Objectives

 Become familiar with the parameters that determine the

resistance of an element and be able to calculate the
resistance from the given dimensions and material
characteristics.
 Understand the effects of temperature on the resistance of
a material and how to calculate the change in resistance
with temperature.
 Become familiar with the broad range of commercially
available resistors available today and how to read the
value of each from the color code or labeling.
 Introduction
• Generally, materials have a tendency of resisting the
flow of electric charge.
• This property of materials to resist the flow of
charge is called resistance.
• The unit of resistance is ohms (Ω).
• The graphic symbol for resistance, which resembles
the cutting edge of a saw.

FIG. Resistance symbol and notation.

 Why this resistance in Materials?
• This opposition, due primarily to collisions and friction
between the free electrons and other electrons, ions, and
atoms in the path of motion, converts the supplied electrical
energy into heat that raises the temperature of the electrical
component and surrounding medium.
• The heat you feel from an electrical heater is simply due to
current passing through a high-resistance material.
 Resistance
 The resistance of any material mainly depends on the
following factors:
 Material
 Length
 Cross-sectional area
 Temperature of the material

The atomic structure determines how easily a

free electron will pass through a material.

The longer the path through which the free electron

must pass, the greater is the resistance factor.

Free electrons pass more easily through conductors

with larger cross-sectional areas.
 Resistance
• The first three elements resistivity, length, and
cross-sectional area are related by the following
basic equation for resistance:

• The higher the resistivity, the greater the

resistance of a conductor
• The longer the conductor, the greater the
resistance
• The greater the area of a conductor, the
less the resistance
 Resistance
• The higher the resistivity, the greater the resistance of a
conductor
• The longer the conductor, the greater the resistance
• The greater the area of a conductor, the less the resistance
Resistivity (ρ) of various
materials
 Circular Mils (CMs)
• Diameter is expressed in circular mils.
• It is the quantity used in most commercial wire
tables
• 1 CM is defined as the area of a circle having a
diameter of 1 mil (0.001 inch).
• A square mil is the area of a square having sides
1 mil long.
• 1 CM = /4 square mils
 Circular Mils (CMs)

• The area of a circular wire in circular mils can be

defined by the following equation:
 Problems
• What is the resistance of a 100 ft length of copper (𝜌 = 10.37 𝐶𝑀 − Ω/𝑓𝑡) wire with a
diameter of 0.020 in. at 20°C?

• An undetermined number of feet of wire have been used from the carton in the
following figure. Find the length of the remaining copper ((𝜌 = 10.37 𝐶𝑀 − Ω/𝑓𝑡) )
wire if it has a diameter of 1/16 in. and a resistance of 0.5 Ω.
 Electrical Wire Tables

• The American Wire Gauge is the primary

system to denote wire diameters.
• The higher the AWG number, the smaller the
diameter.
• A given length of AWG 22 wire will have
more resistance than the same length of AWG
14 wire.
• Larger gauge wires can handle more current.
Electrical Wire Tables
 Resistance-Problems
• For the following system, the total resistance of each power line
cannot exceed 0.025Ω and the maximum current to be drawn by
the load is 95 A. What gage wire should be used?

Solution:

Using the wire table, we choose the wire with the next largest area, which is
#4, to satisfy the resistance requirement. We note, however, that 95 A must
flow through the line. This specification requires that #3 wire be used since
the #4 wire can carry a maximum current of only 85 A.
 Temperature Effects
• For most conductors, an increase in temperature causes an
increase in resistance.
• In many semiconductors and insulators, an increase in
temperature results in a decrease in resistance.
• The rate of change of resistance with temperature is called
the temperature coefficient. It is represented by .
• Any material for which the resistance increases as
temperature increases is said to have a positive temperature
coefficient. If it decreases, it has a negative coefficient.

R  R 1 1  T 
 Inferred Absolute Temperature
 The following figure reveals that for copper (or most other metallic
conductors), the resistance increases almost linearly with an
increase temperature.
 The resistance for any temperature can be obtained by
approximating curve by dashed line that intersects the temperature
scale at -234.5 oC.
Form the figure we can write as,

In general,

Where, is the inferred absolute

temperature.
Inferred Absolute Temperature
 Inferred Absolute Temperature-
Problems
• If the resistance of a copper wire is 50 Ω at 20°C, what is its resistance at
100°C (boiling point of water)?
• Solution:

• If the resistance of a copper wire at freezing (0°C) is 30 Ω, what is its

resistance at -40°C?
 Types of Resistor
 Fixed Resistors:
 Resistances essentially constant.
 Rated by amount of resistance, measured in ohms.
 Also rated by power ratings, measured in watts.

 Variable Resistors:
 Used to adjust volume, set level of lighting, adjust
temperature.
 Have three terminals.
 Center terminal connected to wiper arm.
 Potentiometers
 Rheostats
 Fixed Resistors

• Different types of resistors are used for different

applications.
– Molded carbon composition
– Carbon film
– Metal film
– Metal Oxide
– Wire-Wound
– Integrated circuit packages
 Fixed Resistors
• Film resistors.
– It is constructed by depositing a thin layer of resistive material
(typically carbon, metal, or metal oxide) on a ceramic rod.
 Fixed Resistors
• Fixed composition resistors.
– Its resistance is determined by the carbon composition material
molded directly to each end of the resistor.
– The high resistivity characteristics of carbon (ρ=21,000 CM-
Ω/ft) provide a high-resistance path for the current through the
element.
 Fixed Resistors
• Metal Oxide Resistors.
• The size of a resistor does not define its resistance level
Various Fixed Resistors
 Variable Resistors
• Variable resistors, as the name implies, have a
terminal resistance that can be varied by turning a
dial, knob, screw, or whatever seems appropriate
for the application.
• They can have two or three terminals, but most
have three terminals. If the two- or three-terminal
device is used as a variable resistor, it is usually
referred to as a rheostat.
• If the three-terminal device is used for controlling
potential levels, it is then commonly called a
potentiometer.
 Variable Resistors

FIG. 3.16 Potentiometer: (a) symbol; (b) and (c) rheostat connections; (d) rheostat
symbol.
 Variable Resistors
• The resistance between the outside terminals a and c in Fig. 2 (and Fig
1) is always fixed at the full rated value of the potentiometer,
regardless of the position of the wiper arm b.

FIG. Resistance components of a potentiometer: (a)

between outside terminals; (b) between wiper arm
and each outside terminal.
Variable Resistors

FIG. Potentiometer control of

voltage levels.
 COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES

• A wide variety of resistors, fixed or variable,

are large enough to have their resistance in
ohms printed on the casing.
• Some, however, are too small to have numbers
printed on them, so a system of color coding is
used.
• For the thin-film resistor, four, five, or six
bands may be used.

FIG. Color coding for fixed resistors.

COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES

FIG. Color coding.

 Fourth Band Resistor
• The first two bands represent the first and second digits,
respectively.
• The third band determines the power-of-ten multiplier for
the first two digits.
• The fourth band is the manufacturer’s tolerance, which is an
indication of the precision by which the resistor was made.
• If the fourth band is omitted, the tolerance is assumed to be
± 20%.
 Problems
• Find the value of the resistor for the following figure.

1 2 103 ±5%

5%=0.05. Then multiply the resistor value by this decimal number: 0.05(12
kΩ)=600Ω.
Finally, add the resulting number to the resistor value to determine the
maximum value, and subtract the number to find the minimum value.
That is, Maximum =12,000Ω+600Ω=12.6 kΩ
Minimum=12,000Ω-600Ω=11.4 kΩ
Range= 11.4 kΩ to 12.6kΩ
The result is that the manufacturer has guaranteed with the 5% gold band that
the resistor will fall in the range just determined.
 Problems
• The range can be extended to include resistors from 0.1Ω to
10Ω by simply using gold as a multiplier color (third band)
to represent 0.1 and using silver to represent 0.01.
• Find the value of the resistor for the following figure.

8 2 0.1 ±10%
 Five and Six band color Coding
• Some manufacturers prefer to use a five-band color code.
• Three digits are provided before the multiplier.
• The fifth band remains the tolerance indicator.
• If the manufacturer decides to include the temperature coefficient,
a sixth band will appear as shown in the lower portion of figure.

For four, five, or six bands,

if the tolerance is less than
5%, the following colors
are used to reflect the %
tolerances: brown=±1%,
red=±2%, green=±0.5%,
blue=±0.25%, and
violet=±0.1%.
Standard Value of the Resistors
 Thermistors
• A two-terminal transducer in which the resistance changes with
change in temperature.
• Applications include electronic thermometers and thermostatic
control circuits for furnaces.
• Many have negative temperature coefficients.
 Photoconductive Cells
• Two-terminal transducers which have a resistance determined
by the amount of light falling on them.
• May be used to measure light intensity or to control lighting.
• Used as part of security systems.
 Varistors
• Resistors which are sensitive to voltage.
• Have a very high resistance when the voltage is below the
breakdown value.
• Have a very low resistance when the voltage is above the
breakdown value.
• Used in surge protectors.