RULES OF THUMB

FOR
PROCESS ENGINEERS

Prepared for The British University of Egypt, Faculty of Chemical Engineering's Seniors

Edited by: Amr Tarek

2023 Revision

For educational purposes only

 Welcome to your journey as a chemical engineer!

As a fellow graduate of the British University in Egypt, I understand the challenges and

excitement that lie ahead. This book is designed to be your quick-reference guide,

taken from variour references and standards, offering practical insights and rules of

thumb that will support your transition from academic study to professional practice.

Chemical engineering is a field that combines creativity, problem-solving, and

innovation. Whether you're designing processes, optimizing systems, or ensuring

safety and sustainability, your work will have a significant impact on society and the

environment. I hope this book serves as a valuable resource throughout your career.

Remember, the skills and knowledge you've acquired during your studies are just the

beginning.

Continue to learn, grow, and contribute to the world around you.

Best of luck on your engineering journey!

Warm regards,

Yours sincelry,

Amr Tarek, Class of 2019

For educational purposes only

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 SEPARATION ...................................................................................................................1-1

A. Vertical Knockout Drum Preliminary Sizing .................................................................................................... 1-1

B. Crude Oil Service Separator Sizing...................................................................................................................... 1-1

C. Vertical Separator Design....................................................................................................................................... 1-1

D. Horizontal Separator Design.................................................................................................................................. 1-2

E. Solid/Liquid Separations ......................................................................................................................................... 1-3

F. Solid / Liquid Separations ....................................................................................................................................... 1-3

G. Brown - Souders Equation For Vessel Sizing .................................................................................................... 1-4

H. Mist Extractor Selection .......................................................................................................................................... 1-4

2 HEAT TRANSFER SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS....................................2-1

A. Heat Exchanger Design Practices.......................................................................................................................... 2-1

LIQUIDS SHELL TUBE SIDE................................................................................................................................ 2-4

B. Reboiler Thermal Design Practices ...................................................................................................................... 2-8

C. Process Condenser Thermal Design Practices.................................................................................................2-11

D. Heat Transfer Units conversions Table 5 ..........................................................................................................2-14

E. Heat Exchangers (General)...................................................................................................................................2-16

F. Condensers ................................................................................................................................................................2-16

G. Reboilers and Chillers ............................................................................................................................................2-16

H. Sizing Plate Heat Exchangers...............................................................................................................................2-17

I. Brazed Aluminum Plate Heat Exchangers .......................................................................................................2-17

J. Air Fin Heat Exchangers .......................................................................................................................................2-17

K. Fired Heaters ............................................................................................................................................................2-18

L. Cooling Towers.........................................................................................................................................................2-18

M. Insulation ...................................................................................................................................................................2-19

N. NGL Expander Plants ............................................................................................................................................2-20

For educational purposes only

 O. Miscellaneous Plant Systems ................................................................................................................................2-21

P. Method For Feasibility Study Sizing of Gas Plant Gas/Gas shell & Tube Heat Exchanger: .............2-24

3 TREATING.........................................................................................................................3-1

A. Dehydration................................................................................................................................................................. 3-1

B. Amine Treating .......................................................................................................................................................... 3-2

C. Mol Sieve Treating .................................................................................................................................................... 3-4

D. Corrosion ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3-5

E. Copper Strip................................................................................................................................................................ 3-5

F. Conversion Factors ................................................................................................................................................... 3-5

G. Caustic Washer Design............................................................................................................................................ 3-5

H. Metallurgy Requirements For Amine Treaters................................................................................................. 3-5

I. H2S Gas Toxicity ....................................................................................................................................................... 3-7

J. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Plants ................................................................................................................... 3-7

K. Gas Treating Iron Sponge ....................................................................................................................................... 3-8

L. Distribution of Sulfur Compounds in NGL Product ....................................................................................... 3-8

4 FLUID FLOW.....................................................................................................................4-1

A. Misc. .............................................................................................................................................................................. 4-1

B. NGL Expander Plants .............................................................................................................................................. 4-1

C. Piping ............................................................................................................................................................................ 4-2

D. Physical Fan Laws ..................................................................................................................................................... 4-4

E. Control Valves ............................................................................................................................................................ 4-5

F. Two Phase Flow: ........................................................................................................................................................ 4-6

5 FRACTIONATION.............................................................................................................5-1

A. Minor Components Non Ideal In Hydrocarbons .............................................................................................. 5-1

B. Columns........................................................................................................................................................................ 5-1

6 COMBUSTION ..................................................................................................................6-1

For educational purposes only

 A. Flare............................................................................................................................................................................... 6-1

B. Fired Heaters .............................................................................................................................................................. 6-1

C. Fuel Requirements .................................................................................................................................................... 6-2

7 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ..............................................................................................7-1

A. Standard Conditions ................................................................................................................................................. 7-1

B. Characterization of Liquid Refinery Feeds and Products ............................................................................. 7-1

C. Physical Properties of Selected Liquids ............................................................................................................... 7-2

D. Physical Properties of Selected Gases/Vapors ................................................................................................... 7-8

E. Physical Properties Recommendations ..............................................................................................................7-13

F. Simulation Techniques for Characterization of Oils .....................................................................................7-14

8 COMPRESSORS, EXPANDERS & PUMPS................................................................8-1

A. Reciprocating Compressors.................................................................................................................................... 8-1

B. Compressor Quickies................................................................................................................................................ 8-1

C. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Plants ................................................................................................................... 8-2

D. Energy Conservation Natural Gas Engines........................................................................................................ 8-2

E. Fuel consumption....................................................................................................................................................... 8-2

F. NGL Expander Plants .............................................................................................................................................. 8-2

G. Gas Processing – Simulation guidelines............................................................................................................... 8-3

H. Pump sizing ................................................................................................................................................................. 8-3

I. Pumps ............................................................................................................................................................................ 8-4

J. General:........................................................................................................................................................................ 8-5

9 REFRIGERATION ............................................................................................................9-1

A. Condensers .................................................................................................................................................................. 9-1

B. Propane Refrigeration Systems ............................................................................................................................. 9-1

C. Gas Processing – Simulation Guidelines ............................................................................................................. 9-1

D. Condensing Temperature Effects:........................................................................................................................ 9-1

For educational purposes only

 10 MISCELLANEOUS........................................................................................................ 10-1

A. Large Production & Processing Platforms .......................................................................................................10-1

B. Water and Steam Systems .....................................................................................................................................10-3

C. Economics ..................................................................................................................................................................10-3

D. Hydrates .....................................................................................................................................................................10-4

E. NGL Expander Plants ............................................................................................................................................10-4

F. Miscellaneous Plant Systems ................................................................................................................................10-4

G. Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) Plants ..................................................................................................................10-4

H. Gas Processing – Simulation Guidelines ...........................................................................................................10-4

I. Offshore Pipeline Gas Specifications..................................................................................................................10-4

J. Offshore Crude Oil Specifications ......................................................................................................................10-5

K. Wind Loadings .........................................................................................................................................................10-5

L. Steam Leaks @ 100 psi...........................................................................................................................................10-5

M. Composition of Air ..................................................................................................................................................10-5

N. Platform Deflection .................................................................................................................................................10-5

O. Kinetics .......................................................................................................................................................................10-6

P. Storage, Vessel Capacity ........................................................................................................................................10-6

Q. Pipeline Volume:......................................................................................................................................................10-6

R. Pressure Vessels .......................................................................................................................................................10-6

S. NACE Requirements .............................................................................................................................................10-6

T. Pressure Waves (e.g. water hammer).................................................................................................................10-6

U. Insulation Types .......................................................................................................................................................10-7

V. Absolute Pressure of Atmosphere at Height ‘H’ feet above Sea Level .....................................................10-7

For educational purposes only

 1 SEPARATION

A. Vertical Knockout Drum Preliminary Sizing

1. Size for Vapor

W=1100 [Density Vapor (Density Liquid-Density Vapor)] 1/2
Where:
W = maximum allowable mass velocity - pounds/hour/ft 2
1100 is an empirically determined constant
Densities - pounds/cubic foot at process T & P

2. Size for Liquid

Should be able to contain maximum slug expected depending on pipe configuration.
Never size for less than 1 minute liquid holdup.
Size 8 to 10 ft tall

B. Crude Oil Service Separator Sizing

1. Use vertical separator for high vapor to liquid ratios and for two phase separation.

2. Use horizontal separator for high liquid to vapor ratios and for three phase separation.
Vessel L/D 3 to 5.

3. Check size for both gas and liquid handling (i.e. gas superficial velocity and liquid
residence time).

4. Use 3 min liquid residence time for the hydrocarbon phase in a crude oil system.

5. Use 3 to 6 min residence time for the water phase in a crude oil system.

6. Estimate 15 to 30 minutes water residence time for electrostatic coalescers (100%

filled). Vessel L/D 4 to 6.

C. Vertical Separator Design

1. The disengaging space - the distance between the bottom of the mist elimination pad
and the inlet nozzle, should be equal to the vessel internal diameter or a minimum of
3' -0".

2. The distance between the inlet nozzle and the maximum liquid level should be equal
to one-half the vessel diameter, or a minimum of 2' -0".

3. A mist eliminator pad should be installed. Otherwise the separator should be

designed so that actual gas velocity should be no greater than 15% of the maximum
allowable gas velocity as calculated by the following equation:
Vg = (11.574) * (AMMcfd) /A

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For educational purposes only

 Where: Vg = Vertical velocity of gas, ft/sec
AMMcfd = Actual gas volume at operating conditions, MMcfd
A = Cross Sectional Area of vessel, ft2

4. The dimension between the top tangent line of the separator and the bottom of the
mist eliminator pad should be a minimum of 1' -0".

5. Inlets should have an internal arrangement to divert flow downward.

6. Liquid outlets should have antivortex baffles.

7. Mist eliminator pads should be specified as a minimum of 4 inches thick, nominal 9

lb/ft3 density and stainless steel.

8. Normal practice for calculating liquid retention time is to allow for the volume
contained in the shell portion of the vessel only. No credit is taken for any liquid
retention time attributable to the volume contained in the vessel head. Sump height
should be a minimum of 1' -6". to allow for liquid level control.

D. Horizontal Separator Design

The following are commonly used rules of thumb for sizing Horizontal separators.

1. Oil level is usually controlled by a weir, which is commonly placed at a point

corresponding to 15% of the tangent-to-tangent length of the vessel. This results in
85% of the vessel being available for separation. Height of the weir is commonly set
at 50% of the internal diameter of the vessel.

2. The maximum liquid level should provide a minimum vapor space height of 1' -3"
3. but not be substantially below the centerline of the vessel.

4. Separators designed for gas-oil- water separation should provide residence time and
separation facilities for removal of the water.

5. For separators handling fluids where foaming is considered a possibility, additional

foam disengagement space and foam control baffling should be provided. Mist
eliminator devices should be located external to the vessel to maximize foam
disengagement potential within the vessel.

6. The volume of dished heads should not be taken into account in vessel sizing
calculations.

7. Inlet and outlet nozzles should be located as closely as possible to vessel tangent
lines.

8. Liquid outlets should have antivortex baffles.

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For educational purposes only

 E. Solid/Liquid Separations

Recommended Feed Solids Content for Separation Processes

Feed Solids Content in Vol %
Decanter centrifuge Max 25
Self-cleaning separator Max 4
Disc-nozzle centrifuge Max 10
Tube centrifuge Max 0.2
Conical hydrocyclone Max 20
Circulating bed hydrocyclone Max 15
Tables and spirals 15-20
Cone concentrator 40
Heavy media cyclone, jigs 10
Clarifiers/thickeners Max 5/10
Hydroseparators Max 25
Bowl classifiers Max 40
Upstream classifiers 25-40
Rake/spiral classifiers 30-50
Filter press 15-40
Vacuum disc filter 10-20
Vacuum drum 10-30
Vacuum band 20-40
Horizontal filters 20-40
Sieve bends 20-40
Vibro screen 20-40
Basket/peeler centrifuge 2-30
Pusher centrifuges 10-40
Screen (scroll) centrifuges 20-40
Vibro screen centrifuges 20-40

F. Solid / Liquid Separations

Comparative Performance
UNIT OPERATION PRODUCT PARAMETER FAVORABLE FEED CONDITIONS
SOLID IN LIQUID IN WASH SOLIDS SOLIDS
LIQUID SOLIDS POSSIBILITIES CONCENTRATION CHARACTERISTICS
STREAM STREAM
FILTRATION FAIR TO GOOD GOOD HIGH/MEDIUM LIGHT, COURSE TO
GOOD MED. FLOC. FINE
SEDIMENTATION FAIR TO POOR LOW MEDIUM/LOW DENSE, MEDIUM OR
EXCELLENT EFFICIENCY FLOCCULATED FINE
CENTRIFUGATION FAIR POOR FAIR TO MEDIUM/LOW DENSE, FINE
EXCELLENT
CYCLONING POOR POOR POOR LOW/MEDIUM DENSE, COURSE TO
MEDIUM
SCREENING POOR POOR TO POOR HIGH/MEDIUM COURSE TO
FAIR MEDIUM
ULTRAFILTRATION EXCELLENT POOR TO POOR LOW VERY FINE
FAIR

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For educational purposes only

 G. Brown - Souders Equation For Vessel Sizing

W = C DV ( D l − DV )

W = Vapor Loading - #/Hr. /Sq. Ft.

DV = Vapor Density - #Cu. Ft. at operating condit ion
D1 = Liquid Density - #Cu. Ft.
C = Constant
(a) For Absorbers use 600
(b)For Scrubbers use 1100
(c)For Still use 500

Example: Size Scrubber For Field Engine Discharge

29, 423# / mol 63 psia 520 R

Dv = x x = 0.333# / ft 3
380.6 ft 3 / mol 14.5 psia 550 R

D1 = 0.82 Sp. Gr. X 62.3 #/Cu. Ft. (H2 0) = 51.0 #/Cu. Ft.
W = 1100 .333(51.0 − .333)
= 1100v16.9
= 4520 #/hr./Sq. Ft.

Gas Flow = 158,311 MPD x 29.423 #/Mol = 194,000 #/hr.

Cross Section Area Required = 194,000 #/hr. = 43 Sq. Ft.

4520 #/hr/Sq. Ft
Dia . = 43x 4 / π = 7.4Ft.

Use 8 Ft. Diameter Scrubber

H. Mist Extractor Selection

1. The stainless steel mesh pad type mist extractor is generally less expensive than the
vane type and is adequate for most clean service applications. Similar liquid removal
efficiencies can be achieved (within certain velocity constraints) with mist particle
sizes of 10 microns and larger.

2. The pad type usually has less clean pressure drop than the vane type.

3. The vane type usually performs better than the pad type where tacky solids such as
iron sulfide are present in the flowing gas stream. The liquid flow from the mist
extractor is at right angles to the gas flow in vane type and it tends to wash solids
away better.

1-4

For educational purposes only

 4. If the vane type is used in corrosive service (hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, or
oxygen with water wet gas), the vanes should be 316 stainless steel. Experience has
shown that a small amount of corrosion with carbon steel vanes roughs the surface
and solids tend to accumulate and plug the vanes rapidly.

5. For retrofit or sometimes new applications, it is possible to use a smaller dia meter
vessel for the vane type as it may be fitted in different orientations to limit the
velocity to acceptable ranges. The pad type is usually installed horizontally.
6. It is usually cheaper to retrofit vessels with the pad type as both would have to be cut
and match marked to fit through an 18” or smaller manway and reinstalled inside the
vessel. The vane type usually has boxing that must be welded together inside the
vessel while the pad type can usually be bolted.

7. The vane type may be used for small in- line applications where the pad type usually
can not.

8. If the pad type plugs with solids or hydrates, the pressure drop will likely dislodge the
mist extractor and plug downstream piping or equipment.

9. For tough separation applications where it is necessary to remove mist particles

smaller than 10 microns (such as inlet to glycol or amine systems where the foreign
liquid may cause foaming or chemical contamination), often a combination of pad
type (for coalescing) and vane type (for mist removal) is used.

1-5

For educational purposes only

 Separation References

GPSA Engineering Data Book, Vol. 1,

Section 7 - Separators and Filters

Engineering Standard 10.48-2:

Process Vessel Sizing- Entrainment Reduction

SPS Design Report - DR15

Selection of Equipment for a Solid-Liquid Separation Process

1-6

For educational purposes only

 2 HEAT TRANSFER SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

Material presented herein is intended to supplement Phillips Engineering Standards, General

Design Specifications, and Recommended Design Practices listed in the Section VI and does
not supersede these documents.

A. Heat Exchanger Design Practices

1. Heat Exchanger Selection

The selection logic shown in Fig. 1, at the end of this section, may be used as a guide
in selecting heat exchanger types.

2. General Design Practices

General design practices governing the design of shell-and-tube heat exchangers are
summarized, as follows:

• High pressure stream should be located on the tubeside.

• Stream requiring special metallurgy should be located on the tubeside.
• Stream exhibiting highest fouling should be located on the tubeside.
• More viscous fluid should be located on the shellside.
• Lower flowrate stream should be placed on the shellside.
• Consider finned tubes when shellside h is less than 30% of tubeside h.
• Do not use finned tubes when shellside fouling is high.
• Design exchanger for maximum utilization of allowable pressure drop.
• Do not design heat exchanger for operation in transition flow.
• Do not provide thermal overdesign by increasing fouling factors.
• Provide thermal overdesign by increasing bundle length, not diameter
• Avoid multiple tubepass exchangers with close temperature approaches.
• Vertical shellside condensation should be in downflow.
• Vertical tubeside boiling should be in upflow.
• Use RODbaffle exchangers when tube vibrations are predicted.
• Use RODbaffle exchangers for low shellside pressure loss processes.
• Avoid triple-segmental plate baffles, disk-and-doughnut baffles, and orifice
baffles.
• Horizontal shellside condensers should be specified with vertically cut baffles.

3. Overall Heat and Film Transfe r Coefficients

Overall heat transfer coefficients suitable for feasibility design estimates are provided in
Table 1, and film coefficients are contained in Table 2.

4. Heat Exchanger Velocities

2-1

For educational purposes only

 Recommended shellside and tubeside liquid velocities for various tube materials are
summarized as follows: Permissible tubeside velocities for dry gases range from 50 to
150 feet/sec. The recommended minimum shellside liquid velocities are 1.5 feet/sec.

TUBE Velocity
Material (FT/SEC)

ADMIRALTY, CARBON STEEL 4 TO 8

COPPER, BRASS (85-15) 2 TO 4
NICKEL, COPPER-NICKEL 5 TO 10
STAINLESS STEEL, MONEL 6 TO 12
TITANIUM 6 TO 15

5. Allowable Pressure Losses

Recommended maximum allowable shellside and tubeside pressure losses are 10 to

15 psi for plate-baffle exchangers. Allowable shellside pressure losses for
RODbaffle should range from 4 to 8 psi.
6. Cooling Water Temperatures

Maximum cooling water and tube wall temperatures to minimize fouling deposition
are 125F and 145F, respectively.
7. Mean Temperature Differences

Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) correction factors (F) for single
shellpass, multiple tubepass exchangers should be greater than 0.75 to avoid
temperature approach problems.
8. Recommended Fouling Factors

Recommended Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) fouling

factors are provided in Table 3.
9. Vibration Considerations

• Shellside baffle tip and average crossflow velocities should not exceed 80% of
the calculated Connors Critical Velocity in order to avoid fluidelastic instability
tube vibration.
• The vortex shedding-to-tube natural frequency ration should not exceed 0.50 to
avoid vortex shedding tube vibration.
• In exchangers flashing gas on the shellside, the turbulent buffeting- to-tube
natural frequency ratio should not exceed 0.50 to avoid turbulent buffeting tube
vibration.

2-2

For educational purposes only

 • In exchangers where acoustic resonance (noise) is predicted, a triangular tube
pitch may eliminate the problem Detuning plates may also be necessary in
certain cases.

TABLE 1

OVERALL U
HOT FLUID COLD FLUID BTU/HR-FT2-F

WATER WATER 250-500

AMMONIA WATER 250-500
MEA OR DEA WATER 140-200
FUEL OIL WATER 15-25
FUEL OIL OIL 10-15
GASOLINE WATER 60-100
HEAVY OIL WATER 15-50
HEAVY OIL HEAVY OIL 10-40
REFORMER STREAM REFORMER STREAM 50-120
LIGHT ORGANICS WATER 75-120
MEDIUM ORGANICS WATER 50-125
HEAVY ORGANICS WATER 5-75
GAS OIL WATER 25-70
GASES WATER 2-50
GASES GASES 2-25
CONDENSING STEAM WATER 200-700
CONDENSING STEAM LIGHT ORGANICS 100-200
CONDENSING STEAM MEDIUM ORGANICS 50-100
CONDENSING STEAM HEAVY ORGANICS 6-60
CONDENSING STEAM PROPANE (BOILING) 200-300
STEAM GASES 5-50
LIGHT ORGANICS LIGHT ORGANICS 40-75
MEDIUM ORGANICS MEDIUM ORGANICS 20-60
HEAVY ORGANICS HEAVY ORGANICS 10-40
CRUDE OIL GAS OIL 80-90
GASOLINE (CONDENSING) CRUDE OIL 20-30

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For educational purposes only

 NOTES:
TABLE 2. APPROXIMATE FILM HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS 1. Where a range of coefficients is given
LIQUIDS SHELL TUBE SIDE for liquids, the lower values are for
cooling and the higher are for heating.
Oils, 20º API
Coefficients in cooling, particularly, can
200º F average temperature 40-50 15-25
300º F average temperature 70-85 20-35 vary considerably depending upon actual
tube wall temperature.
400º average temperature 80-100 65-75
2. Tube side coefficients are based on
Oils, 30º API 3
150 º F average temperature 70-85 20-35 /4–in diameter tubes. Adjustment to
200º F average temperature 80-100 50-60 other diameters may be made by
multiplying by 0.75/actual outside
300º F average temperature 110-130 95-115
diameter. Shell side coefficients are also
400º F average temperature 130-155 120-140
Oils, 40º API based upon 3/4–in diameter. Precise
150º F average temperature 80-100 50-60 calculations would require adjustment to
other diameters. The accuracy of the
200º F average temperature 120-140 115-135
procedure does not warrant it.
300º F average temperature 150-170 140-160
400º F average temperature 180-200 175-195 3. Coefficients can vary widely under
Heavy Oils, 8-14º API any one or combination of the following:
a. Low allowable pressure drop.
300º F average temperature 20-30 10-20
b. Low pressure condensing applications,
400º F average temperature 0-50 20-30
Diesel oil 115-130 95-115 particularly where condensation is not
isothermal.
Kerosene 145-155 140-150
c. Cooling of viscous fluids particularly
Heavy naphtha 145-155 130-140
Light naphtha180 180 with high coefficient coolants and large
Gasoline 200 200 LMTDs.
d. Condensing with wide condensing
Light hydrocarbons 250 250
temperature ranges — 100º F and larger.
Alcohols, most organic solvents 200 200
Water, ammonia 700 700 e. Boiling, where light vapor is generated
Brine, 75% water 500 500 from viscous fluid.
f. Conditions where the relative flow
Shell or tube sides quantities on shell and tube sides are
VAPORS 10 psig 50 psig 100 psig 300 psig 500 psig vastly different (usually evidenced by
Light hydrocarbons 25 60 100 170 200 difference in temperature rise or fall on
Medium HCs, organic sol. 25 70 105 180 220 shell and tube sides ).
Light inorganic vapors 14 30 60 100 120 g. Wide temperature ranges with liquids
Air 13 25 50 85 100 (may be partly in streamline flow).
Ammonia 14 30 55 95 110
Steam 15 30 50 90 135
Hydrogen — 100% 40 105 190 350 420
Hydrogen — 75% (by volume) 35 80 150 280 340
Hydrogen — 50% (by volume) 30 70 130 240 310
Hydrogen — 25% (by volume) 25 55 100 180 270
VAPORS CONDENSING Shell or tube sides
Steam 1,500
Steam, 10% non-condensables 600
Steam, 20% non-condensables 400
Steam, 40% non-condensables 220
Pure light hydrocarbons 250-300
Mixed light hydrocarbons 175-250
Gasoline 150-220
Gasoline-steam mixtures 200
Medium hydrocarbons 100
Medium hydrocarbons with steam 125
Pure organic solvents 250
Ammonia 600
LIQUIDS BOILING
Water 1,500
Water solutions, 50% water or more 600
Light hydrocarbons 300
Medium hydrocarbons 200
Freon 400
Ammonia 700
Propane 400
Butane 400
Amines, alcohols 300
Glycols 200
Benzene, tolune 200

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 TABLE 3

EXCHANGER FOULING
SERVICE (HR-FT2-F/BTU)
LESS 125 F GREATER 125F
COOLING TOWER WATER 0.001 0.002
BRACKISH WATER 0.002 0.003
SEA WATER 0.0005 0.001
BOILER FEEDWATER 0.001
CONDENSATE 0.0005
STEAM 0.0005
COMPRESSED AIR 0.001
NATURAL GAS & LPG GAS 0.001 - 0.002
ACID GASES 0.002 - 0.003
REFORMER FEED-EFFLUENT GAS 0.0015
HYDROCRACKER FEED-EFFLUENT GAS 0.002
HDS FEED-EFFLUENT GAS 0.002
MEA AND DEA SOLUTIONS 0.002
DEG AND TEG SOLUTIONS 0.002
HEAT TRANSFER FLUIDS 0.002
PROPANE AND BUTANE 0.001
GASOLINE 0.002
KEROSENE, NAPTHA, & LIGHT DISTILLATES 0.002 - 0.003
LIGHT GAS OIL 0.002 - 0.003
HEAVY GAS OIL 0.003 - 0.005
HEAVY FUEL OIL 0.005 - 0.007
VACUUM TOWER BOTTOMS 0.010
NATURAL GAS COMBUSTION PRODUCTS 0.005

9. TEMA Shell Configurations

Single shellpass, TEMA “E” shells are preferred for most single-phase and
condensing applications. Two shellpass, TEMA “F” shells with two tubepass
bundles are preferred when pure counterflow conditions and maximum mean
temperature difference (MTD) are required. “F” shell exchangers should be
specified with welded longbaffles or “ Lamiflex” longbaffles seals. Bundle should
may also be utilized to minimize longbaffle leakage. TEMA “G” and “H” split- flow
shells are preferred only for horizontal shellside thermosiphon reboilers. Divided-
flow TEMA “J” shells with RODbaffle tube bundles are preferred for low pressure-
drop, single-phase and condensing services. TEMA “K” shells are used exclusively
for horizontal, kettle reboilers.
10. Return Head Types

Fixed tubesheet exchangers are preferred for services where thermal expansion,
shellside mechanical cleaning, and tube bundle removal are not concerns. U-tube

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 and floating head bundles are required when thermal expansion, shellside
mechanical cleaning, and tube bundle removal provisions must be made. Fixed
tubesheet exchangers should be considered if shellside-to-tubeside inlet temperature
differences are less than 100F. Fixed tubesheet exchangers having shell expansion
joints should be avoided. U-tube and floating head exchangers are required when
fixed tubesheet units cannot meet above requirements, with U-tube bundles being
preferred over floating head bundles if tubeside mechanical cleaning is not required.
Split-ring floating head bundles are preferred over pull-through floating head
bundles in general refinery service because of higher thermal performance and lower
cost. Outside packed floating head exchangers are not recommended.
11. Shellside Baffle Types

Baffles types recommended for Phillip’s plant services include single-segmental

plate-baffles, double-segmental plate-baffles, no-tube-in-window(NTIW) baffles,
and RODbaffles. Single-segmental plate baffles, having a single chordal cut, are
preferred for single-phase services where higher shellside pressure losses (15 psi)
may be tolerated. Double-segmental plate baffles, having two chordal cuts, are
preferred for single-phase and condensing services, where modest shellside pressure
losses (10 psi) are allowed. RODbaffles are preferred for single-phase and two-
phase services, where low shellside pressure losses (5 psi) are required or where
flow- included tube vibrations are likely in plate-baffle exchangers. Triple segmental
disk-and-doughnut, and orifice baffles are not recommended. NITW baffles may be
used as an alternate to RODbaffles where economics are favorable.
12. Tube Type, Size, and Layout

The preferred tube size for shell-and-tube heat exchangers in medium to heavy
tubeside fouling service (.001 hr-ft2 -F/Btu or greater) is 1.00 inch O.D. For light
tubeside fouling services (less than .001 hr- ft2 -F/Btu), 0.750 inch O.D. tubes are
preferred. Generally 30 or 60 degree triangular layouts are preferred for clean,
single-phase services (<.001 hr- ft2 -F/Btu) in which chemical cleaning maybe used.
For medium or heavy fouling services (> .001 hr-ft2 -F/Btu) in which mechanical
cleaning is required, 90 square or 45 rotated square layouts are preferred. Minimum
TEMA tube pitch-to-diameter ratio is 1.25. For kettle and internal reboiler services
and all RODbaffle exchangers, 90 square layout is required.
13. Recommended Material

Tubes: Inhibited Admiralty tubes are strongly recommended for non-chromate

containing, cooling water services where tubewall temperatures range from 145F to
450F. Inhibited Admiralty tubes are also recommended for conventionally treated
cooling water service for tubewall temperature between 165F and 450F. Do not use
admiralty or other copper bearing alloys when cooling tower water may become
contaminated with ammonia or where copper is incompatible with the process fluid.
Carbon steel tubes are recommended for cooling water services where tubewall
temperature is below 165F. Low-chrome steel tubes are recommended for high-
temperature, sulfur-bearing streams. Austenitic stainless steel alloys are

2-6

For educational purposes only

 recommended for low temperature services (below - 150F). Monel tubes are
recommended for HF acid-containing streams above 160F, while Titanium tubes are
recommended for brackish and sea water services. Welded, fully killed carbon steel
(ASTM A-214) should be avoided in low pH water soluble hydrocarbons, furfural,
phenol, sulfuric acid, amine service, HF alkylation, and in final overhead crude
tower coolers. Seamless carbon steel tubes (A-179) should be used where welded
tubes are not permitted. Duplex 2205 tubes should be used instead of austenitic
stainless tubes in high chloride services. The table below contains recommended
tube wall thicknesses.

Wall Wall
Material ¾ Inch OD Thickness 1 Inch OD Thickness

Carbon Steel 14 BWG avg wall .083 12 BWG avg wall .109

Non-Ferrous 16 BWG min wall .065 14 BWG min wall .083

(Inhibited
Admiralty)

Nickel Base Alloy 16 BWG avg wall .065 14 BWG avg wall .083

Ferrous Alloy Steel 16 BWG avg wall .065 14 BWG avg wall .083

Baffles, Tie Rods, & Spacers : should be constructed of minimum quality material
compatible with tube and tubesheet material.
Tube Sheets: must be compatible with service conditions. In services requiring
welded tube-to-tubesheet joints, strength welds a re preferred over seal welds.
Shell & Channels : must be compatible with service conditions. Specify TEMA “A”
type heads when access to the tube ends is desirable or when frequent tubeside
cleaning is expected.
Direct question about material suitability should be directed to Engineering
Materials and Services.

14. U-Bend Support

U-tube exchangers having bundle diameters greater than 36 inches should have U-
bend tube supports. I designing a new U-tube exchanger, it is preferred to specify a
full support baffle at the U-bend tangent, and avoid flowing through the U-bend
entirely.

15. Nozzles, Impingement Plates, and Annular distributors

Momentum criteria (pv2 ) above whic h shellside impingement plates and annular
distributors and tubeside solid distributor plates should be used are summarized in
Table 4. Impingement rods can be utilized in lieu of a solid impingement plate. Rod

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For educational purposes only

 diameter should be identical to the tube O.D. Perforated impingement plates should
not be used.

B. Reboiler Thermal Design Practices

1. Reboiler Selection Logic

The choice of reboiler type is governed by thermal performance, fluid properties,

fouling tendencies, and surface area requirements, as shown in the logic diagram
provided in Fig. 2 at the end of this section.

2. Internal or Column Reboilers

Internal reboilers, consisting of multi- tubepass, U-tube bundles, should be used for
relatively-clean, moderate-viscosity fluids, in small surface-area applications, where
periodic column shutdown for cleaning may be tolerated.
Internal Reboiler Recommended Design Practices
• Tube Bundle shall be U-Tube Type
• Tubes Shall be Oriented on 90 Degree Square Pitch
• Minimum Clearance Between Tubes Shall be 0.25 inches
• Tube Bundle Diameter Shall Not Exceed 36 Inches
• Use Two Bundles Side-by-Side in Column for Large Area Requirements
• Limit Design Heat Flux < 0.7 Maximum Heat Flux

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For educational purposes only

 TABLE 4
NOZZLES FLUID MAXIMUM (Pv 2 )
(LB/FT 2_SEC2)_
SHELLSIDE CLEAN, NON-
NOZZLES CORROSIVE, NON- 1500
ABRASIVE SINGLE-
PHASE GAS, VAPOR,
LIQUID

SHELLSIDE ALL OTHER LIQUIDS 500

NOZZLES

SHELLSIDE TWO-PHASE IMPINGEMENT PLATE

NOZZLES MIXTURES, OR ANNULAR
SATURATED VAPORS, DISTRIBUTOR
ALL OTHER GASES
AND VAPORS

BUNDLE/SHELL ALL FLUIDS 4000

ENTRANCE & EXIT

TUBESIDE CLEAN, NON- 6000

CORROSIVE
NON-ABRASIVE
LIQUIDS

TUBESIDE TWO-PHASE AXIAL NOZZLES WITH

MIXTURES, PERFORATED
SATURATED VAPORS, DISTRIBUTOR PLATES
ALL OTHER GASES
AND VAPORS

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For educational purposes only

 3. Kettle Reboilers

Kettle reboilers consisting of multiple tubepass, U-tube bundles, installed inside

enlarged TEMA K type shells, are preferred for medium viscosity fluids in
moderately heavy fouling services, where large surface areas are required.

Kettle Reboiler Recommended Design Practices

• Tubes Shall be on 90 Degree Square Pitch
• Tube Pitch Depends on Temperature Difference
Temperature Tube Pitch (inch)
Difference ¾” O.D. Tube 1” O.D. Tube
<35F 1.000 1.250
<60F 1.125 1.375
>60F 1.250 1.500
• Shell Diameter (D s) > 1.6 Bundle Diameter (Db)
• Kettle diameter should be sized for desired liquid entrainment ratio
• Column Liquid Height (Hd) > Bundle Diameter, (Db )
• Weir height (Wh ) > Bundle Diameter (Db )
• Use Two Feed & Return Lines for Boiling Range ∆ Tbr>100F
• Use Two Feed & Return Lines for Bundle lengths>12 feet
• Limit Design Heat Flux < 0.7 Maximum Heat Flux
• Limit Mixture Wall-to-Bulk Fluid ∆ Twb < Half Boiling
Range ∆ Tbr
• Use RODbaffle Bundles if Tube Vibration Likely
• Use Small Diameter, Long Tube Length Bundle when practical

4. Vertical Thermosiphon Reboilers

Vertical thermosiphon reboilers, consisting of single-tubepass, single-shellpass,

TEMA E shells and having upflow boiling on the tubeside, should be used for
moderate-fouling low viscosity (M< 50 cP), Wide boiling- range ( ∆ Tbr > 100F)
mixtures, at above atmospheric pressures, where moderate surface areas are required.

Vertical Thermosiphon Reboiler Recommended Design Practices

• Single-Tubepass, Single-Shellpass, Fixed Tubepass Exchanger
• Design Exit Weight Fractions Vapor range from 0.10 to 0.15 for Hydrocarbons
• Maximum Exit Weight Fraction Vapor less than 0.30 for Hydrocarbons
• Suited for Wide Boiling Range ( ∆ Tb > 100F), low Viscosity (M< 50cP) Fluids
• Liquid Driving Head (Hd ) = 60 to 100% of Tube Length (Lt )
• Liquid Sensible Heating Zone Length (Lsh ) < 25% of Tube Length (Lt )
• Exit Pipe Flow area (Apo ) ~ (Total Tubeside flow area (At )
• Inlet Pipe Flow area (Api) – 25% of total tubeside Flow Area (At )
• Exit Line Pressure Drop ( ∆ Po ) equal to 30% of total Hydrostatic Head ( ∆ Ph )
• Use Sweep and Long Radius Elbows in Two-Phase Exit Lines

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For educational purposes only

 • Limit Design Heat Flux < 70% of Maximum Nucleate Boiling Heat Flux Pr < 0.2
• Consider inlet tubeside distribution baffles for cases where two-phase process
streams enter exchanger

5. Horizontal Thermosiphon Reboilers

Horizontal thermosiphon reboilers, consisting of multiple-tubepass, U-tube or

floating- head RODbaffle bundles, in either TEMA J,G or H shells, should be
considered for viscous fluids, in moderate fouling service, where larger surface areas
are required.
Horizontal Thermosiphon Reboiler Recommended Design Practices
• Multiple-Tubepass, U- Tube or Floating Head Design
• Use TEMA H Shell Configuration for Tube Length (Lt )>12 feet
• Column Liquid Driving Heat (H d) > Bundle Diameter (Db)
• Design Exit Weight Fraction Vapor 0.10 to 0.20 for Hydrocarbons
• Maximum Exit Weight Fraction vapor <0.30 for Hydrocarbons
• Limit Design Heat Flux < 0.7 Maximum Nucleate Boiling Heat Flux
• Tube Diameter-to-Pitch (Dt /Pt ) Ratios same as Kettle Reboilers
• Exit Line Pressure Drop ( ∆ Po ) < 0.3 Total Hydrostatic Head ( ∆ Ph )
• Use Sweeps and Long Radius Elbows in Two-Phase Exit Piping

5. Forced Circulation Reboilers

Forced circulation reboilers, having vaporization on the tubeside, are recommended

for highly viscous fluids in heavy fo uling service, where large surface areas and low
exit weight fraction vapor are required.
Forced Circulation Reboiler Recommended Design Practices
• Used for Highly Viscous, Heavy Fouling Fluid Services
• Vertical Tubeside Vaporization Preferred
• Entering Liquid Velocities of 5 to 7 fps
• Design Exit Weight Fraction Vapor from 0.05 to 0.10
• Bubble Flow, Two-Phase Flow Regime Preferred
• Avoid Slug and Stratified Flow in Horizontal Tubeside Reboilers

C. Process Condenser Thermal Design Practices

The major choices to be made in the selection of shell-and-tube condensers used in

the petrochemical industry are between shellside and tubeside condensation and
between horizontal and vertical orientation.

1. Condenser Selection Logic

Process condenser selection should be go verned by thermal performance, allowable

pressure loses, operational pressure, condensing temperature range, condensing
medium corrosiveness, mechanical cleaning considerations, and integral condensate

2-11

For educational purposes only

 subcooling requirements, as shown in the logic diagram Fig. 3 at the end of this
section.

2. Horizontal Shellside condensers

Horizontal TEMA E shellside condensers are preferred for noncorrosive, low

pressure and vacuum service, where the single-phase tubeside cooling medium must
be placed in on the tubeside because of high fouling deposition. In low shellside
pressure loss services, TEMA J Shell, divided- flow, condensers containing
RODbaffle bundles are preferred. TEMA G shell condensers may be considered in
cases where temperature pinch problems occur in E or J type shell. H and K type
shells are not recommended for use in horizontal condensers..

Horizontal Shellside Condenser Recommended Design Practices

• Use for Noncorrosive, Low Pressure and Vacuum Service
• Use when Frequent Mechanical cleaning is required
• Limit Shellside Pressure Loss to less than 10% of Inlet Pressure
• Evaluate Effects of Shellside ∆p on MTD for Mixtures
• Use TEMA E Shell if Shellside ∆p Permits
• Use Multiple “E” Shells in Series if Temperature Pinch Predicated
• Use TEMA J Shell with RODbaffle Bundles for Low Pressure Service
• Shell and Baffle Type Governed by Following Shellside ∆p :
§ Single Segmental E Shell: ∆p s = 10-20 psi
§ Double Segmental E Shell: ∆p s = 5-10 psi
§ RODbaffle J Shell: ∆p s = 1-5 psi
• Design condenser for Shear Flow Regime
• Use Vertical Baffle Cuts With Drainage Notches
• Vary Baffle Spacing at Exit To Achieve Shear Flow
• Design Outlet Nozzles to Avoid Shellside Condensate Flooding
• Use Separate Exchanger for Condensate Subcooling

3. Vertical Shellside Condensers

Vertical TEMA E Shell downflow shellside condensers are preferred for

noncorrosive, low-to-moderate pressure services, where two-phase upflow
boiling is occurring on the tubeside.

Vertical Shellside Condenser Recommended Design Practices

• Use for Noncorrosive, Low-to-Moderate Pressure Services
• Use with Two-Phase Boiling on Tubeside
• Use for Close Approach Temperatures
• Preferred for Vertical Thermosiphon Reboilers and Feed-Effluent Exchangers
• Design for Downflow Condensation and Upflow Boiling
• Limited to Single Shellpass, TEMA E Shells

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For educational purposes only

 • Double Segmental Plate Baffles and RODbaffles Preferred

4. Horizontal Tubeside Condensers

Horizontal tubeside condensers are preferred for kettle and horizontal shellside
thermosiphon reboilers and in corrosive services where the condensing medium
requires special metallurgy. Multiple tubepass tubeside condensers should be
avoided because of potential liquid-dropout and inerts accumulation in floating head
channels.

Horizontal Tubeside condenser Recommended Design Practices

• Use in Kettle and horizontal Thermosiphon Reboiler service
• Preferred when Condensing Medium Requires Special Metallurgy
• Limited to Single Tubepass and Two Tubepass U-Tube Designs
• Do Not Design as Multiple Tubepass, Floating Head Unit
• Design for Operation in Shear-Controlled Flow Regime
§
5. Vertical Tubeside Condensers

Vertical TEMA E shell downflow tubeside condensers are preferred for high
pressure, wide condensing range, corrosive fluids, where single-phase fluids are used
as cooling medium.

Vertical Tubeside Condenser Recommended Design Practices

• Preferred for High Pressure, Corrosive Condensing Media
• Use with Single-Phase Cooling Medium
• Design as Single Tubepass TEMA E Shell Configuration
• Consider when Inerts Removal is Critical
• Consider for Wide Condensing- Range Fluids

2-13

For educational purposes only

 D. Heat Transfer Units conversions Table 5
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
LENGTH mm 0.039370 in SPECIFIC kj/kg C 0.23885 Btu/lb F
m 3.2808 ft HEAT kcal/kg C 1.0000 Btu/lb F
in 0.083333 ft Btu/lg F 4.1868 kj/kg C
in 25.400 mm THERMAL W/m C 0.57779 Btu/hr ft F
ft 12.000 in CONDUCTIVITY cals/s cm C 241.91 Btu/hr ft F
ft 0.30480 m Btu/hr ft2F/in 0.083333 Btu/hr ft F
AREA m2 10.764 ft 2 Btu/hr ft F 1.7307 W/m C
cm2 0.15500 in 2 kcal/hr m C 0.67197 Btu/hr ft F
in 2 0.0069444 ft 2 W/cm C 57.779 Btu/hr ft F
m2 / m 3.2808 ft 2/ ft DYNAMIC Pa s 2419.1 lb/hr ft
ft 2 /ft 0.30480 m2 / m VISCOSITY cP 2.4191 lb/hr ft
ft 2 0.092903 m2 kg/hr m 0.67197 lb/hr ft
VOLUME m3 35.315 ft 3 lb/s ft 3600.0 lb/hr ft
In 3 0.00057870 ft 3 lbf s/ft 2 115827.0 lb/hr ft
ft 3 0.028317 m3 lb/hr 0.00041338 Pa s
gal 0.13368 ft 3 lb/hr ft 0.41388 cP
gal (IMP) 1.2009 gal (US) KIMEMATIC m2 /s 38750.0 ft 2 /hr
2
litter 0.26417 gal (US) VISCOSITY cSt 0.038750 ft /hr
MASS kg 2.2046 gal m2 /s 10000.0 Stokes
lb 0.45359 kg ENERGY kj 0.94782 Btu
FORCE N 0.22481 lbf KWhr 3412.1 Btu
kp 2.2046 lbf kcal 3.9683 Btu
lbf 32.1740 lb ft/s 2 ft lbf 0.0012851 Btu
kp 9.80665 N hp hr 2544.4 Btu
PRESSURE Pa 0.0040218 in of water Btu 1.0551 kj
kPa 4.0218 in of water Btu 0.0002931 kWhr
kPa 0.14504 lbf/in 2 Btu 0.25200 k cal
kp/m2 0.039441 in of water J 0.00027778 W hr
mm of water 0.09370 in of water POWER W 3.4121 Btu/hr
in of water 0.24864 kPa kcal/hr 3.9683 Btu/hr
in of water 0.036063 lbf/in 2 ft lbf/hr 0.0012851 Btu/hr
in of water 0.0024539 atmospheres Hp 2544.4 Btu/hr
VELOCITY m/s 3.2808 ft/s Btu/hr 0.29307 W
m/min 3.2808 ft/min Btu/hr 0.25200 kcal/hr
mi/hr 1.4667 ft/s HEAT FLUX W/m2 0.31700 Btu/hr ft 2
ft/s 0.30480 m/s Kcal/hr m2 0.36867 Btu/hr ft 2
ft/min 0.016667 ft/s W/cm2 3170.0 Btu/hr ft 2
MASS kg/s 7936.6 lb/hr Cal/s cm2 13272.0 Btu/hr ft 2
FLOW Btu/hr ft 2 3.1546 W/m2
Btu/hr ft 2 2.7125 kcal/hr m2
MASS kg/hr 2,2046 lb/hr THERMAL m2 C/W 5.6783 hr ft 2 F/Bt

2-14

For educational purposes only

 MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
FLOW lb/s 3600.0 lb/hr RESISTANCE hr m2 C/kj 20.442 hr ft 2 F/Bt
lb/hr 0.45359 kg/hr hr m2 C/kcal 4.8824 hr ft 2 F/Bt
VOLUME m3 /s 2118.9 ft 3 /min s cm2 C/kcal 0.00013562 hr ft 2 F/Bt
FLOW ft 3 /s 60.000 ft 3 /min Cm2 C/W 0.00056783 hr ft 2 F/Bt
ft 3/ min 0.00047195 m3 /s hr ft 2 F/Btu 0.17611 m2 C/W
MASS kg/s m2 737.34 lb/hr ft 2 hr ft 2 F/Btu 0.20482 hr m2 C/W
VELOCITY kg/hr m2 020482 lb/hr ft 2 HEAT W/m2 C 0.17611 Btu/hr ft 2 F
lb/s ft 2 3600.0 lb/hr ft 2 TRANSFER kj/hr m2 C 0.048919 Btu/hr ft 2 F
lb/hr ft 2 4.8824 kg/hr m2 COEFFICIENT kcal/hr m2 C 0.20482 Btu/hr ft 2 F
DENSITY kg/m3 0.062428 lb/ft 3 cal/s cm2 C 7373.4 Btu/hr ft 2 F
g/cm3 62.428 lb/ft 3 W/cm2 C 1761.1 Btu/hr ft 2 F
lb/in 3 1728.0 lb/ft 3 Btu/hr ft 2 F 5.6783 W/m2 C
lb/ft 3 16.018 kg/m3 Btu/hr ft 2 4.8824 kcal/hr m2 C

TEMPERATURE METRIC EQUIVALENTS

1.8c + 32 = F Pa = w/m2 = kg/s 2 m
(f-32)/1.8 = C N = kg m/s 2
C + 273.15 = K J = Ws
F + 459.69 = R Liter = dm3
Kp = kgt

2-15

For educational purposes only

 E. Heat Exchangers (General)

1. Heat Exchanger Area Approx. Area = [Heat Duty, Btu/hr]/[U.LMTD]

Where: U = heat transfer coeff.
(GPSA typical U’s Heat Exch.)

2. Limit temperature approach in gas to gas exchanger to 20 °F.

3. For preliminary design for cooling water systems, use a cooling water temperature
rise of 15° to 20° F through the heat exchangers. In most cases a process stream
temperature approach of 10° F to the cold water to the exchanger is reasonable.

4. If flow through the exchanger is not countercurrent, hot fluid outlet temperature
should be greater than cold fluid outlet temperature.

5. For exchangers of 200 ft 2 and less, consider compact heat exchangers.

F. Condensers

1. Be aware when condensing pure components such as propane that the limiting
temperature occurs when the desuperheating stops and condensing starts.

2. For water cooling, try to cool no further than a 10° F approach to the warm cooling
water leaving the condenser. Use 4 to 8 ft/sec velocity for water through the tubes.
Restrict cooling water return temperature to maximum of 125° F.

3. For water cooled propane condenser design, generally use 10° F temperature rise on
cooling water through the exchanger.
G. Reboilers and Chillers

1. Many failures occur because the pressure on the condensate return header is higher
than the low pressure steam at the reboiler.

2. About 50° F delta T is all that can profitably be used. Limit the approach
temperature of the gas to the refrigerant in gas chillers to 10° F. Less than 10° F delta
T requires excess exchanger surface area.

3. Usually design reboilers for a conservative heat flux of 8,000 to 12,000 BTU/ft2 and
reduce pressure of steam to prevent film boiling.

4. Submergence of Bundle – Level generally controlled at top of bundle.

5. For thermosiphon and side reboiler designs for demethanizer columns, limit the
vaporization of the reboiler liquid stream to a maximum of about 35% by volume.

2-16

For educational purposes only

 Attempting to vaporize more fluid may result in problems with the thermosiphon
flow.
H. Sizing Plate Heat Exchangers

A method for calculating plate heat exchangers is presented in “Plate-Type Heat

Exchangers” by F. J. Lowry, Chem. Eng., 66, 89-94, June 29, 1959. Generally,
accurate sizing of [late heat exchangers must be done by the manufacturer.

I. Brazed Aluminum Plate Heat Exchangers

1. For aluminum plate fin reboilers, methanol may tend to accumulate in the reboiler
and eventually log off the exchanger limiting thermosiphon flow. It can usually be
cleared if a drain is provided on the lower header of the exchanger.

2. Mercury occurring naturally in some natural gas steams is extremely corrosive to

aluminum heat exchangers used extensively in LNG plant processes. Plan to check
for mercury in feed gas up front in any project.

3. For Aluminum Plate Fin Core- in-Shell evaporator heat exchange design use a 2 to 4
degree temperature approach to shell side evaporating fluid temperature. Use a
maximum evaporation of 25% of the thermosiphon circulated fluid in the evaporator
when preparing preliminary core specifications.

J. Air Fin Heat Exchangers

1. All air coolers should be designed in accordance with API 661.

2. Normally design for 40° F approach to inlet air temperature if no cooling water used
(20° F Minimum).

3. Forced draft units are preferred over over induced draft units.

4. For preliminary estimates assume 4 rows of tubes. Estimate power requirements at 3

HP/MMBTU/hr for fans for face velocity of air to the coil of 450 to 550 ft/min.

5. Limit tip speed of fans:

< 9 feet in diameter to 12,000 ft/min (FPM)
>9 feet in diameter to 11,000 ft/min.

6. Hot air recirculation can be a problem, especially in hot weather. Consider air
recirculation when locating air Cooled Exchangers.
§ Locate coolers away from taller buildings or structures, especially downwind
of the cooler.
§ Do not locate coolers downwind of other heat generating equipment: i.e.
furnaces, boilers, etc.

2-17

For educational purposes only

 § Mount coolers high enough from the ground to avoid high inlet air approach
velocities. Consider mounting them on pipe lanes or provide at lease ½ a fan
diameter clearance between the ground and the plenum.
§ Locate large banks of coolers with the banks long axis perpendicular to the
prevailing summer wind direction.
§ Do not mix forced and induc ed draft coolers in close proximity and do not
locate coolers of different heights in close proximity.
K. Fired Heaters

1. Maximum recommended heat flux for a direct fired Triethylene Glycol regenerator
in a TEG Dehydration Unit is 8000 BTU/ft2 of fire tube surface area. The
recommended heat flux for maximum fire tube life is 6000 BTU/ft2 .

2. For most process heaters, assume a thermal efficiency of 75 to 80% when calculating
fuel requirements.
Where: % Thermal Efficiency = (Heat Transferred/Heat Released)*100.

3. Organic Heat Transfer Fluids

A. Fired heaters for organic heat transfer fluids are usually designed with average
radiant heat fluxes ranging from 5000 to 12,000 BTU/hr-sq ft. Actual allowable
heat flux is usually limited by fluid maximum allowable film temperature. Film
temperature is dependent on:

a. Maximum fluid bulk temperature

b. Velocity of the fluid across the heat transfer surface
c. Uniformity of heat distribution in the furnace
d. Heat transfer properties of the heat transfer fluid

B. If too high film temperature results, too much fluid is vaporized and the heat
transfer surface is blanketed with vapors. The heat transfer coefficient is rapidly
reduced and dangerously high surface temperatures can develop resulting severe
fluid degradation and mechanical fa ilure.

C. High surface temperatures may also cause the fluid to carbonize forming carbon
scale on the heat transfer surface which may lead to over heating and tube metal
failure.

D. All other things being equal, any organic heat transfer fluid degrades in
proportion to its temperature. Operation at approximately 100° F below vendors
maximum recommended bulk fluid operation temperature may extend the life of
the fluid by 10 times.

L. Cooling Towers

2-18

For educational purposes only

 1. The evaporation rate on a cooling tower is dependent on the amount of water being
cooled and the temperature differential. For each 10° F temperature drop across the
tower, 1% of the recirculation rate is evaporated. In other words, 0.001 times the
circulation rate in gpm times the temperature drop equals the evaporation rate in
gpm.

2. Windage losses for cooling towers:

Spray ponds 1.0 to 5.0% of circulation
Atmospheric Cooling Towers 0.3 to 1.0% of circulation
Forced Draft Cooling Towers 0.1 to 0.3% of circulation

Evaporation Losses for Cooling Towers:

Evaporation Losses are usually 0.85 to 1.25% of the tower circulation rate. An
evaporation loss of 1% of tower circulation per each 10 degrees F temperature drop
across the tower can be assumed for estimating purposes.

3. Cooling Water System Feasibility Design:

Feasibility designs for cooling water systems may be completed by setting the water
temperature rise across all exchangers, usually 15 to 20 °F rise, (or at a 10 °F
approach to the process outlet temperature if the assumed rise results in a
temperature cross for some exchanger), and setting the inlet water temperature to the
exchangers to the site wet bulb temperature plus 8 °F.

4. Cooling Water System Fluid Flow and Piping:

For preliminary sizing branch offs with different flowrates from the main header, the
following rule of thumb equations may be used.

D2 = Summation di2 where: Q and qi are volumetric flowrates through

the header and branch i, and D and di
qi/di2 = Q/D2 are the diameters of the header and branch
i. Round to nearest standard size.
M. Insulation

1. For estimating insulation thickness:

Thickness = {3 +[(T - 100)]} Truncated / 2

Thickness – inches
T (Process Temperature) – ° F

2. Typical thermal conductivities for insulating materials

The first table below contains recommended insulation conductivities for insulating
materials. The second table contain conductivities for various materials.

2-19

For educational purposes only

 Representative Conductivities of Pipe Insulation (Btu/hr·ft·F)

Insulation temperature
100º F 200º F 300º F 400º F 500º F 600º F
38º C (93º C) (149º C) (204º C) (260º C) (316º C)

calcium 0.033 0.037 0.041 0.046 0.057 0.060

silicate

cellular glass 0.039 0.047 0.055 0.064 0.074 0.085

fiberglass 0.026 0.030 0.034

magnesia, 0.034 0.037 0.041 0.044

85%

Polyurethane 0.016 0.016 0.016

(Multiply Btu-ft/hr-ft 2 -º F by 12 to get Btu in/hr-ft 2 -º F.)

(Multiply Btu-ft/hr-ft 2 -º F by 1.7307 to get W / m·K.)
(Multiply Btu-ft/hr-ft 2 -º F by 4.1365 x 10-3 to get cal·cm/s·cm2 ·º C.)

Material Thermal Conductivity

Btu/hr- ft-°F
Asbestos-cement boards 0.43
Asbestos 0.090-0.129
Kaolin brick 0.15-0.26
Kaolin firebrick 0.050-0.113
Petroleum coke 3.4
Molded pipe covering 0.051
Mica 0.25
Aluminum 117
Iron 30
Steel 26

N. NGL Expander Plants

1. For thermosiphon reboiler and side reboiler designs for demethanizer columns, limit
the vaporization of the reboiled liquid stream to a maximum of about 35% by
volume. Attempting to vaporize more fluid may result in problems with
thermosiphon flow.

2-20

For educational purposes only

 2. For aluminum plate fin reboilers, methanol may tend to accumulate in the reboiler
and eventually log off the exchanger limiting thermosiphon flow. It can usually be
cleared if a drain is provided on the lower header of the exchanger.

O. Miscellaneous Plant Systems

1. Cooling Water Systems – For Preliminary design for cooling water systems, use a
cooling water temperature rise of 15 to 20° F through the heat exchangers. In most
cases a process stream temperature approach of 10 ° F to the cold water to the
exchanger is reasonable.

2. For Aluminum Plate Fin Core in Shell evaporator heat exchanger design use a 2 to
4 degree temperature approach to shell side evaporating fluid temperature. Use a
maximum evaporation of 25% of the thermosiphon circulated fluid in the
evaporator when preparing preliminary core specifications.

3. Wind Chill & Tw = 33-[(10.45+10 V ) (33-T)]/32

Heat Loss H = (10.45+10 V – V)(33-T)
Where: Tw = Wind chill temp. °C
T = actual temp.
V = wind speed in meters/sec.
H = heat loss in kcal/m2 -hr.

4. Heat Transfer From Pipes

2-21

For educational purposes only

 2-22

For educational purposes only

 5. Typical material emissivities for radiation heat transfer problems

Material Emissivity
Aluminum Polished 0.040
Oxidized 0.11-0.19
Iron Polished 0.14-0.38
Polished cast 0.21
New cast 0.435
Rusted 0.685
Steel Polished 0.52-0.56
Oxidized 0.79
Rough plate 0.94-0.97
Brick 0.93
Refractory Poor 0.65-0.75
Good 0.80-0.90
Paint Black matte 0.91
Black lacquer 0.80-0.95
White lacquer 0.80-0.95
Aluminum 0.27-0.67

2-23

For educational purposes only

 P. Method For Feasibility Study Sizing of Gas Plant Gas/Gas shell & Tube Heat
Exchanger:

1. From the process simulator output for the process, determine the required UA rate
for the gas/gas exchanger.
Assume U = 60 BTU/Hr Ft °F

A = UA = UA
U 60

Assume a 20 ft long exchanger with ¾” OD tubes on a 15 /16 ” triangular pitch.

Go to a Tube Count Table and read the number of tubes required for the Area A and
unit diameter and/or number of units.

You now have a feasibility estimate which includes:

1. Exchanger Area (Ft2 )

2. Number of ¾” tubes

3. Unit length, diameter, and number of units.

2-24

For educational purposes only

 Start

Surface
Yes
A>150 ft2

Q Recovery
No
@ T > 1000F
No
Q Removed
No
@ T> 140F Yes

Yes

Exotic
Yes
Alloy Q Recovery
Economical Yes
Yes

No

Close dT
T > 350F No
Approach Yes
P > 200 psi

No No

Vibration
Yes Low dP
No

Double RODBaffle Plate Plate- Air Heavy Duty

pipe Exchanger Baffle Frame Finned Finned
Exchanger Exchanger Exchanger Exchanger Surface

Figure 1
Heat Exchanger Selection

2-25

For educational purposes only

 Start

Relatively
Fouling Fluid Fouling
Clean
Service Characteristics
Service

Extent Low to
Viscosity
of Fouling Moderately
Heavy Low To
Moderately
High
Very
Very
Pressure High
Heavy
Area
Required
Less Than Greater Than
Atmospheric Atmospheric
Small To
Large
Moderate

Vertical
Kettle
Thermosyphon Kettle
Reboiler
Internal Reboiler
(Finned Tubes)
Horizontal Reboiler
Pump-Through Pump-Through
Thermosyphon Horizontal
Reboiler Pump-Through Reboiler
Vertical Thermosyphon
Reboiler
Kettle Thermosyphon
(Critical
Reboiler
Operations)
(Finned Tubes)

Figure 2
Reboiler Selection

2-26

For educational purposes only

 Start

Corrosive
High Yes
Pressure

No

Mechanical ShellSide
Yes Cleaning Tubeside No Condensation No
Coolant Required

Change Design
To Reduce Yes
Condensing dP
Very Allowable
Low Condensate dP

Allowable
Very
Med-High Condensing Low
Yes dP
Low
Medium
Use Large
Low Yes Diameter Shear
Tubes No Control
Temperature At Exit
(dP/P) > 0.1
Cross Yes
Large
Yes
Condensing
No
Range
Boiling
Bioling
Yes
Coolant
Coolant No
Yes
No
No No

Internal/ Large
Large Yes Subcooling
Yes No Kettle
Subcooling
Reboiler Yes
Yes No
No

Shellside Condensers Tubeside Condensers

Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal
Horizontal Vertical Vetical Downflow
J Shell RODBaffle Single Pass
E Shell E Shell Single Pass
RODBaffle J Shell or U Tube

Figure 3
Condenser Selection

2-27

For educational purposes only

 HEAT TRANSFER REFERENCES

Kern, D. Q., Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1950

Tabork, J. et. al, Heat Exchangers, Theory & Practice, McGraw-Hill, 1981

Phillips Eng. Std. 10.44-2, Shell & Tube Process Design Criteria

Phillips Eng. Std. 10-44-3, Reboiler Characteristics & Selection

Phillips Eng. Std. 15.18-4, Shell & Tube Mechanical Design Criteria

Phillips Eng. Std. 15.18-5, RODbaffle Heat Exchanger Specifications

Phillips Engineering Standard 15.18-2, Air Cooled Heat Exchanger Mechanical Design Criteria

Phillips Engineering Standard 25.04-85, General Design, shell and Tube Heat Exchangers,
Mechanical Fabrication Requirements

Phillips Engineering Standard 25.04-89, Heater-Fired-Mechanical Design Specifications

Perry, R. H., Chemical Engineers Handbook, Section 11, 4th Ed. 1963

HTRI Design Manuals, Vol. I & II.

Premises for Design & Specification of Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers, 1992

Gas Processors Suppliers Association Engineering Data Book, Tenth Edition, 1987; Volume I,
Sections 8, 9, & 10

Standards of the Tabular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Seventh Edition, 1988

API Standard 660, Fifth Edition (to be issued in 1993), Shell- And-Tube Head Exchanger for
General Refinery Services

API Standard 661, Third Edition, April 1992, Air-Cooled Heat Exchanger for General Refinery
Services

“Quick Calculation of Cooling Tower Blowdown and Makeup”, Chemical Engineering, July 7,
1975, pg 110

“Designing a Near Optimum Cooling- Water System”, Chemical Engineering, April 21, 1980-
pg 118-125)

“Guidelines on Fluid Flow systems”, Hydrocarbon Processing, April, 1990. Pg 47-60

2-28

For educational purposes only

 HEAT TRANSFER REFERENCES (CONTINUED)

The Randall Corporation process group used this method for preliminary estimates and reports
close match to their final design

“Organic Fluids for High Temperature Heat-Transfer Systems” W. F. Seifert, and L. L. Jackson,
Chemical Engineering, October 30, 1972, pg 95-104

2-29

For educational purposes only

For educational purposes only
 3 TREATING

A. Dehydration

1. Dehydrate gas to 60% of the saturation water content at the conditions of lowest
saturation.

Sulfur Recovery Units

A. Thermal zone will produce 55-65% of the sulfur and is a function of the H2 S
content of the feed. Catalytic region makes the rest.

B. If the acid gas feed is less than 30% H2 S then flame stability in the reaction
furnace is a potential problem. Minimum temperature for effective operation is
1700° F.

C. Temperature in catalyst beds should be kept below 800° F.

D. SRU steam production will be approximately 6700 lbs of steam per long ton of
sulfur produced.

E. Glossy carbon deposits on catalyst indicates amine carryover.

F. Sulfur fog is caused by too much cooling capacity. Sulfur mist can be caused by
excessive velocity in the condenser.

G. Ferrules should extend at least 6” inside the tubesheet. Refractory lining is

usually 2 12 - 3" thick on the tubesheet.

H. Mass velocity in waste heat exchanger and sulfur condenser tubes should be 2-6
lbs/sec-ft2 .

I. Space velocity through catalyst beds should be 700-1000 SCFH of gas per cubic
foot of catalyst. Lean streams, lower value and rich streams, higher value.

J. Sulfation of catalyst caused by SO3 . Oxygen combines with SO2 to form SO3
which is chemisorbed on alumina surface.

K. Velocity in process piping should not exceed 100 ft/sec.

L. Liquid sulfur solidifies at 246° F and becomes very viscous above 320-350° F

M. Approximate Stack Gas Flow, scfm:

SGF = (Sulfur Production, LT/D) x (100)

2. Glycol Dehydration

3-1

For educational purposes only

 a. TEG – Dew point depression ranges 80-140° F. Degree of dehydration which can
be obtained depends on amount of water removed from glycol in the reboiler &
circulation rate. Minimum circulation rate to assure good glycol gas contact is
approx. 2 gal. glycol for each pound of water to be removed. Max is ≈ 7 gal. and
standard is ≈ 3 gal.

b. Stripping Gas-Approx. 3-8 scf/gas of glycol circ.

c. Glycol will absorb ≈ 1 scf of gas/gallon of glycol. Glycol contactor – For best
scrubbing of overhead gas install “Mist Pad” on the face of “Vane Type” mist
extractor.

d. Estimate total reboiler duty from 2000 BTU/US gal of TEG circulation rate. Note
that the use of glycol/glycol heat exchangers will reduce the total reboiler duty.

e. Estimate glycol loss from 0.1 gal TEG/MMSCF.

f. Packing-Minimum of 4’ in any gas-glycol contactor.

g. Triethylene Glycol Dehydration Unit-Maximum recommended heat flux for a

direct fired TEG regenerator is 8000 BTU/square foot of fire tube surface area.
The recommended heat flux for maximum fire tube life is 6000 BTU/ft2 .

3. Trouble shooting

Black, viscous solution indicates that heavy hydrocarbons have been carried over
with the gas. Sweet, burnt sugar smell accompanied by low pH and a dark, clear
solution signals that thermal degradation is occurring.
B. Amine Treating

1. Amine Circulation: 3 cu.ft acid gas/gal amine

Reboiler Steam Rate: ≈ 1.2 lbs steam/gal amine
MEA gpm = 41.0 * Q*X/Z
DEA gpm = 45.0 * Q*X/Z (conventional)
DEA gpm = 32.0 * Q*X/Z (high load)
Where Q = Gas, MMscfd
X = Acid Gas, volume percent
Z = Amine Concentration, wt.%

2. Max acid gas pickup not more than 0.35 mols/mol of MEA. Normal value around
0.3.

3. Amine treating processes tend to be troubled by the same problems regardless of the
type amine used.

3-2

For educational purposes only

 4. Typical MEA losses due to entrainment:
Absorber: 1.0 #/mmscf
Still: 2.5 #/mmscf

5. Flow Velocity – Rich Stream: Not to Exceed 5 fps

Lean Stream: Not to Exceed 7 fps

6. Filter Beds: Recommended flow rate through carbon bed

4 gpm/ft2 (cross sectional area)
≈ 20 minutes superficial contact time

7. Loadings: .36 mols CO2/mol MEA [absorber RICH]

.12 mols C02/mol MEA [still LEAN]

8. Reflux Ratio: MEA & DEA 1.5 to 3.0

[mols H20/mols acid gas leaving reflux drum]

9. Equivalent Steam Rate:

MEA 0.9 to 1.2 lbs steam/gal amine
DEA 0.8 to 1.1 lbs steam/gal amine

10. Lean amine can contain 0.05 to 0.08 mols total acid gas and still meet specs.

11. CO2 and H2S gases appreciably increase total water content and dehydration
requirements of gas streams.

12. Recommended maximum ranges for amine strength and acid gas loadings that have
proven historically to adequately address corrosion concerns are:

Amine Wt% Rich Loading, M/M

MEA 15 - 20 0.30 – 0.35
DEA 25 – 30 0.35 – 0.40
MDEA 50 – 55 0.45 – 0.50

13. Recommended loading in the lean circuit to minimize acid gas flashing are:

Amine * Total Lean Loading, M/M

MEA 0.10 – 0.15
DEA 0.05 – 0.07
MDEA 0.004 – 0.010

* These loadings should be easily achieved with a 1.0-2.0 M/M stripper reflux ratio.

14. Recommended Minimum Water Quality Standards for Make- up Water fo r Amine
Plants:

3-3

For educational purposes only

 Total Dissolved Solids <100 ppm
Total Hardness <3 grains/gal
Chlorides <2 ppm
Sodium <3 ppm
Potassium <3 ppm
Iron <10 ppm

15. Liquid/Liquid Contactors: (Feasibility Sizing Data)

For rough diameter sizing of liquid/liquid contactors fo r amine treating of light

hydrocarbon liquids, use 12 to 15 GPM of hydrocarbon per square foot of packed
tower cross section area. This should correspond to approximately 10% of flooding
velocity.

For hydrocarbon distributor nozzles for liquid/liquid contactors, use an orifice

velocity of approximately 1 ft/sec. Higher velocities than this can lead to emulsion
problems. Velocities lower than 0.5 ft/sec can result in NGL being entrained in the
sour amine stream.

To estimate height of packing required, assume 6 to 8 ft of packing for each

theoretical separation stage.

Mercaptan Removal from Gas

MEA & DEA will remove approx.:

40-55 mol% methylmercaptan
20-25 mol% ethylmercaptan
0 –10 mol% propylmercaptan

Regenerative Caustic process will remove mercaptans down to <10 ppm.

Activated Carbon, Calgon FCA, will remove 4-5 wt% mercaptans.

C. Mol Sieve Treating

1. Bed Design (Length/Diameter)

Minimum Maximum
Liquid L/D 3:1 5:1
Gas L/D 2:1 4:1

2. Max. Gas Velocity: 0.33 to 0.75 ft/sec

(superficial linear velocity)

3. Max. Liquid Velocity: 50 bbls/hr/ft 2 (bed area)

Dehy-ALCOA: 30 gpm/ft 2 ( ≈ 43 bbl/hr/ft 2 )

3-4

For educational purposes only

 4. Min. Velocity: Liquid: 60 sec contact time, or
0.01 psi/ft ∆ p (liquid).
Gas: 3.5 sec (gas)

5. Mol Sieve – Draining bed leaves approx. 25 vol% of total bed volume on bed as
sponged liquid.

6. Alumina – Draining bed leaves approx. 0.048 gals. per pound of alumina on bed as
sponged liquid.

7. Molecular Sieve Dehydrators – As strictly a rule of thumb based on many Phillips

designs, when the pressure drop through a mol sieve bed reaches 20 psi, the bed
support is nearing its maximum load capacity and action should be taken to reduce
the pressure drop.
D. Corrosion

1. C02 Corrosion: Low Corrosion – Pco2 < 7 psia

Possible High Corrosion - Pco2 ≈ 7-15 psia
High Corrosion – Pco2 > 15 psia
Where: Pco2 = Partial Pressure of C02

2. Corrosion rate directly related to temperature.

E. Copper Strip

Copper Strip Test ASTM 5.05 D1838

No. 1A copper strip normally < 1-2 ppm H2S.
H2S corrosive to copper strip ≈ 1ppm or .16 gr/100 scf. Copper
Strip will not detect Mercaptan or other Organic Sulfides.
F. Conversion Factors

H2S & C02 factors

1 mol% H2S = 630 grains/100 scf
1 mol% C02 = 813 grains/100 scf
Grains of H2S/100 scf x 1.591 x 10 = Mol% H2S
1 MMscf H2S = 37.6 long tons sulfur
1 grain H2S/100 scf = 17.1 ppmw = 22.8 mg/m
1 grain H2S/100 scf = 15.9 ppmv
1 grain C02/100 scf = 12.3 ppmv
H2S ppmw = [gr. H2S/100 scf] x [542/(mol wt gas)]
G. Caustic Washer Design

Vertical washers sized by using a factor of 400-500 gal/hr/sq.ft. of cross-sectional area of

empty tower. In the tower, 5-7 ft. of raschig rings equal 1 stage.
H. Metallurgy Requirements For Amine Treaters

3-5

For educational purposes only

 1. Vessels

a. Amine contactor, flash tank, stripper, surge tank, accumulator, inlet scrubber, and
outlet scrubber shall be carbon steel and stress relieved with corrosion allowances
as shown in 1.C.

b. Trays for the contractor and stripper should be 304 stainless.

c. Corrosion Allowances for MEA and DEA Systems

C02 /H2 S<20 C02 /H2 S>20

Inches Inches
Inlet Scrubber 1/8 1/8
Amine Contactor 1/8 1/8
Outlet Scrubber 1/16 1/16
Flash Tank 1/8 1/8
Cross Exchanger 1/8 1/8
Amine Stripper 3/16 3/16
Reflux accumulator 1/8 1/4
Reboiler 1/8 1/8
Reclaimer 1/4 1/4
Surge Tank 0 0
Piping 1/16 1/16
Amine Cooler* 1/8 1/8
Stripper Overhead Condenser* 1/8 1/4

*Corrosion allowance applies to shell side exchangers with water cooling in the
tubes.

2. Heat Exchangers

a. Shells – carbon steel and stress relieved

b. Tubes – 12 gauge minimum, carbon steel, seamless
c. Reclaimer element – carbon steel, 2- inch schedule 80 tubes. Amine temperature
in reclaimer should not exceed 310° F.
d. Temperature of amine in reboiler should not exceed 250° F.
e. U-bends of U-tube carbon steel bundles shall be stress relieved.

3. Pumps

a. The amine circulation and stripper reflux pumps shall be carbon steel with 316
stainless trim.

4. Piping

3-6

For educational purposes only

 a. Piping should be carbon steel. The weld and heat affected zone of piping
containing H2 S and H2 0, with or without amine, shall have hardness no greater
than Brinnell hardness number 235.
b. Velocities in the rich and lean solution piping should be limited to 2-3 ft/sec. for
MEA solution, and to 7 ft/sec. for DEA solution.
c. Piping from the letdown valve to the flash tank and from the letdown valve to the
stripper should be 304 stainless with the letdown valves of 316 stainless.

5. An inert gas blanket should be maintained on the fresh amine storage and amine surge
to prevent oxygen contact with the amine.

6. No copper-bearing materials such as Admiralty, Monel, etc., should be used

anywhere in amine units.

When the C0 2 /H2 S ratio is greater than 20, the following exceptions to the above
requirements should be used.

7. The exchanger tubes in the reboiler, stripper overhead condenser, lean-rich cross
exchanger, and amine cooler should be 304 stainless. Those exchangers with water in
the 304 stainless tubes should have a minimum water flowrate of 5 ft/sec. Limit
amine velocity in tubes to 5 ft/sec.

8. The stripper vessel head and shell down through the top 3 trays should be 304
stainless clad or solid 304 stainless.

9. The stripper overhead piping from the stripper to the accumulator should be 304
stainless. The reflux piping from the accumulator back to the stripper can be either
thin wall 304 stainless or carbon steel with 1/16” corrosion allowance.

10. The vapor line from the reboiler to the stripper should be 304 stainless.
I. H2S Gas Toxicity

ppm gr./100scf
10 0.65 Can smell. Safe for 12 hr. exp.
100 6.48 Kills sense of smell in 2-15 min.
200 12.96 Kills sense of smell quickly. Stings eyes & throat.
500 32.96 Loses sense of reasoning & balance
Respiratory paralysis in 30-40 min
700 45.36 Breathing will stop & death result if not rescued promptly. Immed.
artificial resuscitation.
1000 64.80 Unconscious at once. Permanent brain damage or death may result
unless rescued promptly.
J. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Plants

Feed gas to LNG plants should be treated to provide a maximum CO2 content in feed gas
to liquefaction unit of 100 ppmv.

3-7

For educational purposes only

 K. Gas Treating Iron Sponge

H2S Removal: W = 1.43*GQ = .09*PQ

Where: W = H2S removal lbs/day
G = H2S gr/100 scf inlet
P = H2S ppmv
Q = MMscfd
L. Distribution of Sulfur Compounds in NGL Product

1. H2 S will be concentrated mainly in the C3 and lighter.

2. COS will be concentrated mainly in the C3 streams.

3. CH3 SH will primarily be split between the C3 and C4 streams.

4. CH3 CH2 SH will be concentrated mainly in the C4 and heavier streams.

A. LNG Process – Aluminum Platefin Mercury Corrosion:

1. Any natural gas stream used for feed to a gas liquefaction plant will likely
contain measurable amounts of mercury.

2. Elemental mercury amalgamates (forms an alloy) with the surface layer of the
aluminum being corroded.

3. It is probable that liquid water must be present for the corrosion or attack to
occur. It follows that the temperature of the system must be above 32° F for
the corrosion to take place.

4. Most probable time for mercury corrosion to occur is during deriming or

defrost periods (or possibly unscheduled shutdown for extended time periods)
when free water is likely to be present. It follows that the most likely time for
mercury corrosion induced equipment failure is during start-up immediately
after a planned or extended emergency shutdown.

5. It is not known at what levels of mercury in the inlet gas problems may occur.
However, it is likely most of the mercury entering with the feed in a cryogenic
LNG plant with no liquid draws will remain within the plant equipment until
defrost. A number of studies associated with the Skikda failure have
suggested a threshold mercury content of 0.01 micrograms/Nm3 which should
not be exceeded at the inlet to the cryogenic plant.

6. Mercury can exist in the feed gas co-currently with H2 S as evidenced from an
LNG plant feed gas in Sumatra, Indonesia which contains 200 to 330
micrograms/Nm3 mercury and 60 to 70 ppm of H2 S.

3-8

For educational purposes only

 7. Mercury is more soluble in heavier liquid hydrocarbons than the lighter
hydrocarbons. (For instance solubility of mercury in propane is about ½ the
solubility in hexane). Mercury in an LNG plant should concentrate in the
heavier liquid phases such as a hydrocarbon draws for heavies removal or
fractionation.

8. There is more risk of mercury induced failure on the cycle gas (refrigerant)
side of the exchangers, and more risk in general with a mixed refrigerant plant
than a cascade cycle since a cascade system uses no refrigerant heavier than
propane. (This assumes refrigerants are derived from the mercury
contaminated feed gas).

9. If stress is present in the parent aluminum (such as at weldments), cracking

will also occur accelerating the corrosion.

10. The pipeline system feeding the LNG plant is an excellent trap as mercury
tends to be absorbed by the pipe metal. The initial mercury front progress
towards the plant slowly until pipeline saturation is reached. This is a good
reason to test the plant feed gas at least annually.

B. Treating Systems:
Mercury Removal with sulfur Impregnated Ca rbon:

Following are Vendor provided design rules of thumb for mercury removal beds:

1. Design for minimum gas/carbon contact time of 10 seconds.

2. Design for a maximum superficial velocity of 50 ft/min.

3. Maximum temperature is 150° F. Above this the sulfur impregnate is boiled off.

4. C02 and other sulfur compounds do not effect the beds performance.

5. Water vapor or free water present in the gas stream being treated will reduce the
mercury removal capacity of the beds as much as 75%.

6. Liquid hydrocarbons will rapidly deplete the bed mercury removal capacity as the
liquids dissolve the sulfur impregnated on the carbon.

7. L/D (actual carbon bed height to vessel diameter) ratios of 1.0 to 1.5 are preferred
for charcoal beds to prevent channeling. Minimum acceptable L/D is about 0.6.

8. Mercury removal efficiency is better for dry gas than for water saturated gas.

9. Mercury removal efficiency is better for lower feed gas temperatures.

3-9

For educational purposes only

 10. Maximum attainable mercury removal efficiency is not effected by inlet mercury
content or inlet gas pressure.

11. Can be designed to remove feed gas mercury down to less than 1 nanogram/Nm3
(0.001 microgram/Nm3 ).

12. Vendors report that bed capacity is not affected if the bed becomes saturated with
gas phase heavy end hydrocarbons (as long as no free liquid is allowed to contact
the bed). In fact vendors often presaturate the beds with hydrocarbons for
ethylene service to prevent high temperatures resulting from initial adsorption in
beds at start- up.

13. Removal mechanism is as follows: elemental mercury physically adsorbs onto

the activated carbon surface inside the pores of the carbon. Then the mercury
chemically reacts with the sulfur impregnate to form mercuric sulfide. For
organic mercury compounds; Vendor 1: the systems function similarly except the
mercury compounds much break down to elemental mercury and organic
compounds first. Vendor 2: the organic mercury compounds are physically
absorbed on the carbon. This organic mercury criteria sets the minimum 10
second contact time.

3-10

For educational purposes only

 TREATING REFERENCES

GPSA Engineering Data Book – Tenth Edition 1987

Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol. 4, Gas and Liquid Sweetening, Campbell Petroleum
Series, 1982

Chemical Engineer’s Handbook, Perry & Chilton, Fifth Edition

Gas Purification, Kohl & Riesenfeld, Fourth Edition 1985 Gulf Publishing Company

Acid and Sour Gas Treating Processes, 1985, Gulf Publishing

Gas Conditioning Conference Proceedings, 1954-1992

Linde Molecular Sieves, Union Carbide

Gas Treating, Gas/SPEC Dow

Corporate Engineering Process, Gas Section Reference, Files,

GR1020, GR1180, GR1559, GR1800, GR1802, GR1820, GR1870, GR7047

Sulfur Recovery, Paskall & Sames, 1988, Western Research

Oil & Gas Journal, Dec 1, 1980, pg 135-138 “Liquid – Liquid contractors need careful attention”

“Considerations For Mercury in LNG Operations” by W. W. Bodie, A. Attari – Institute of Gas

Technology R. Serauskas – Gas Developments Corporation

“Mercury-LNG’s Problems” – by J. E. Leeper – Hyrocarbon Processing – November, 1980

“Causes and Remedies of The Corrosion of Cryogenic Exchangers By Mercury” by Tewfik

Hasni – February, 1978

Phillips Metallurgist – Hisham Hashim

Calgon – HGR Sulfur Impregnated Activated Carbon

Pinion (Alcoa/NUCON) – Mersorb Activated Carbon Adsorbent

3-11

For educational purposes only

For educational purposes only
 4 FLUID FLOW
A. Misc.

1. Absolute pressure of atmosphere at height ‘H’ above sea level:

P = P1 (1-0.00000687H)n n = 5.256
Where: P1 = pressure at sea level, psia

Density: W = W1(1-0.00000687H)n n = 4.256

Where: W1 = density of air at sea level

P = e[2.6876 – 0.0000368 (H)] psia

Where H is height, ft above sea level
Borger- 13.2 psia: Woods Cross- 12.4 psia

2. Acoustic Velocity Va = 80.53 √ (P/ρ)

where: P = psia
ρ = density lb/ft3
Va = ft/sec

For perfect gas:

Va = √ (gc*k*R*T/M) Where: gc = 32/17
k = Cp/Cv
R = 1546
T = °R
M = mol wt.

3. Vortex Breaker

Vortex Breaker is needed if flow is greater than 1.9 ft/sec.

B. NGL Expander Plants

1. Flowrate through an expander can generally be controlled from 0 to 150% of the

design value. Expanders adiabatic efficiency will generally be within 4 percentage
points of the design between 75 and 125% of design flowrate. (#/hr)

2. Preliminary Piping Sizing

For preliminary liquid piping sizing, the following table may be used as a guide:

Liquid Service Pressure Drop Velocity

4-1

For educational purposes only

 (Psi/100 FT) (FT/Sec)
Pump Suction 0.4 2.0 – 4.0
Pump Discharge 1.5 – 3.0 7.0 - 10.0
To Reboiler --- 3.0 – 5.0
Gravity Flow 0.4 ---
Water --- 2.5 – 9.0 **
High Viscosity to 200 CP
Pump Suction 0.5 – 1.0 0.25 – 0.5
Pump Discharge 10.0 – 1.0 1.0 – 1.5
** Water with high CO2 , seawater, etc requires lower maximum velocities, linings, or
special material.

For preliminary vapor piping sizing, the following table may be used as a guide.
Vapor Pressure Drop Velocity Total Allowable
Service (PSI/100 FT) (FT/Sec) Pressure Drop (PSI)
Tower 0.5 --- 1.0
Overhead
On Plot 0.5 --- ---
Gas
Comp. 0.3 5-150 1.5
Suct
Comp. 0.5 1y00 4.0
Disc
Steam --- 100 4.0

C. Piping

1. Initial maximum fluid velocities for line sizing:

Most liquids: 10 ft/s
All vapors: 50 ft/s
Raw sea water: 11.5 ft/s (CuNi piping)
Gravity drains 1.5 ft/s
Steam condensate 1.0 ft/s

2. Fluid velocity for vapor and two-phase flows should not exceed the erosional
velocity. Estimate erosional velocity from Ve = 100/√ρ where Ve = erosional velocity
in ft/s and ρ = fluid density in lb/ft 3 .

Limiting Velocities – Liquids: (Another source)

Normal limiting velocities (highest normal design velocities) in process lines are
given by the following formula:
100
V=
ρ
Where: V is limiting design velocity in ft/sec

4-2

For educational purposes only

 ρ is density in lb/ft3 at system T&P

Erosion velocity (velocity at which erosion of process line is expected) for clear
liquids is given by the following formula:

150
V e=
ρ
Where: Ve is the erosion velocity in ft/sec
ρ is density in lb/ft3 at system T&P

3. Compressible gases (i.e. HC, air, steam) can be treated as incompressible when the
pressure loss for the segment in question is less than 10% of the inlet pressure.

Maximum Operable Velocities:

When rating existing liquid and/or gas piping systems, it is sometimes desirable to
determine the limiting fluid velocity for the system. This may be estimated as
follows:

a. For liquids:

48
Limiting velocity u m =
ρ

Where; um = limiting velocity, ft/sec

ρ = density, lb/ft3 at system T&P

For erosive or corrosive liquids = 0.5 x um

b. For gases:
kZT 2
Turbulent flow average limiting velocity u m = 148.7 ( /3 sonic velocity)
m
Where; um = Average limiting velocity, ft/sec
K = specific heat ratio
Z = Compressibility factor
T = temperature, °R
m = Molecular Weight lb/lb mol
For erosive or corrosive gases = 0.5 x um

Note: Economic factors such as pressure loss usually necessitate operating at

lower than limiting velocity.
4. Friction Factor – Project Life:

Piping friction factor increases with operating time. As a result, the piping head loss
nearly doubles in:

4-3

For educational purposes only

 a. 25 to 30 years for clean gases and light hydrocarbons.

b. 15 to 25 years for most middle distillates.

b. 10 to 15 years for residues.

While sizing pipelines and pumping facilities, this aspect should be duly
considered.

5. Piping Noise:

Liquid velocities above 20 to 30 ft/sec can cause noise. As a rule, a velocity head less
than 1.3 psi avoids excessive noise.
D. Physical Fan Laws

1. The following relations are characteristic of fans operating in a given system with
constant air density:

a. With constant fan size and varying fan speed:

(1) Volume (CFM) varies directly as the fan speed.

CFM 2 RPM 2
=
CFM 1 RPM 1

(2) Static Pressure Varies directly as the square of the RPM.

2
SP 2  RPM 2 
= 
SP1  RPM 1 

3) Horsepower absorbed by the fan varies directly as the cube of the fan speed.

3
HP 2  RPM 2 
= 
HP 1  RPM 1 

b. With varying fan sizes at the same speed:

(1) Volume (CFM) varies directly as the cube of the fan speed.

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For educational purposes only

 3
CFM 2  DIA 2 
= 
CFM 1  DIA 1 

(2) Static Pressure Varies directly as the square of the fan speed

2
SP 2  DIA 2 
= 
SP1  DIA 1 

(3) Horsepower absorbed by the fan varies directly as the fifth power of size.

5
HP 2  DIA 2 
= 
HP 1  DIA 1 

2. The following relations are characteristic of a fan of a given size delivering a constant
mass of air of varying density. (Density varies directly as absolute temperature and
inversely as the atmospheric pressure.):

a. Volume, fan speed, and total pressure vary inversely as the density.
b. Horsepower absorbed by the fan varies inversely as the square of the density.

3. Fan Horsepower varies directly as the product of the volume (ACFM) and the total
pressure (inches W.G.) divided by the constant 6370 times the total aerodynamic
efficiency.

Actual Fan Horsepower = ACFM x Total Pressure

6370 X Total Aerodynamic Efficiency

E. Control Valves

1. Pumped Circuit
Allocating Pressure Drops to Control Valves:

In a pumped circuit, the pressure drop allocated to the control valve should be 33% of
all other friction losses in the system at pump rated flow (exclusive of the valve
pressure drop itself) or 15 psi whichever is greater.

Valid for < 750 GPM & < 150 psi pump delta p
Valid for > 300 GPM & 150 to 275 psi pump delta p

If outside these ranges, pressure drop allocated may be 25% of system dynamic losses
at pump rated head, or 15 psi whichever is greater.

In both cases above, use no more than 90% of valve's Cv .

4-5

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 2. Compressor discharge and suction lines

The pressure drop allocated to a control valve in the suction or discharge line of a
centrifugal compressor should be 5% of the suction absolute pressure, or 50% of the
system dynamic losses (exclusive of the control valve) at the compressor rated point,
whichever is larger. Also, no more than 90% of the valve Cv should be used.

3. Pressure motivated systems

In a system where tank pressure moves liquid from one vessel to another, the pressure
drop should be 10% of the lower terminal vessel pressure, or 50% of the system
dynamic losses, whichever is greater.

The above rule also applies to vapor, but in addition, the assigned Delta P should not
exceed 42% of the upstream pressure to avoid critical flow problems through the
valve.

4. Steam and flashing water

Valves in steam lines to turbines, reboilers, and process vessels, should be allocated
10% of the design absolute pressure of the system or 5 psi, whichever is greater. The
valve should be sized for twice the normal flow rate since steam usage rates can vary
widely, especially during start-up.

For valves handling a flashing mixture, the allocated pressure drop should be equal to
0.9 times the difference in between the absolute inlet pressure and the absolute
saturation pressure if flowing temperature is more than 5° F below the saturation
temperature. If less than 5° F below the saturation temperature, the pressure drop
should not be greater than 0.06 times the absolute inlet pressure.
F. Two Phase Flow:

For the seven types of two phase flow patterns in pipes, some guidelines on liquid and
vapor superficial velocities (LSV and GSV respectively) which can be used to make
initial predictions on the type of flow pattern are given below.

1. Horizontal Pipes:
a. In DISPERSED FLOW PATTERN, nearly all the liquid is entrained as spray by
the gas. This occurs at GSV > 200 ft/sec.
b. In ANNULAR FLOW PATTERN, liquid forms a film around the inside wall of
pipe and gas flows at a high velocity as a central core. This occurs at GSV > 20
ft.sec.
c. In BUBBLE FLOW PATTERN, bubbles of gas move along at about the same
velocity as the liquid. This occurs at LSV of 5 to 15 ft/sec, and GSV of 1 to 10
ft/sec.

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 d. In STRATIFIED FLOW PATTERN, liquid flows along the bottom of the pipe
and gas flows over the smooth liquid gas interface. This normally occurs for
LSV< 0.5 ft/sec, and GSV of 2 to 10 ft/sec.
e. In WAVE FLOW PATTERN, the interface is disturbed by waves moving in the
direction of flow; otherwise it is similar to stratified flow pattern. This occurs for
LSV < 1 ft/sec and GSV of about 15 ft/sec.
f. In SLUG FLOW PATTERN, waves are picked up periodically in the gas stream
and form a slug which moves at much greater velocity than average liquid
velocity. Slugs can cause severe vibration due to impact on fittings such as return
bends.
g. In PLUG FLOW PATTERN, alternate plugs of liquid and gas move along the
pipe. This occurs at LSV < 2 ft/sec and GSV < 3 ft/sec.

2. Upflow Vertical Pipes:

a. For dispersed flow, GSV > 70 ft/sec.

b. For annular flow, LSV < 2 ft/sec. and GSV > 30 ft/sec.
c. For bubble flow, GSV < 2 ft/sec.
d. Stratified flow does not occur.
e. For wave flow, the SV’s are unpredictable.
f. For slug flow, GSV = 2 to 30 ft/sec.
g. For plug flow, GSV = 2 to 30 ft/sec.

4-7

For educational purposes only

 FLUID FLOW REFERENCES

Flow of Fluids Through Values, Fittings, and Pipe, Crane, Technical Paper No. 410

E&P General Design Specifications Section VI. B. Piping

Hartzell Fan Engineering Data, Bulletin A-108-E, Hartzell Fan Inc. Pigua, OH 45356

“Allocating Pressure Drops to Control Valves” Instrumentation Technology, pg 102-

105, 10/1970

“Preliminary Pipeline Sizing,” Chemical Engineering, September 25, 1978, pg 119-

120

“Guidelines on Fluid Flow systems,” Hydrocarbon Processing, April, 1990, pg 47-60

Bechtel Process Engineering methods for limiting and erosion liquid velocity

4-8

For educational purposes only

 5 FRACTIONATION

A. Minor Components Non Ideal In Hydrocarbons

1. CO2 Behaves with volatility between methane and ethane. If 1% in gas, be

sure to check for solidification in NGL expander plant process.

2. H2 O Behaves with volatility similar to ethane but causes hydrates with light
hydrocarbons and CO2 .

3. H2 S Behaves with volatility similar to propane. Can be removed from liquids

by partial depropanization.

4. Methanol Behaves with a volatility similar to propane. Used to inhibit hydrates in

wet gas. Excess dissolves in water. In propane refrigeration systems,
collects as a separate phase in bottom of the chiller and must be drained
out.

5. Ethyl Behaves with a volatility less than propane. Used as stench for odorizing
Mercaptan commercial propane. In propane refrigeration systems, collects with the
oil in the propane chiller and is removed with the oil.
B. Columns

1. Rules of Thumb on Sequence

a. Get rid of troublesome components first. N2 , H2, H2S, CO2 , H2O.
b. Take successive cuts, lightest to heaviest.
c. Do easy separations first, i.e., where KLt key/KHv key is greatest.
d. Try to get ½ distillate. (Mole basis)
e. Take a finished product as distillate.

2. All light hydrocarbon distillation columns should be controlled with floating pressure.

3. Heuristic for distillation: In a multicomponent mixture, it is usually best to remo ve

components one at a time beginning with the lightest.

4. Heuristic for separations: The next separation in a sequence is the one that can be
done the cheapest.

5. In large diameter (greater than 2 feet) packed distillation columns, liquid distribution
is the key element to separation efficiency.

6. Do not design a process based on an UNCONVERGED simulation!

7. For optimum economy, in terms of minimum column diameter and maximum tray
efficiency, distillation columns should be designed with 5 to 10 percent entrainment.

5-1

For educational purposes only

 8. Practical limits for packed columns

a. 30 gpm/ft2 liquid rate maximum

b. 3 gpm/ft2 liquid rate minimum
(These can be extended by proper distributor design)

9. A quick estimate of the number of trays for a given separation – double the minimum
number of stages obtained from the Fenske equation:

 Dl 
 Bl 
Log  
D
 hB 
N min =  h 

Logα

Where D1 = Mole fraction of light key in distillate

Dh = Mole fraction of heavy key in distillate
B1 = Mole fraction of light key in bottoms
Bh = Mole fraction heavy key in bottoms
α = Relative volatility, light key/heavy key

The minimum reflux ratio can be calculated by the following equation, if there are no
divided keys, i.e., no components whose volatilities lie between the light and heavy
keys. Multiply the minimum reflux ratio by 1.3 to correspond to double the minimum
stages.

1  D 1 α (1 − D1 ) 
R min = −
α − 1  F 1 (1 − F 1) 

Where F1 = Mole fraction light key in Feed

If divided keys are present, it is probably easier to run a rigorous simulation than to
solve the short cut equations by hand.

10. Sizing reflux accumulators:

Generally accumulators are sized based on liquid holdup time from normal liquid
level to low liquid level, where NLL is approximately the center of the vessel.
Holdup time of 8 to 10 minutes is generally acceptable, based on total overhead
condensed. Low liquid level should be 8 to 12 inches above the bottom of the vessel
or the height of the vortex breaker, if one is present. Generally reflux accumulators
should be 2 feet or greater in diameter.

5-2

For educational purposes only

 For a column with a partial condenser, sufficient vapor space must be left above high
level for vapor/liquid separation. This can be roughly estimated for light hydrocarbon
systems as:

Area vapor, req’d (ft 2 ) = (Vapor flow rate, ft3 /sec) /0.7

This vapor cross sectional area should be added to the total cross sectional area of the
vessel to obtain the diameter. Even if the condenser is a total condenser, the high
liquid level should be 6 to 8 inches below the top of the vessel.

11. Estimating column diameter (low pressure columns only).

The active area of a trayed column can be fairly accurately estimated. The
downcomer areas can also be reasonable estimated. (Downcomer area should never
be less than 5% of the total area of the column.) Therefore a rough estimate of the
diameter can be readily obtained.

W
Area active =
1.6 ρ v

DCarea (sq.ft.) = Liquid rate (gpm) / 175

Tower area = AreaActive + DCarea

Where W = Vapor rate, lb/sec

ρv = Vapor density, lb/ft3

12. Fractionation: Reflux to Feed Ratio 40 Tray – 0.55 mol/mol

30 Tray – 0.7 mol/mol

13. Estimating Tray Efficiency

The graph below can be used for rough estimates of tray efficiency. Use with
Caution.

5-3

For educational purposes only

 5-4

For educational purposes only

 FRACTIONATION REFERENCES

FRI Fractionation Tray Design Handbook, Vol 1, 2, & 5

PPCo Data Input Guide for Program 6180

H. L. Walker: Factors to be considered in the Design of Fractionation Equipment.

PPCo. 1980.

O’Connell, H. E.: Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 42, 741 (1946)

5-5

For educational purposes only

For educational purposes only
 6 COMBUSTION

A. Flare
1. Flare tip velocities

Open pipe flare: 0.5 MACH emergency flaring

0.2 MACH continuous flaring
Proprietary flare tips: 0.5 – 0.7 MACH (max)

2. Limit flare piping velocities to 0.7 MACH in laterals and to 0.5 MACH in headers.
3. Flare stacks and headers must be continuously purged.

4. Flare tips shall be provided with gas seals to reduce purge gas requirements.

5. Sound level from flare tip shall not exceed 100db for 15 minutes.

6. Limit flare radiation to adjacent flares and other equipment to 1,500 BTU/Hr/Sq.Ft.

7. Flare pilots shall be monitored.

8. At all times headers shall maintain a positive pressure.

9. No relief/depressurizing streams containing oxygen shall be tied into flare header.

10. Laterals and headers shall not have low places to collect liquids & corrosion products.

11. Laterals to enter headers at top and at 45 degree angle in direction of header flow.

12. Slope laterals to drain to headers.

13. PSV bypass shall have a minimum opening equal to the PSV orifice, no less than 2”.

14. Normally limit PSV back pressure to: 10% Conventional Relief Valves
30% Bellow Relief Valves

15. Estimate final temperature of gas remaining inside vessel following depressurization
to flare from mid-point between resulting temperature calculated by isenthalphic
(“JT”) and isentropic (“turboexpander”) expansion.

16. Flare, reference API RP 521.

B. Fired Heaters
For most process heaters, assume a thermal efficiency of 75 to 80% when calculating fuel
requirements.
Where: % Thermal Efficiency = Heat Transferred x 100
Heat Released

6-1

For educational purposes only

 C. Fuel Requirements
For determining fuel requirements for process equipment, always use the net heating
value of the fuel rather than the gross heating value.

6-2

For educational purposes only

 COMBUSTION REFERENCES

Furnace operations by Robert D. Reed, Gulf Publishing Co. Copyright 1973

Steam/Its Generation, Babcock & Wilcox 161 East 42nd Street, New York, NY 10017,
Copyright-1972, thirty-eighth edition

Consult API RP t521 “Guide For Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring System” For Flare Sizing
Calculations

6-3

For educational purposes only

For educational purposes only
 7 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

A. Standard Conditions

Standard conditions for the U.S. refining industry are 1 atmosphere and 60F for both
gases and liquids. Other standards apply at different international sites.

At standard conditions, 1 lb- mole of gas occupies 379 cubic feet

B. Characterization of Liquid Refinery Feeds and Products

Refinery feeds and products can be described by o API , Characterization Factor, K,

and a distillation curve such as D-86 or D-2887.
o
1. API gravity is related to specific gravity by the following equation:
141.5
O
API = − 131.5
sp.gr .

The API gravity of water is 10.

2. K or characterization factor is a measure how aromatic, naphthenic or paraffinic

the liquid is. K is related to boiling point and specific gravity by:
3 T
K= B
where TB = average boiling point at 1 atm, o Rankine
sp.gr.
K
Paraffinic stocks 12.2 – 12.5
Intermediate stocks 11.5 – 12.1
Naphthenic stocks 11.0 – 11.4
Aromatic Residues 9.8 - 10.9

Figures are available that relate K to molecular weight, specific heat, heat of
vaporization, viscosity, and critical properties.

3. Distillation Curves

Distillation curves are obtained by distilling a standardized volume of sample a

defined rated. The distillation curve is a plot of the cumulative volume of the
condensed distillate vs. the vapor temperature. GC methods are also available the
produce distillation curves.

ASTM methods include: D-86, D-1160, D-2887, D-3710. The D-86 method is
the simplest and most common. A D-86 curve for distillate is below. The D-2887
and D-3710 methods are GC methods and commonly referred to as simulated
distillations or a SimDist.

7-1

For educational purposes only

 D-86 Curve for Distillate

600

Vapor Temperature, F
550

500

450

400

350
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Volume Distilled, %

C. Physical Properties of Selected Liquids

Properties of Selected Liquids

Compound Specific Heat, Heat of Normal Boiling Density, lb/gal Viscosity, cP
Btu/lb-F @ 60F Vaporization, Point, F @ 60F @60F
Btu/lb @ NBP

IsoButane 0.57 158 11 4.70 0.2

n-Butane 0.57 166 31 4.88 0.2
IsoPentane 0.54 148 82 5.22 0.2
n-Pentane 0.54 145 97 5.27 0.2
Octane 0.53 131 258 5.90 0.6
Decane 0.52 120 345 6.20 1.0

Benzene 0.41 191 176 7.36 0.7

Toluene 0.40 156 231 7.28 0.6

Gasoline 0.50 125 100-440 6.32 0.6

Diesel 0.47 105 378-670 7.18 4.0

Arabian Extra Light 0.45 ---- 570 (50% pt.) 7.00 4.6
Arabian Light 0.44 ---- 611 (50%pt.) 7.18 9.2
Arabian Heavy 0.44 ---- 733 (50% pt.) 7.43 38.4

Methanol 0.59 472 148 6.66 0.6

Ethanol 0.57 364 173 6.63 1.3

Water 1.00 974 212 8.32 1.7

1. Specific Heats of Hydrocarbon Liquids

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For educational purposes only

 2. Latent Heat of Vaporization at Atmospheric Pressure

7-3

For educational purposes only

 3. Specific Gravity

7-4

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 4. Thermal Conductivity

7-5

For educational purposes only

 5. Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity, ν , is measured in centistokes, and is equal to viscosity in cP

divided by specific gravity or ν = µ
sp.gr

7-6

For educational purposes only

 6. Vapor Pressure

7-7

For educational purposes only

 D. Physical Properties of Selected Gases/Vapors

Specific Heats for Selected Gases/Vapors

Compound Specific Specific Density, Thermal Viscosity, cP
Heat, Btu/lb- Heat, Btu/lb- lb/cuft @ Conductivity @ 212F,
F @ 60F F @ 200F 1 atm, 60F , Btu/hr-ft-f 1 atm
@ 212F,
1 atm

Hydrogen 3.404 3.451 0.005 0.129 0.0104

Methane 0.526 0.578 0.042 0.0262 0.0135
Ethane 0.407 0.487 0.079 0.0175 0.0115
Propane 0.281 0.305 0.116 0.0151 0.0102
Butane 0.293 0.316 0.153 0.0135 0.0093

Hydrogen Sulfide 0.239 0.246 0.090 0.0110 0.0157

Air 0.239 0.239 0.076 0.0183 0.0218

Nitrogen 0.248 0.248 0.074 0.018 0.0210
Oxygen 0.217 0.217 0.084 0.0185 0.0246
Carbon Monoxide 0.249 0.250 0.074 0.0174 0.0209
Carbon Dioxide 0.200 0.219 0.116 0.0133 0.0184
Water Vapor 0.445 0.451 0.047 0.0137 0.0125
Helium 1.647 1.647 0.011 0.0104 0.0232

7-8

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 1. Specific Heat of Gases and Vapors

7-9

For educational purposes only

 2. Thermal Conductivity

7-10

For educational purposes only

 7-11

For educational purposes only

 3. Viscosity

7-12

For educational purposes only

 E. Physical Properties Recommendations

Experience has shown that the recommended choice of physical property models
depends upon the simulator being used, process being modeled and the process
modeling objectives. Each situation has unique conditions that may or may not
require additional analysis.

For crude still and refinery applications, the Chao-Seader method with Grayson
Streed modifications is a good first choice. This method will adequately model the
typical light gas processes in the refinery as well. In Aspen, this method is known as
“GRAYSON” and should be modified to have the free water with solubility option
for unsaturated systems selected (method 2 on the Properties specification form). This
method is not accurate for streams containing ammonia and/or hydrogen sulfide.
For gas plant or LNG processes either the Soave-Redlich-Kwong or the Peng-
Robinson equation of state should be used. When using Hysys, the Peng-Robinson
method is recommended since the Hyprotech property expertise has been focused on
this method. When using Aspen, you should select the RKS-BM method, (Redlich-
Kwong equation of state with Boston-Mathias modifications), that is included in the
PPCO NGL Processing template. The template contains modifications to the property
route that improve the liquid densities and other transport properties as well as make
the method work better for hydrogen containing streams. These methods should not
be used for streams containing Helium and or high concentrations of hydrogen
without obtaining special modifications from a Phillips property specialist (e.g.
Howard Wilson).

For sour gas or sour water treatment there are special physical property packages
available. The BR&E Tsweet amine property method works well for most gas
treatment modeling. The Amsim package in Hysys can also be used for gas treatment.
These amine treatment packages have a limited range of application, but are generally
fairly easy to use and are fairly accurate.

A special electrolyte modeling package such as the sour water options in Hysys, the
OLI Prochem software or the Aspen electrolytes package should be used to model
sour water treatment. These packages are complicated and should be used with
guidance from a physical property specialist.

Difficult or tight separations require close scrutiny by a physical property specialist.

These separations are generally characterized by cases where either very high purity
is required when the relative volatility of the primary keys is between 0.8 and 1.2.
Standard methods have to be specially adjusted or “tuned” to data near the pinch
points in order to get a reasonable fit and a good match with equipment.

Hydrates and solids formation can be modeled with some other special purpose
software. Gas hydrates are generally best estimated using the hydrate program within
PVTSIM and the Multiflash program from InfoChem. Bill Parrish is a world-class
expert in gas hydrates and should be consulted anytime they are of concern. Different

7-13

For educational purposes only

 programs are to be used for different types of solids prediction. For cryogenic
hydrocarbon systems, the multiphase flash program from DTH is currently the best
option, the GPA Kohn-Luks program is also usually a good option for these systems.
Dale Embry is Phillips expert on these programs. The OLI software is the best
available for prediction of chemical salt and hydrate formation. Contact Dale Embry
for more information about this program.
Separations involving other chemicals or other thermodynamic properties should be
reviewed by a physical property and/or separations specialist before any designs are
finalized.
F. Simulation Techniques for Characterization of Oils

Most of the time, data about oils are provided as some sort of curve. However, most
simulation programs are designed to work with pure components that have one value
for a property. So we take portions of the curve and treat it as though it were a pure
component. These fractions are commonly referred to as "pseudocomponents". The
number of pseudocomponents needed for accurate simulations is as much a function
of the process being simulated as the type of oil being characterized. The number of
pseudocomponents needed for an accurate simulation increases as the tightness of
separation increases and the number of unique products increases. Narrow cuts, cuts
having a boiling range of 25 to 50 F (10C to 25C) are needed at the boundaries of the
unique products, larger cuts can be used further away from the product boundaries.

For most field gas/oil separation calculations there are between one and three
relatively broad separations being performed in the butane to octane boiling range.
These simulations are well characterized by using standard components through
hexane and then using between 4 to 10 pseudocomponents with increasingly broad
boiling ranges. Often 5 cuts with the ranges of C7, C8, C9-C10, C11-C14, C15+ will
adequately model the separator performance and the oil properties.

For refinery simulations, as many as 40-50 pseudocomponents may be needed to

characterize a whole crude as it is being split into its various products. One often uses
25F cuts for the 200-800 F boiling range materials, 50F cuts for the 800-1000F
boiling range materials and 100F cuts for the 1000+ materials. If only single phase
properties are needed, it is very likely that a single pseudocomponent with a 100 to
200F boiling range can be used for a stream.

7-14

For educational purposes only

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES REFERENCE

“Engineering Data Book”, GPSA, Tulsa, Vol II, 1987

J. M. Campbell, “Gas Conditioning and Processing”, Norman, Vol 2, 1981

Phillips Engineering Standards 7.00 – 7.16

“Technical Data Book – Petroleum Refining”, API, Vol 1-3 (Chapter 2, Vol 1 contains
procedures for pseudo compound characterization)

K. B. Maxwell, “Data Book on Hydrocarbons: Applications to Process Engineering”, Van

Nostrand New York, 1950

W. L. Nelson, “Petroleum Refinery Engineering”, McGraw-Hill New York, 1949

7-15

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For educational purposes only
 8 COMPRESSORS, EXPANDERS & PUMPS

A. Reciprocating Compressors

1. Limit compression ratio to get a maximum temperature of 300 ° F discharge

temperature. This is generally less than a compression ration of 3.7 per stage.

2. Horsepower required is usually a maximum at a compression ratio of 2.0.

3. For reciprocating propane compressor calculations, add 10% to the final Horsepower
calculated by conventional means and 10 °F to the final discharge temperature for
preliminary design.

4. To avoid excessive vibration, the mass of the foundation must be approximately 5

times the mass of the unit.

B. Compressor Quickies

1. 1 lb- mole (ideal) gas occupies 379 SCF. Thus mass flow in lb/min =
MMSCFD*MW/(1440*379).

2. Least flow through a centrifugal compressor is 175 ACFM (300 m3/hr) discharge
volume.

ACFM = MMSCFD*106 *14.7*T*Z/ (1400*P*520) (T-temperature in °R)

To achieve a reasonable compressor efficiency with a centrifugal compressor, the

suction acfm needs to be above 1500 to 2000. Avoid applications at lower acfm.

3. Centrifugal compressor head

 γ −1

Z ∗ 1545 ∗T S γ  P d  γ 
H a= ∗ ∗    − 1 γ = Cp /Cv
MW γ − 1  P s  
 
Maximum head per impeller is 10,000 ft.

4. Discharge temperature
γ −1
P  γ
Reciprocating T d =T s∗ d 
 Ps 

γ −1
 P  γ ∗η p
Centrifugal T d=T s∗ d 
 Ps 
η p = Polytropic efficiency

8-1

For educational purposes only

 5. Maximum allowable discharge temperature for associated gas (i.e. gas from crude oil
wellhead separation) compression is 300 °F (150 °C).

Recommended maximum discharge temperature for centrifugal compressor is 350 °F.

Absolute maximum discharge temperature for centrifugal compressor is 400 °F.
High temperature seals are absolutely necessary to operate at the absolute maximum
temperature.

6. “Head” for a centrifugal compressor is really energy imported to the gas. “Feet” head
is in fact ft- lb force/ft- lb mass. SI expresses it as kiloJoule/kilogram.

Conversion: 1000 ft- lbf/ft-lbm = 2.989 kJ/kg

Other expressions such as “me ters” head (converting feet into meters) are
meaningless as they do not take the gravitational constant into account.

7. For centrifugal compressors, a 20% surge margin from the design operating point is
recommended, 30% is preferred. Absolute minimum acceptable is 10%.
C. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Plants

For centrifugal compressor calculations, assume a polytropic efficiency of 79 to 82 % for

LNG plant preliminary design.
D. Energy Conservation Natural Gas Engines

If compression ratio is increased from 8:1 to 10:1 a 5% reduction in fuel rate and a 9%
increase in brake horsepower results (assumes 1000 Btu fuel & minimum octane of 115).
Octane Number: C1-120 iC4-97.6 nC5-80.2
C2-100.7 nC4-89.1 C6-26.0
C3-98.1 iC5-61.9 C7-0.0
E. Fuel consumption

Reciprocating Engines – 1000 hp ≈ 7200 Btu/hr/bhp

turbines – Solar T4500 ≈ 9800 Btu/hr/bhp
F. NGL Expander Plants

1. For expander-compressor preliminary designs, limit the adiabatic efficiency to 72 %

for the expander end and 65 % for the compressor end. Vendors will claim higher
efficiencies, but actual tests indicate the above efficiencies to be more representative
in service. Use a 95 % mechanical efficiency for transferring horsepower from the
expander to the compressor.

2. For expanders, limit liquefication of feed stream through expander to 15 to 18

weight % maximum. In excess of this, mechanical problems may result with
expander.

8-2

For educational purposes only

 G. Gas Processing – Simulation guidelines

1. Turboexpander maximum size approx. 8,000 hp (6 MW).

2. Turboexpander maximum pressure ratio 2.5:1.

3. Temperature reduction on expansion (° F/psi):

Turboexpander JT-valve
Lean gas 0.06 0.03
Rich gas 0.1 0.05

H. Pump sizing

Example – Size The Lean Oil Pump

Suction Conditions – 145 psig @ 90° F
Discharge = 485 psig
Capacity = 700,000 GPD @ 60° F
SP. GR. @ Pump Temp. = 0.805
700,000 0.815
GPM @ Pump Temp. = 1440 min/Day 0.805

= 486 .815
.805

Head = ∆ P x 2.31 = (485-145)2.31 = 976 Ft. of Liquid

SP. GR. = 0.805

B.H.P. = (GPM) (Ft of Hd.) SP. GR.)

(3960) x Eff.

B.H.P. = (492) (976) (0.805) = 139.5 H.P.

(3960) (.70)

Use 150 H.P. electric Motor Drive. Check Curve of Pump Purchased for End of
Curve H.P. Requirement.

Specify Pump for 4.92 GPM @ 976 Ft. Head.

Case to be good for 485# Disch. and
shut in head of pump. NPSH Not Critical.

H.P. x 33,000 = Ft. - LB

Min.
LB. H2 O @ 62° F x 0.12 = GAL.
H.P. x 33,000 x 0.12 = 3960 x H.P. = FT. - GAL.
Min.

8-3

For educational purposes only

 I. Pumps

1. Suction Specific Speed:

When selecting centrifugal pumps, the suction specific speed (N SS) for the pump
should be le ss than 11,000. Experience has indicated that pumps operating with
suction specific speeds above 11,000 have a much higher failure frequency.

RPMx GPM
N SS =
( NPSHR )0.75
Where: N SS = Suction specific Speed GPM = Flow
Rate in gallons per minute
NPSHR = Net positive suction head required for the pump in feet
of fluid.

If the pump is double suctioned, divide flow rate by two.

2. Net Positive suction Head:

Be sure to check the size and configuration of the pump suction and piping before
increasing the pump speed as it affects the pump required Net Positive Suction Head
(NPSHR) considerably. See the relation:

2
NPSHR 2  n 2 
= 
NPSHR 1  n 1 

Where: n is pump speed in rpm and subscripts 1 & 2 indicate initial and final conditions.

3. Axial Compressors

1. Axial compressors cannot be used with side loads.

2. Maximum discharge pressure is around 300 psia.

3. The minimum suction actual cubic feet per minute is 60,000.

4. Axial compressors cannot operate over as large a range of flow as centrifugal

compressors.

5. The maximum recommended discharge temperature is similar to a centrifugal or

about 350 °F.

8-4

For educational purposes only

 J. General:
1. Maintenance costs for gas engine driven reciprocating compressor units is about 6
times those of gas turbine driven centrifugal compressor units.

For 1993: Reciprocating = $30/HP Yr

Centrifugal = $ 5/HP Yr

2. Gas Turbine Wasteheat Available

About 1/3 of fuel gas BTU requirements can be considered recoverable as wasteheat
from a gas turbine for quickly preliminary estimates.

8-5

For educational purposes only

 COMPRESSORS, EXPANDERS & PUMPS REFERENCE

GPSA Engineering Data Book, Section 13

“Centrifugal Pump Seminar” by C. C. Fletcher 10.92

“Guidelines on Fluid Flow Systems”, Hydrocarbon Processing, April, 1990, pg 47-60

C. C. Fletcher ROT advice for process engineers – 6/93 & Nils Nilsen – Pignone
contact July 1993

C. C. Fletcher wasteheat rule of thumb

8-6

For educational purposes only

 9 REFRIGERATION

A. Condensers

For water cooling with propane condensers, try to maintain no greater than a 10 °F
approach to the warm cooling water leaving the condenser. Use a velocity of 4 to 8 ft/sec
for the water through the tubes. Restrict cooling water return temperatures to a maximum
of 125 °F.

B. Propane Refrigeration Systems

1. For design of propane refrigeration systems, suggest using a composition of 3.0 mol
% C2, 95 mol % C3 and 2 Mol % C4. Experience has indicated it is difficult and
expensive due to propane losses to maintain 99 % + propane content. The utilization
of continuous purge systems will typically result in high losses.

2. Air, which is pulled in around piston rod packing with low suction pressure of 1 to 2
psig and high valve losses) tends to accumulate in the propane accumulator vessel
vapor space after the condensers. This leads to high compressor discharge pressure
and a potentially hazardous situation. A manual purge of the accumulator vapor
space weekly will keep the air concentration down towards acceptable levels.

3. For water cooled propane condenser design, generally use 10 °F temperature rise on
cooling water through exchanger and a 10 °F approach of condensed propane out to
the warm water from the exchanger.

4. For preliminary design of reciprocating propane compressor calculations, add 10% to

the final Horsepower calculated by conventional means and 10 °F to the final stage
discharge temperature.
C. Gas Processing – Simulation Guidelines

1. Refrigerant chiller temperature approach to gas is normally 5 to 10 °F.

D. Condensing Temperature Effects:

For gas turbine driven propane refrigeration systems, there will be approximately ½ % to
1% increase in gas load horsepower for every degree Fahrenheit increase in refrigerant
condensing temperature.

9-1

For educational purposes only

 REFRIGERATION REFERENCE

GPSA Engineering Data Book, Section 14

Bechtel Process Engineers rule of thumb and CE Process checks

9-2

For educational purposes only

 10 MISCELLANEOUS

A. Large Production & Processing Platforms

1. Specific Process Considerations

The following process considerations are relevant to the platform layout:

a. the layout should reflect a logical progression of the process. This should then
minimize major pip ing requirements. Other equipment with small diameter
piping, can be located where necessary e.g. glycol regeneration package.
b. Related equipment should be modularized to allow maximum hook up and
precommissioning to be achieved, e.g. compressor with associated knock out
drum and aftercooler.
c. Requirements for pump NPSH should be established e.g. export pumps.
d. Pump suction lines should have no vapor pockets and be of minimum length.
e. Systems based on gravity drainage should be identified.
f. Requirements for future equipment should be identified. to allow incorporation
into initial layout.
g. Allowances for straight piping runs should be made where appropriate e.g.
compressor suction lines, metering runs.
h. Compressor suction lines should have no liquid pockets.
i. Two phase lines should be of minimum length and with no pockets to minimize
potential slugging.
j. Two phase lines from coolers should free drain to the knock out drum.
k. Vapor lines in wet Carbon Dioxide or corrosive service should have no liquid
pockets.
l. Filter separator/KO drums located upstream of TEG contacting/acid gas treating
units should be located close to prevent hydrocarbons or millscale from entering
the contactor.
m. Flare lines should slope to the KO drum with no liquid pockets.
n. Locate control valves in bubble point liquid service so that there is no possibility
of flashing at the valve inlet.

2. Preliminary Space Estimate

On the assumption that a modularized concept is used, the following factors can be
used to assess deck area requirements for preliminary layout studies.

3. Seawater System:

A. Carbon Steel Service

Although Carbon Steel is fine for service in low velocity seawater at ambient
temperatures, the corrosion rate increases rapidly with temperature and agitation.

10-1

For educational purposes only

 At 122 ° F (50 ° C) and above, the corrosion rate in agitated seawater is greater
than 50 mils/year.

At velocities over 15 ft/sec, turbulence may greatly accelerate the corrosion rate
by eroding away the protective film. This occurs frequently at heat exchanger
tube inlets, U bends, and piping elbows.

At more extreme velocities, erosion – corrosion will occur. At 39 ft/sec, the

corrosion rate reaches over 200 mils, year.

B. For Seawater Waterflood systems:

Typical specifications to prevent formation plugging with solids, downhole

corrosion, and bacteria growth are as follows.

1. Solids – Remove 97% of all solids greater than 5 microns size.

2. Oxygen – Remove to a maximum level of 10 ppb(wt)

3. Sterilization – Chlorination and/or UV sterilization required.

4. Portable Water systems:

a. Based on Ekofisk experience, provide the following potable water quantities for
preliminary design:

1. 200 to 250 liters (53 to 66 gallons) per day per person for personnel who live
on the platform.

2. 100 to 150 liters (26 to 40 gallons) per day per person for day workers and
visitors who do not live on the platform.

b. Based on Ekofisk experience, provide the following potable water storage

preliminary design:

1. For platforms with potable water makers, provide a minimum of 2 days

storage.

2. For platforms which depend solely on hauled potable water, provide a

minimum of 3 days storage.

10-2

For educational purposes only

 Module type Area Ratio*
Wellhead Set by well pattern/drilling
requirments
Separation 0.20 – 0.40
Gas Compression 0.15 – 0.20
Water Injection 0.20 – 0.25
PowerGeneration 0.20 – 0.30
Utilities 0.15 – 0.20
*Ratio of Major Equipment footprint area to total module area.
B. Water and Steam Systems

1. Approximate break point for steam pressure at which silica becomes a problem with
vaporization and deposition on turbine blades is at 500 psig.

2. The evaporation rate on a cooling tower is dependent on the amount of water being
cooled and temperature differential. For each 10 ° F temperature drop across the
tower, 1 % of the recirculation rate is evaporated. In other words, 0.001 times the
circulation rate in gpm times the temperature drop equals the evaporation rate is gpm.

C. Economics

1. Capex Ratio Exponents

For Processing Plants and Ancillaries

Same No. of Units
COST 2=(SIZE OR CAPACITY 2/SIZE OR CAPACITY 1)0.5(COST1)

Unit number change required for new capacity.

USE 0.6 exponent
Infrastructure (Camps, Warehouses, Maintenance facilities)
USE 0.3 exponent

2. Capex Factors From Major Equipment Cost

Installed Cost
Onshore 2.5 x (Major equipment cost)
Offshore 5.0 x (Major equipment cost)
(excludes deck and jacket costs)

3. Annual Operating Costs

[excludes fuel and depreciation]
Onshore; 3% of Capital cost
Offshore; 5% of Capital Cost

4. Capex (Total) Remote Area LNG Plants

10-3

For educational purposes only

 [One Train} $ 2x109 per 2x106 MTY [1990 BASIS]
Note: Cost Reductions via technology offset regulatory increases.
Use 5%/Yr esc. in general costs.
MTY = Metric Tonnes/Year
D. Hydrates

1. Hydrates generally form at 50 to 60 ° F.

2. Expect 1 ° F depression for each 1% methanol in liquid drainage. (Methanol content

may be estimated with a hydrometer)

3. Hydrate Control
Add a margin of 50% to calculate hydrate inhibitor injection rates.

4. Typical hydrate inhibitor concentrations:

MEG: 70 – 80 wt% at inlet and 60 wt% in solution outlet
MeOH: 98 wt% at inlet and 90 wt% in solution outlet

5. Glycol inhibitor loss estimate is 1 lb/MMSCF plus 200 ppm (v) in liquid
hydrocarbon.

6. MeOH will melt hydrates already formed. MEG will not.

E. NGL Expander Plants

If the CO2 in the feed gas to the cryogenic plant is in excess of 0.25 mol %, be sure to
check for CO2 solidification in both the liquid and vapor phases immediately downstream
of the expander and in the top four stages of the demethanizer.

F. Miscellaneous Plant Systems

Instrument air – As a preliminary estimate for instrument air requirements for feasibility
study design, use 0.5 to 0.75 scfm per control instrument.
G. Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) Plants

1. For preliminary estimates of LNG plant design inlet volume for a premised LNG
delivery to ships for transport, use a 93 plant availability factor.

2. Mercury occurring naturally in some natural gas streams is extremely corrosive to

aluminum heat exchangers used extensively LNG plants processes. Plan to check for
mercury in feed gas up front in any project.
H. Gas Processing – Simulation Guidelines

Include a 5 ° F margin from the sales contract hydrocarbon dewpoint temperature to

accommodate uncertainties in process simulator to predict dewpoint.
I. Offshore Pipeline Gas Specifications

10-4

For educational purposes only

 1. Hydrocarbon dewpoint temperature sho uld be 10 – 20 ° F below minimum operating
temperature in pipeline for the operating pressure range to prevent liquid drop out.

2. Water dewpoint temperature should be 10 – 20 ° F below minimum operating

temperature in pipeline for the operating pressure range to prevent free water drop
out.

3. Maximum allowable platform discharge temperature is typically 90 – 125 ° F.

J. Offshore Crude Oil Specifications

1. Max RVP 10 psia for export to tanker/storage.

2. Salt content 70 to 200 mg/1 (sales spec to pipeline)

3. Water max 2 wt% (sales spec to pipeline)

4. BS&W 0.5 vol% maximum ; 0.1 vol% average (sales spec to pipeline)
K. Wind Loadings

Flat Surfaces P=0.004 x V2

Cylindrical Members P = 0.6 x 0.004 x V2
Where: P = Pressure in PSF
V = Velocity of wind MPH
L. Steam Leaks @ 100 psi

Orfice Steam Energy Loss / Month

Size Wasted/mo. Gas (scf) #2 Fuel oil
1
/2 ” 835000 878347 7383
3
/8 ” 470000 494737 4155
1
/4 ” 210000 221053 1857
1
/8 ” 52500 55263 464
1
/16 ” 13200 13895 117
1
/32 ” 3400 3579 30
M. Composition of Air

Air Composition ~ N2 – 78.07 mol%

02 – 20.99 mol%
Ar – 0.94 mol%
N. Platform Deflection

Maximum deflection of platform due to wind and sea is:

deflection = Span / 400

Where: span = distance from cellar

deck to mud line, Ft.

10-5

For educational purposes only

 O. Kinetics

For a second order reaction in a constant volume reactor, if 95% of the reactants react in
one time, it will require 20 more time units to react 95% of the remaining reactants.
P. Storage, Vessel Capacity

A. Vessel Capacity: Capacity (gallons)=(Diameter, ft)2 +2) x Length, inches.

Q. Pipeline Volume:

(Diameter of pipe, inches)2 = Barrels/1000 feet (Results are approximately 3% high)

R. Pressure Vessels

In general, the maximum operating pressure (MOP) of a process pressure vessel is

established from the maximum internal or external pressure at which the vessel operates
while fulfilling it’s normal function.

In general, for vessels subject to internal pressure only, the maximum allowable working
pressure (MAWP) of a process vessel can be arrived at by adding the greater of 10% or
10 to 25 psi to the maximum operating pressure.

Economic L/D ratios for pressure vessels generally fall in the 2 to 5 range where L =
shell seam length and D = inside diameter, both in feet.
S. NACE Requirements

“Material shall be selected to be resistant to Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC) or the

environment should be controlled if the gas being handled is at a total pressure of 65 psia
or greater and if the partial pressure of H2 S in the gas is greater than 0.05 psia."
T. Pressure Waves (e.g. water hammer)
magnitude of PW in lbs f/in2 psi

PW = a x d x vd/(144 x g)

a = velocity of sound in the fluid fps

d = density of fluid, lb mass/ft3
vd = velocity decrease, i.e. velocity
before change less the velocity after change, FPS
g. = conversion factor = standard acceleration due to gravity, 32.174 fps2

10-6

For educational purposes only

 U. Insulation Types

Thermal Conductivity Surface burning characteristics

(Btu/ (( hr ft 2 °F)/in) per ASTM E-84
Temperature
Temperature
Insulating -100 200 500 Other range, °F Flame-spread Index Smoke- Water
Material developed Absorbed
Index (submersion), Comments
% by Volume
Fibrous Glass 0.20 0.26 0.50 - -20 to 850 <25 <50 65 (high) Must have vapor barrier
in cold service, since it
is water absorbent.
General material.
Mineral Wool - 0.35 0.52 - 60 to 1,900 Noncombustible 70 (high) Good workability
0 0
Cellular Glass 0.27 0.42+ 0.65 - -290 to 1,200 Noncombustible 0 0.2 Deteriorates in a
<5 (considered alkaline
none) solution (e.g. 10%
NaOH). Poor abrasion
resistance.
Polyisocyanur - - 0.14 at 75 °F -290 to 300 May be a fire risk 0 0.7 (low) Significant deterioration
ate <20 in acids and in various
organics. Generally, is
replacement for
Polystyrene 0.18 - - 0.23 at 75 °F -40 to 275 Combustible, - (low) Excellent workability at
although sometimes low temperatures
self-extinguishing (below freezing point
of water)
Polyurethane 0.14 0.25 - - -100 to 220 May be a fire risk 1.6 (low) Significant deterioration
in acids and various
organics,
but resists water and
vapors.
Excellent workability.
Granular - 0.42+ 0.55 - 60 to 1,500 Noncombustible 75 (high) High water absorbency,
Calcium 0 0 but will dry out. Good
Silicate workability

Perlite - 0.47+ 0.58 - 60 to 1,500 Noncombustible 16 (medium) Good workability

0 0
°
+Manufactures’ data

V. Absolute Pressure of Atmosphere at Height ‘H’ feet above Sea Level

P = P1 (1 – 0.00000687H)5.256
P1 = pressure at sea level – pisa

Density: W = W1 (1-0.00000687H)4.256
W1 = density of air at sea level

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For educational purposes only

 MISCELLANEOUS REFERENCES

Process Design Handbook, Section 1.6.6, 1.6.7, Table 1.6.1 Pages 4 of 7, 5 of 7, 6 of 7.

GPSA Engineering Data Book, Section 13

J.M. Campbell, “Gas Conditioning and Processing”, Norman

“Pressure Vessel Design For Process Engineers”

Hydrocarbon Processing, May 1979, pg 181-191

“How to Select Materials”, Chemical Engineering, Nov 3, 1980, pg 86 to 131

PPCoN Process Personnel

NACE MR0175 Std Ma’l. Reg.

10-8

For educational purposes only

 ONLINE VERSION

For educational purposes only