing, it has been Static makes itself heard in our re-
found in receiving that the higher ceivers in a sort of irregular noise
up our receiving aerial is, the better that cannot be controlled today.
we can receive. It also has been Very often we hear sharp clicks in
found that one can receive further cur receivers which vary up to a
with a given receiver over water loud roar particularly when a thun-
than over land. Roughly speaking, der storm is approaching. Some-
one can hear twice as well over times the air, even on a perfectly
water as over land. clear day, is so highly charged with
12 Radio for the Beginner
electricity that if we bring the lead- ty is collecting upon the aerial.
in from our aerial, close to the These static noises so far have not
ground wire, small sparks will jump been corrected, as no way has been
from the aerial to the ground, prov- found to weed out or entirely tune
ing conclusively that static electrici- out these disturbances.

Chapter V
RECEIVING INSTRUMENTS
The earliest instrument for detect- the crystal part of this round pellet
ing radio waves was the coherer. is afterwards placed in contact with
This was a rather complicated little the contact member as shown in
instrument, and one that was dif- Fig. 13.
ficult to keep adjusted. Furthermore, The galena and other common
it was not at all sensitive, compared crystals of today are similarly
with the detecting instruments of mounted. The contact member to
today. the silicon detector is nothing but
One of the earlier detectors, still a piece of brass, which is not very
in use today, is the crystal detector. sharp at the end, but rather blunt.
Dunwoody was perhaps the first The amount of pressure upon the
man to use such a crystal, viz., car- pellet is varied by a spring. In de-
borundum. This particular crystal tectors of this kind, not every point
is seldom used today. of the silicon is equally sensitive.
Another of the early detectors, Some points are very sensitive while
which has almost entirely vanished others are not. Some of the sensitive
from the radio picture is the silicon points require more pressure than
detector. Silicon is a manufactured others. All this is found out by ex-
substance, which is a by-product of periments. The silicon detector is
the electric oven in the manufacture quite sensitive; it was the first de-
of abrasives; it is a cousin to car- tector invented that required no
borundum. Silicon is a hard rock- battery whatsoever to detect radio
like substance of a dark silver-gray signals, and for that reason was a
color. A small piece of silicon favorite instrument with early ex-
broken from a larger piece by means perimenters. The silicon detector
of a hammer or in a vice, about i/t had also the great advantage in that
inch by inch, is first imbedded it was not easily "knocked out," as
into a soft solder. The idea of this most other detectors are, nor did
pellet is that contact is made on it burn out easily. When connected,
five sides with the metal, which is as in Fig. 12, a set of receivers of
simply cast around the silicon, and at least 1,000 ohms should be used
Radio for the Beginaer 13

for best results. A 75 -ohm receiver,

such as is used in house phones,
should never be used in connection
with radio waves. The results are
very poor.
Soon after the silicon detector was
invented, Greenleaf W. Pickard, the
inventor of the silicon detector, in-
vented a host of other detectors all
of which use a native mineral crys-
tal, such as, for instance iron pyrite,
copper pyrite, bornite, etc. All of
these detectors are used similarly
to the silicon detector, the crystal
being cast into a soft metal in pellet whisker, as explained above, is used
form. This pellet is used in the same with the galena crystal and the
way as the silicon detector; some- amount of pressure has to be found
times a sharp brass contact point is by experiment. Ordinary galena is
used with some minerals and at not sensitive on every spot, but
other times a fine wire is used, there are certain grades which are
which latter is termed a Catwhisker. equally sensitive over the entire sur-
Such a detector is shown in Fig. 13. face; this is known as Argentiferous
This detector uses as a sensitive Galena, which means that it is silver
member the mineral or crystal bearing. On the other hand not all
known as the iron pyrite. As with argentiferous galena is equally sen-
all other crystal detectors, no battery sitive, and there is no hard and fast
is used in connection with it. In rule about it. It must be found by
this detector no sharp point is used, experiment. A good connection for
but rather a fine wire catwhisker. the crystal is shown in Fig. 26. No
A catwhisker is a piece of fine wire battery is used with galena, and as
about No. 26 or No. 28 B & S a matter of fact a battery will de-
gauge phosphor bronze. This is stroy the usefulness of it by burning
usually attached to some sort of out the sensitive points. With ga-
handle or other adjusting means so lena, a fine brass wire No. 24 or
that the pressure of the wire upon No. 26 B & S gauge is used; a stiff
the surface of the mineral may be gold wire of the same dimension
varied. may also be used, as it is non -
One of the most sensitive and oxidizing.
most widely used detectors is made All crystals are sensitive only if
of Galena, a lead ore of which there absolutely clean, and their useful-
are different grades. It is known ness becomes destroyed immediately
under many trade names as well. upon being handled with bare fin-
A good piece of galena is probably gers.
as sensitive as any crystal yet dis- Although we have stated a little
covered. but it is not stable. A cat - further back that most crystal de-
14 Radio for the Beginner
tectors have the sensitive mineral
embedded in a metal pellet, the am-
ateur or experimenter does not al-
ways require this, and Fig. 13A
shows several simple home-made
detectors. The illustrations are so
self-explanatory, that no further de-
tails need be given. Base boards
may be of wood, hard rubber or
any good insulator. As will be seen CAT -WHISKER
in these illustrations, the detector BRASS OR
mineral is clamped by simple hold- COPPER
ing devices; anything that will hold CLIP
the crystal down so that it will not
move, and at the same time make
good contact with it, may be used.
The catwhisker wire is best, a No.
24 or No. 26 B & S brass gauge, or
phosphor bronze wire. It may be FIG,13A
CRYSTAL
straight, or coiled in pig -tail fashion,
either will work equally well. The
clever experimenter can change the ent sort of detector, namely the
design to suit his own individual Audion, or as it is commonly called,
tastes, and the chances are that the the "Vacuum Tube." This detector
device will work well. The trouble works upon an entirely different
with most mineral detectors is that principle from any of the former
their adjustment does not keep for ones described, and is in general
any length of time. Jars, or static use today for reasons which we shall
surges in the aerial will cause the learn presently. Fig. 14 shows a
detector to become inoperative, af- standard vacuum tube where we
ter which it must again be adjusted. have the filament, which is the same
We now come to a vastly differ - as that used in an incandescent
lamp; this is heated by means of
a battery of from two to six volts
or by means of current from the
house lighting lines. We next have
the grid which 'may be in the form
of a gridiron or a spiral, it making
little difference which. Opposite the
filament and with the grid in the
middle, we find the plate, usually
a small piece of nickel or other
metal. The connection of the sim-
plest audion is shown in Fig. 15. If
we make the plate positive with
respect to the filament, we find that
Radio for the Beginner IS
highly charged electrical particles tive varies the amount of current that
called "electrons" travel constantly flows from the hot filament to the
from the filament to the cold plate. plate, decreasing, and even stopping
it entirely. The grid simply acts as
FILAMENT a gate valve which controls the
/1 GRID
plate current. The curious thing
about the grid is that it uses no
great amount of power. A modern
vacuum tube is exhausted to a very
high degree, because it was found
that unless the vacuum was perfect,
the sensitivity of the tube was very
poor. It is not necessary here to
go into a very technical discussion
of the vacuum tube, as we are mere-
ly interested in its functioning. The
study of the vacuum tube, however,
is a science in itself today, and for
It was soon found that the vacuum that reason it can only be treated
tube acted as a sort of valve for generally here. We must, however,
the electrical current, allowing the add that the vacuum tube is far
high frequency currents as they more sensitive than other detectors,
came over the aerial to travel in one particularly when used in connec-
direction in a vacuum tube but not tion with other vacuum tubes. It
in the other. In this respect the was found, for instance, that this
vacuum tube is the same as a crystal was the case when several tubes
detector, which also acts as a valve,
permitting currents to pass one way
only.
The vacuum tube was first in-
vented by Dr. Fleming, to whom
belongs the honor of using it first
as a detector for radio. He was
using only a two -element tube, viz.,
an exhausted bulb containing a fila-
ment and a plate. Dr. Lee De Forest
conceived the idea of introducing a
third electrode into the tube, as ex-
plained above. The purpose of this
electrode which he called the grid
serves only to control the flow of
the electrons attracted by the cold
plate. It is the grid that makes the
vacuum tube the exceedingly sensi-
tive apparatus that it is. Making the
grid alternately positive and nega-
le Radio for rho Beginnor
were coupled together; this gives tration, is simply an insulated wire
us the so-called two-step or three - wrapped upon a cardboard tube, its
step amplifier, which will be dis- size is immaterial. Tuning coils may
cussed later on. The idea of these be made in almost any size, from
amplifiers is for each to step up the the smallest one wound upon a pen-
exceedingly weak current received cil, to the largest, as big as a barrel.
from the first tube. By means of The more wire we use, the more
such a stepping up process, it is wave -length our tuning coil will be
possible to bring in signals over able to absorb, so to speak. Of
tremendous ranges, a thing impos- course, in practice tuning coils are
sible to do with any other detector built for a certain capacity, all de-
known at this time. pending upon what it is to be used
Tuning Devices for. If, for instance, we have but
We have seen in previous chap- a little aerial and wish to receive
ters that each radio wave -length is from stations having a wave length
dependent upon the length of wire of say 650 meters, a small coil about
of each aerial. If it were possible to 6 inches long and 2 inches in di-
make all aerials of exactly the same ameter and wound with No. 24
length and capacity, and if all sta- B & S gauge wire will do nicely.
tions were transmitting at exactly The purpose of the slider is simply
the same wave -length, we would to add more or less wire to the
not need any tuning devices. Un- aerial; it is but an adjustment. It
fortunately this is not the case. goes without saying that the slider
When we install an aerial, we can- of the tuning coil must touch the
not always make it of the length wire, as otherwise no connection
or capacity which we desire, but would be made. In Fig. 16, we show
are hampered by physical and geo- the simplest connection for a tuning
graphical limitations. In other coil. This, as will be seen, duplicates
words, our aerial is usually a com- the connection of the crystal detec-
promise. On the other hand, the tor. We Ave here merely added
various transmitting stations all the tuning coil in order to tune the
send on different wave lengths and, circuit. By means of this tuning
for that reason, many different tun- coil, it now becomes possible to
ing devices are used. One of these, tune out unwanted stations merely
and the oldest, is the Tuning Coil, by moving the slider back and forth
shown in Fig. 16. This is nothing and so connecting more or less wire
but an aerial wound upon a card- to the aerial. For instance, if two
board tube or other circular or stations are sending at the same
square piece of insulating material. time, by moving the slider back-
The tuning coil is simply an exten- ward and forward it becomes pos-'
sion of the aerial. Even though we sible to tune in or out the unwanted
have an aerial which is only 100 station, and listen only to the one
feet long, by attaching more wire we desire to hear. In Fig. 17, we
to it in the form of the tuning coil, show the same tuning coil, but with
we thereby lengthen the aerial. The two sliders. The two sliders are
tuning coil, as shown in the illus- somewhat of an improvement, for
Radio for the Beginner 17

that if a radio current traversed one

coil, another tuning coil standing
close by would be affected, although
no wire touched the first coil. This
is termed an "inductive effect." In
other words, the energy is radiated
from one coil to another, the same
as a stove radiates heat to objects
that are close to it.
As we just mentioned, the loose
coupler is a transformer. The cur-
rent that comes in over the aerial
in the form of radio waves is a high
frequency current. By that we mean
that waves swing back and forth
the reason that better tuning is ac- very rapidly. It is the purpose of
complished with them. the loose coupler to change this
Loose Couplers
The Loose Coupler, Fig. 18, is
another form of tuning coil and this
instrument, which was formerly used
a great deal, is really one of the
best tuning devices known. Instead
of using just one coil, as for instance
the tuning coil just described, a loose
coupler uses two coils-one sliding
into the other without touching.
The loose coupler is an electrical
transformer, as it has been found
energy ia+o a more suitable form.
We again Lake recourse to an anal-
ogy. In Fig, 19 we show, by means
of a lever action, the principle of
the transformer. We are all fa-
miliar with the lever action whereby
a man who weighs only 150
can raise a weight of 1000 lbs. by
means of the lever. Is he getting
something for nothing in this case?
Certainly not! You cannot get free
energy, but the experiment in Fig.
19 simply shows that force plus
time may be transformed into some-
thing else. In this case the man
 18
Radio for tho Boginstor
who weighs 150 lbs. is the force and nections) taken at every few turns
the time is the interval that it takes of wire, if we so desire. On the
him to reach from point A to point secondary also, we may have a
B. The two added together are suf- slider or taps brought out, both of
ficient to raise the 1000 lb. weight, which arc the same. The inner tube
the distance from C to D. The is made to slide back and forth upon
longer the lever arm L, the more sliding rods so that the degree of
weight we can raise. Archimedes coupling, as we call it, may be
told us that "give him a long enough changed. If the inner tube, called
lever he could raise the earth from the secondary, is pushed into the
its hinges." Always providing that outer tube, which we call the pri-
he has a sufficiently long lever and mary, we have a complete electrical
a fulcrum, or point of rest which lever system, as shown in our anal-
is shown at F in Fig. 19. Summing ogy Fig. 19. The energy that comes
into the primary is now raised ex-
actly as the weight is raised by
means -if a lever, and we get a
marked effect from the secondary.
The more we pull out the secondary
tube, the less our lever action be-
comes. It is as if the man in Fig.
19 were to move down to the point
F where it would become impossible
for him to raise the weight at all,
or even to budge it. By using the
loose coupler, we do not get some-
thing for nothing any more than if
we raise a stone we perform no work.
Reverting back to Fig. 18, the
tubes of the tuning coil may be of
cardboard, hard rubber or composi-
tion, or any good insulating ma-
terial. No steel or iron should be
up, we understand now that by used in the construction of a good
means of a small weight we are loose coupler. Its size is immaterial
able to lift a much heavier one. providing the proportions are right,
This analogy holds with our loose this being determined by experi-
coupler, which we have shown in ment. The important part is that
Fig. 18. The loose coupler has two the secondary must come as close
coils; the primary, which is usually as possible to the primary. In other
the outer tube, is always wound words, the diameter of the two
with a coarser wire, while the inner tubes must be so that the secondary
tube is wound with a finer wire. As tube, when moved inside the pri-
in the tuning coil we have a slider mary will take up the entire air
upon the primary, or if we do not space without, however, touching
use a slider we may have taps (con - the outer tube. The closer the two
Radio for the Beginner 19

windings come together, the better

it is. In Fig. 20, we show the sim-
plest connection for a loose coupler,
crystal detector and phones. Very
good results are had with this cir-
cuit, and the loose coupler is par-
ticularly efficient for tuning out in-
terference to a certain degree. It
gives what is called sharp tuning,
because if two stations operate at a
close wave length, let us say one at
360 meters and another at 320 me-
ters, the loose coupler will give very
good results by reason of its sharp
tuning. not exactly accurate, for there is
The Vario-coupler shown in Fig. no condensing done in radio work,
21 is a development of the loose but rather storing of energy.
coupler. In this instrument we have Consider Fig. 22. Here we have
an outer tube wound with a heavy a spring which we compress by
wire, while the inner tube which means of a weight. As soon as we
rotates upon its axis is wound with take the weight away, the spring
a finer wire. returns to its original position.
In a radio circuit, in order to do What have we done? We have sim-
fine tuning, we must often take re- ply stored energy into the spring.
course to the condenser which in- The electrical condenser is used in
strument is used to do just what exactly the same way, viz., to store
its name implies, viz., condensing electrical energy. However, that is
the electric current. This is perhaps not its only purpose. Just as the
spring may be used for other pur-
poses besides that of storing me-
chanical energy, so the electrical
AERIAL condenser may be used for other
purposes also.
DETECTOR A condenser is a capacity or a
LOOSE
COUPLER vessel in which electrical energy
is stored. The simplest form of
electrical condenser is shown in
Fig. 23, where we have a metal
plate A, a glass plate B, and another
PHONES metal plate C. By means of this
arrangement, we may store elec-
trical energy upon the surfaces, of
FIXED
CONDENSER
glass plate B. The larger we make
the metal plates, the more electrical
GROUND
FIG.20
energy may be stored.
The form shown in Fig. 23, is
 20 Radio for the Beginner
used in many condensers today.
The metal plates A and C may be
any form of metal, such as, for in-
stance, tin or metal foil, while the
glass plate B may be replaced by
a piece of paraffin paper. In other
words, any good metallic conductors
may be used if coupled with a good
insulator. The better the insulator,
the better the condenser will be
and the greater its electrical capac-
ity. In the commercial condensers,
paraffin paper, varnished silk, sul- they come to each other, the higher
phur, sealing compounds, or mica, will be the capacity of that con-
is usually used. In Fig. 24, is shown denser. For certain purposes we
need only a small condenser of a
few plates, while in others we need
a larger one of a great many plates.
It is just like having a small spring
and still another very large one.
Both have their uses, and both are
very necessary, all depending upon
what work they are required to do.
In Fig. 26, we show the simplest
elementary connection, where we
have a crystal detector, a tuning
coil without a slider, a pair of phones
and a telephone condenser. This is
a simple condenser; this is also a peculiar connection because in it
shown opened up. It is made by we wish to show that we can tune
rolling together two strips of tinfoil by means of the condenser. As will
between several strips of paraffin be seen in this tuning coil, we do
paper. The whole, when rolled to- not use any slider by which the
gether and assembled, becomes the
finished condenser. By rolling it to-
gether, it takes up less room. In
radio work, where fine regulation
is required, we make use of still
another condenser, as shown in Fig.
25 This condenser, instead of being
fixed, is variable. As will be seen
there are a number of plates which
are usually made of brass, zinc or
aluminum, which mesh into each
ether to a more or less degree. The
more plates we have and the closer
 21
Radio for the Beginner
by the variable condenser. When
we adjust the latter, we also change
the relation of the tuning coil, and
in fact are changing the wave length
until a point is found where the sig-
nals come in best. This is a finely
balanced circuit, and the amount of
wire on a little tuning coil should
be in direct relation to the con-
denser. In other words, if there is
too much wire on the tuning coil
and the capacity of the condenser is
small, we cannot do much tuning.
length of the aerial may be changed, For the best results, as for instance
which would thus change the wave for receiving broadcast music on a
length. This is performed entirely wave length of 360 meters, we could

VARIABLE
CONDENSER

COIL
"S".Z__ AERIAL
GROUND
Ir

VARIABLE
CONDENSER
DETECTOR
FIXED
CONDENSER 1r- PHONES FIG.26
 22
Radio for the Beginner
use a small coil, one inch in dia- magnify it a hundred or a thousand
meter, wound with about 70 or 80 or a million times its
turns of No. 18 enamel wire, while original
the condenser should be of the com-
strength. It is just as if you take a
mercial variety known as a 23 -plate piece of film such as is used in a
condenser. Then, all we have fo do moving picture theatre and examine
is simply adjust the condenser until it with your eye. The figures are so
the signals are heard best. small that you can hardly distin-
In this illustration, we also see guish them. The regular film which
where the phone condenser is lo- is about the size of a postage stamp
cated. This phone condenser stores here stands in our analogy as a
the energy of the circuit, and dis- single vacuum tube. We can, how-
charges it into the telephone receiv- ever, take that film, and by using
ers which enables us to hear the a powerful light enlarge the little
signal more loudly. picture (no larger than a postage
The two forms of condensers stamp,) by projecting it upon the
shown here are of course not the screen. We thereby amplify or mag-
nify the original picture several
only ones, as many more types of thousand times. We can amplify or
either fixed or variable condensers enlarge it a million times if neces-
are made.
VACUUM TUBE ACCESSORIES sary all depending upon the amount
We have learned something about of light we put behind a film and
the vacuum tube which was described the distance from the screen. This
previously in this article, and in Fig. is graphically shown in Fig. 27.
15 we have shown the simplest con- We may do precisely the same
nection of an audion detector. There thing with a vacuum tube, but we
are, however, a number of other must use additional energy, the same
auxiliary instruments used in vacu- as in our film where we use energy
um tube systems which give certain (the electric current which produces
refinements. the light) to project the film upon
The vacuum tube, when it is used the screen. In other words, we can
singly, acts as a detector and detects take the detector tube and enlarge
the signals the same as a crystal the original small and weak signal,
detector. Also, we might state here, and boost it up until the sound
that the crystal detector is a better comes out loud from a loudspeaker,
rectifier "valve" than the vacuum which in our analogy stands for the
tube. moving picture screen. The electrical
With a crystal detector, or in the connections for a vacuum tube am-
ordinary single vacuum tube circuit, plifier are shown in Fig. 28. This is
the incoming signals act upon the what is called technically a two-step
phones and we hear the signals with amplifier. We show this connection
a certain strength. Let us now con- simply because without it, it is al-
sider the vacuum tube and the in- most impossible to bring home the
coming signal. We may indeed, by meaning of the vacuum tube aux-
certain means boost up the very iliary instruments with which the
weakest of signals and amplify or reader is as yet unfamiliar. In this
Radio for tha Boehm& 23

consists of just an iron core upon

/
PROJECTOR
FILM which is first wound a coarse wire
termed the primary, and on top of
this a finer wire termed the second-
ary. The ratio of these transform-
ers is usually such that, electrically
('
( WEAK
AMPLIFIED speaking, the value of the secon-
WAVE) dary is from three to ten times as
BATTERY) WAVE
FIG.27 much as that of the primary. The
audio frequency transformer is in
circuit we have, as before, the aerial, principle the same as the loose
the ground, the variable condenser, coupler, which we studied before,
the blocking or phone condenser and the purpose of the audio fre-
and several other instruments as quency transformer is to transform
well. We find for instance, that sev- the energy from a low level to a
eral transformers are used, viz., high one. The purpose of this trans-
what is technically called the Audio fcrmer, as shown in Fig. 28, is to
Frequency Transformer. boost up the weakest signals, trans-
AUDIO FREQUENCY forming them into stronger ones.
TRANSFORMER The transformer by itself could
This transformer (E in Fig. 28), never accomplish this, and in order

A - VARIABLE CONDENSER ; B -GRID LEAK AND CONDENSER ; C-vARIO-COUPLER.

ID -DETECTOR TUBE ; E -AMPLIFIER TRANSFORMER , F -AMPLIFIER TUBE,
G -RHEOSTAT ; H -STORAGE BATTERY J -8 -BATTERIES , K- EARPNONE5 OR
MAGNETIC LOUDSPEAKER FIG. 28
 24
Radio for ti.. beginner
to make the lever action work per-
fectly, we take recourse to a bat- RHEOSTATS
tery which is connected to the In Fig 28, we also find another
transformer and with the vacuum new instrument, the Rheostat,
tube, as shown. By means of this shown in detail in Fig. 29. This is
additional electrical energy we are simply an electrical resistance and
now in a position to boost up and is used solely to increase or de-
relay the weak signal. In this con- crease the glowing of the vacuum
nection, we have shown first a de- tube filament. When signals are re-
tector tube, while the other tubes ceived, it has been found that the
are amplifier tubes. By this we filament must glow at a certain in-
mean that the first tube receives tensity. Some signals come in best
the signal, while the other tubes are when the filament is burning very
nerely used as pumps to boost up brightly, while with other tubes the
the electrical energy until the signal signals come in best when the fila-
finally collies from the phones so ment is only a cherry red.
loudly that if we connect the phones GRID LEAK
with a loud speaker, loud signals or In Fig. 28 we have another new-
music will issue from it. The bat- comer, which is termed the Grid
ry used in this case is a so-called Leak, and its condenser. It has been
"B" battery, or high voltage battery found that when the grid condenser
t%hich has been found necessary to is used, as shown in the illustration,
aid in boosting up the weak the signals will come in about twice
As a rule batteries anywhere from as well as if none was used. How-
24 to 300 volts are used, all depend- ever, this condenser alone would
ing upon the circuits. not he sufficient, for the reason that
It should be understood that the the accumulation of electrons,
audio frequency transformer is used which are highly charged electrical
only to boost up the weak signal as particles on the grid of the vacuum
it leaves the first detector tube. It tube, would interfere with the nor-
is not in the province of this trans- mal working of the tube. We must
former to do anything save amplify provide a means to let the surplus
the signal which is detected by the electrons leak out without, however,
detector tube. letting 'them out too quickly. It is
as if we had a boiler under which
a constant fire was maintained. In
order to provide a remedy, we in-
stall a safety valve. This valve is
used for the purpose of giving off
the surplus steam and so keep the
boiler free from harm. It is the
same with the vacuum tube. While
of course, the vacuum tube would
not burst, even if we did not use
the grid leak, electrically speaking,
the tube would not function proper-
ly. Hence, the grid leak, which is a
Rail. for *1.. Beginner 21

sort of safety valve to let the sur- amount of noise which we get in
plus accumulation of electrons run the phones is tremendous. For that
off. The grid leak is nothing but a reason, we take recourse to what is
very high resistance, sometimes termed a Radio Frequency Trans-
millions of ohms high. It may con- former. The radio frequency trans-
sist of only pencil lines drawn a- former may consist of only two
cross a piece of stiff Bristol board; windings, one adjacent to the other
these pencil lines are but slight on a cardboard tube. The simplest
electrical conductors, but the re- form is shown in Fig. 31. The wire
sistance is enormous. It suffices, used on this is usually exceedingly
however, to allow the surplus elec- fine, No. 24 B & S wire, or even
trons to leak off. There are various thinner. The two windings act upon
ways and means to make grid leaks, each other by induction, and do not
and a popular form is shown in Fig. make connections physically. A
30. Here we have a piece of card- radio frequency stage amplifies the
board or fibre upon which is traced
a fine line in India ink. This line ASSEMBLED
METALEYELET
2 COPPER
acts the same as a pencil line. The RI ti8ON
GRID LEAK
whole is enclosed in a tube to pre- AND CO*
vent moisture or dust from settling DENSER
upon the grid leak. Connections are
made on the ends by metal clips.
Fig. 30 shows a grid leak and con-
INDIA IN FtcN
LEAD PENCIL
denser combined as two instru- NAKED V LINE CONDENSER
PAPER
ments, which are usually used in MIET1400 OP
conjunction. The grid leak conden- ASSEMBLING
ser is small and is similar to a tele-
phone blocking condenser, and the
grid leak is traced by means of AV*,
China ink upon a Riece of fibre; the
whole is enclosed in waxed paper. GRID
LEAK COPPER
RADIO FREQUENCY RIBBON
TRANSFORM ER
In Fig. 28 we have learned about weak signals as they are coming in
the audio frequency transformer. over an aerial. The radio frequency
We know that this transformer am- transformer steps up these weak
plifies static and also other distur- signals, amplifying them and pass-
bances, as well as the signals. For ing them on to the detector tube.
that reason it is not possible to use We now get the net result, with the
many such transformers, or, tech- detector tube in a position to detect
nically termed, many steps of audio already fairly strong signals which
amplification. If we use more than may then be amplified in the audio
three such transformers and their frequency amplifiers, and boosted
respective vacuum tubes, addition- up further by a second or a third
al noises are all amplified, and the transformer, if so desired.
211 Radio for the Beginner
two simple types are shown in Fig.
32; this consists of the following:
First we have a powerful magnet
which attracts to it a thin iron dia-
phragm. This diaphragm is clamped
tight like a drum head along its
outer edge. Upon the magnet are
mounted two pole pieces around
which are wound many thousand
turns of exceedingly fine wire, al-
most as fine as the h Aman hair.
Ordinarily when no current is
sent into the telephone receiver, the
To resume and in a few words, diaphragm is pulled down some-
we may say that the radio frequency what to the pole pieces, although
transformer boosts up the very it must never touch them. If it
weak radio frequency currents so does, no sound will be received. If,
that the detector gives maximum however, a weak electrical current
results, whereas the audio frequency passes through these spools the
boosts up the audible signals. The diaphragm will either be pulled
radio frequency transformers, in down more if the current is in the
other words, amplify signals that right direction, or if the current is
would be lost otherwise, while the in the wrong direction, it will weak-
audio frequency transformers give en the magnetism on the pole
volume to signals which are already pieces. In this case, the diaphragm
audible. is not attracted. These little varia-
TELEPHONE RECEIVERS tions make the diaphragm vibrate
In order to receive signals or more or less. These vibrations are
broadcast entertainment by ear, we passed on to the air, and the air
use a telephone receiver, of which vibrating in unison with the dia-
POLE POLE
CAP PIECE DIAPHRAGM PISCES CAP

PERMANENT
MAGNET
I
7,6w e/A'N
CASING CASINO

KS" FIG. 32.

Radio for the Beginner 27

phragm is changed into sound course, not all tone amplifiers work
waves, which are sent on to our so loudly. Those made for home or
ear, where we hear them. parlor purposes do not use so much
LOUD SPEAKERS current, and therefore do not give
The dynamic loud speaker, now so much power. There are a number
so widely used, works upon a prin- of types of tone amplifiers, but most
ciple where a small coil, through of them work along the same elec-
which the received current flows, is tro-magnetic lines, and if they do
influenced by a powerful electro- not use the outside electric current
magnet. It is another case of boost- in order to create a strong electro-
ing up the sound which is received magnetic field, they either use
from the last amplifier tuLe. Such strong magnets to accomplish the
tone amplifiers can throw the voice same result, or necessitate the use
or music over distances of one-half of a high tension current in the am-
mile and more, and if a person plifier. Such tone amplifiers are
stands in front of one of these giant nothing but transformers or relays,
horns, the amount of sound that transforming or relaying a weak
issues from it is simply terrific. Of sound into a loud one.

Chapter VI
TUNING
In former chapters we learned ial to the same wave, namely, 360
something about tuning; this is meters. If we have an aerial which
nothing but resonance. We all know is 260 meters long, electrically
the experiment of standing near the speaking, it stands to reason that
piano and singing a certain note in- we must add 100 meters to this aer-
to it; when we reach the correct or
fundamental note, the piano begins
to sound that particular note in
sympathy. We may then say that
we are in tune with that particular
string which sounds in our ears.
Likewise in radio, we make use of
a similar system, except that we
use electrical tuning instead of a-
coustical tuning. Tuning consists as
a rule in merely attuning our aerial
electrically to the same length as
the aerial that is transmitting to us.
In other words, if a broadcasting
station is transmitting on a wave of
360 meters, we must attune our aer-
28 Radio for the Beginner
ial in order to receive the wave at ing nicely. Take the musical in-
all. We have learned in other chap- strument, the trombone shown in
ters how this may be accomplished. Fig. 33. You all have seen this in-
If we have a receiving outfit, all we strument, as nearly every orchestra
have to do is move the slider of our boasts of one or more. It is known
tuning coil backward and forward by all of us that while the musician
until the signals come in at maxi- blows into the mouth piece, he var-
mum strength. When that point is ies the length of the trombone by
reached, we know that our aerial, moving the sliding member back
electrically speaking, must be 360 and forth. If he wants to get a deep
meters long. We have also seen in note, he pulls the sliding member
Fig. 26 that we need not have slid- almost all the way out, and this
ers on the tuning coil in order to gives him a long sound wave. If he
tune. We may use a condenser for wishes a high note, he must have
tuning purposes because its electri- a short sound wave. This means
cal equivalent is the same as a tun- that he must push the sliding mem-
ing coil slider. By adding more or ber all the way in. It is literally, as
less capacity to the condenser and well as scientifically, true that the
therefore to the tuning coil, we lengthened trombone gives a long
changed the electrical value of the wave length, while the shortened
tuning coil, and also its wave length. trombone gives a short wave length.
This is not literally true, technically These are, of course, sound waves
speaking, but we must use this lan- with which we have to do here. In
gu?ge to bring home the meaning. radio we do exactly the same thing
We therefore learn that we may in tuning. When we wish a long
tune either by lengthening the aer- wave length, we must add more
ial with additional wire, or by using wire or its equivalent to the aerial.
a capacity or condenser in connec- If we want a short wave length we
ton with a wire coil. Both, if cor- must either have a short aerial or
rectly apportioned, give the same subtract some wire from the aerial.
results. Before we can receive sig- The reader should remember that in
nals, or amplify them, it is of the order to decrease the wave length
greatest importance that we tune of an aerial, all that is necessary is
in to the right wave length. An to put a condenser in series with
aerial must be in electrical sym- the aerial, which actually decreases
pathy with the sending station be- the wave length; it does not in-
fore we hope to receive signals. In crease it as some people seem to
Figs. 17 and 26, we have shown the think. The variable condenser,
elemental methods of tuning. Of therefore, gives us the best practical
course, there are many other ways means to decrease the wave length;
of tuning, all of which, however, are this point is quite important to re-
along the same principles as those member. Suppose you have a long
just enumerated. aerial, say 200 feet, in connection
Perhaps an analogy in tuning will with a small tuning coil, or sup-
not he amiss here, and we have a pose you have a short aerial and
particular analogy that covers tun - live on the tenth floor of an apart-
Radio for tho Roginnor 29

ment house. The only available ing station operating on a short

ground would be the water pipe. wave length of 360 meters. The
This water pipe, however, would only way you could then tune in
be so long that it would add extra would be in the former case of the
long aerial, to put a variable con-
meters to your wave length, and denser in the aerial circuit, or in
something must be done to de- the other case where you have a
crease it, if you wish to receive long ground to interpose the con-
signals sent out from a broadcast- denser in the ground lead.

Chapter VII
AERIALS, LOOP AERIALS, GROUNDS
An aerial is used to intercept 50 feet long gives excellent results.
radio waves; that is its sole func- Illustrations 34 and 35 show such
tion in the receiving set. It does a type of aerial.
not amplify or make the signals Unless you wish to go to a great
come in clearer by itself. Hundreds deal of inconvenience, make your
of different aerials have been in- lead-in of the same wire as the
vented, and there is hardly anything main aerial. This may be done very
in this field that has not been tried simply with a single wire aerial, for
out. An aerial, properly speaking, is the reason that no soldered con-
an elevated wire that is well insu- nections are necessary. This is also
lated, and is usually placed outside shown in Fig. 34 and Fig. 35. The
of the building or house. next things to consider are the in-
An aerial can be made of most sulators, which are quite important.
any metallic wire, but the best ma- The insulator serves to insulate
terial is copper wire. A still better the aerial, and unless we use good
wire to use is a stranded wire, ones, a great deal of energy will
which is composed of several cop- be dissipated uselessly. We show in
per or phosphor bronze wires Fig. 36 various types of insulators
twisted together. As a rule, we may that may be used. One of the sim-
say that the larger the wire, the plest is the ordinary porcelain
better it is for radio purposes. Very cleat, but when this type is chosen,
thick wires, as a rule, cost much an unglazed cleat should be avoid-
and are very heavy, and therefore ed. Insist upon getting a glazed
are not very practicable. A No. 14 cleat which is a better insulator.
B & S gauge wire is a standard as When using cleats, put them in
used today and gives excellent re- tandem, two or three strung in a
sults. For radio broadcast reception row, as shown. The more insulators
it has been found that a single wire we add, the better the insulation.
30 Radio for the Beginner
aerial is then run over this pulley
and a fairly heavy weight secured
to the open end. As the tree sways
back and forth, more or less aerial
rope is paid out or taken in, and a
good compensation is thus had. The
weight may be 50 to 100 pounds.
LEAD-IN TO AERIA. When an aerial is erected in the
LIGHTNING
city, let us say on an apartment
ARRESTER house, it should be at least 10 feet
above the roof, particularly if the
apartment has steel construction.
TO SET
ANT.
LEAD-IN
The lead-in is that part of the
-TO aerial that goes into the building or
GROUND
TO
house to establish connection with
FIG.34 TO SET GNI). GROUND
the instruments. In a single -wire
aerial, the lead-in is simply the aer-
It is, however, hardly necessary to ial wire itself leading into the house
use more than three in a row. We and receiver. The
next have the small spool insulators, lead-in wire should be of the same
which are very good and may also size as the aerial. In other words,
be strung in pairs, or sets of three. about No. 14 B & S wire. It should
Various other types are shown. be insulated at the point where it
When putting up an aerial, it nears the building, or if this is not
should be remembered always that possible in the case of a single -wire
the aerial proper must be at least aerial, the lead-in is strung on in-
a foot away from all buildings,
sulators, the wire being always at
barns, trees and the like. In other least 2 inches away from buildings,
words, it should be away from all
objects.
The height of the aerial is often
important. It should always be
placed at least 20 to 30 feet above
the ground.
As a rule, an aerial in the country
may be stretched from the attic
window to a flagpole, or if such is
not at hand, a barn, garage, or even
a tree could be made use of. If a
tree is used, some means must be
had to compensate for the swaying
of the tree. Such a method is to have
a pulley attached to a tree by
means of a rope; the end of the
Radio for the Beginner 31

walls, etc., until it reaches the points

where actual entrance is made into
the building.
We now come to an aerial which
isentirely different from those of
which we have spoken before. We
refer to the loop aerial, which is
shown in Fig. 37. It should be un-
derstood that a loop aerial is hard-
ly, if ever, used in connection with
a crystal set. It is used almost ex-
clusively with a vacuum tube set,
where it serves several purposes.
In the first place, it does away with
the ground connection. Secondly,
the loop aerial may be made in any
size from a few inches square up to
20 feet square. The loop aerial is points exactly in the direction from
highly directive; by that we mean which the waves are coming.
that it will only receive with max-
imum intensity if the loop is turned GROUNDS
in the direction of the coming sig- In radio, in connection with the
nals. This is shown clearly in Fig. usual aerial, it becomes necessary
38. Here we see how an ordinary to use a ground, which as its name
loop aerial is placed in a building implies, is a connection made with
and we also see how the waves are the earth. Fig. 39 shows the sim-
propagated from a distant sending plest and perhaps the best. It is
station. It will be found that the simply a wire fastened to the cold
signals are strongest when the loop water pipe, which is found in al-
most every house and apartment.
In order to make a good connec-
tion, we use a ground clamp, as
shown in Fig. 39. By means of some
PORCELAIN clamping arrangement, which dif-
(ifiPl'Ftr;c CLEATS fers for every ground clamp, a
IN TANDEM strong mechanical connection is
made. The ground wire is then fas-
CORRUGATED) STEEL EYES tened to the screw or binding post
GLAZED attached to the ground clamp. The
INSULATOR
"OW) ground wire need not be insulated.
An ordinary bare No. 14 B & S
COMPOSITION wire will do nicely; in other words,
INSULATOR the same wire which we use on an
PORCELAIN STRAIN
aerial may be used. It is not neces-
INSULATOR FIIG.36 sary to run the ground wire on in-
sulators, as is done with the aerial
 32 Radio for the Beginner
be used, although the results may
MAXIMUM
RECEPTION
not be as good as from the cold
water pipe. It is against the law to
connect a ground to a gas pipe, and
it should therefore never be done.
When we are out in the country,
for instance, when camping, it is
not alw'ays possible to have a water
pipe, and in that case we have to
establish contact with Mother
NO
Earth direct. This is usually ac-
RECEPTION complished by driving a metal rod
into moist earth, as is shown in
MAXIMUM Fig. 40.
RECEPTION C7F-TD--

'I's- MINIMUM FIG.38

RECEPTION
LIGHTNING ARRESTERS
The properly installed aerial,
lead-in, but it may be attached to when used with a lightning arrester,
the wall by means of nails which is the best protection A building or
serve the purpose equally well. Of house could have against lightning.
course, the ground wire should not The aerial is a lightning conductor
be longer than is absolutely neces- itself, and will actually protect the
sary. If it is not possible to find a house, and will never endanger it if
cold water pipe, a radiator pipe may properly installed.
The lightning arrester itself is
nothing but a small spark gap either
in a vacuum or in the atmosphere,
which gap breaks down when a cur-
rent of a few hundred volts strikes
the aerial. Instead of going through
the instruments which have a high
resistance, the current travels di-
rectly to the ground, which has a
low resistance. Secondly, the instru-
ments are not damaged.
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