Accepted Manuscript

Title: Modelling and experimental determination of thermal

properties of local wet building materials

Author: J.C. Damfeu P. Meukam Y. Jannot E. Wati

PII: S0378-7788(16)31528-6
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.11.022
Reference: ENB 7137

To appear in: ENB

Received date: 20-11-2015

Revised date: 29-1-2016
Accepted date: 12-11-2016

Please cite this article as: J.C.Damfeu, P.Meukam, Y.Jannot, E.Wati, Modelling and
experimental determination of thermal properties of local wet building materials, Energy
and Buildings http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.11.022

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.
As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript.
The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof
before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process
errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that
apply to the journal pertain.
Modelling and experimental determination of thermal properties of local wet building

materials

J.C. Damfeua, P. Meukam*a, Y. Jannotb,c and E. Watid

a
Laboratory of Energy, Water and Environment (L3E), National Advanced School of

Engineering, Yaoundé, Cameroon, P.O. Box 8390 Yaounde

b
Université de Lorraine, LEMTA, UMR 7563, Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, F-54500, France
c
CNRS, LEMTA, UMR 7563, Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, F-54500
d
Environmental Energy Technologies Laboratory, University of Yaounde I, Cameroon

*
corresponding authors: pierre_meukam@yahoo.fr

1
Highlights:

 The sensitivity study shows that the asymmetrical hot plate model developed

allows the accurate estimation of the thermophysical parameters.

 Results show that pouzzolans cinder blocks have lower thermal conductivity

than that of sand cinder blocks

 Pouzzolan cinder blocks can contribute more to energy saving than sand

cinder blocks

 The experimental values of the volumetric heat capacity are in good agreement

with those evaluated by the developed analytical model

Abstract

One of the greatest challenges in the construction sector throughout the world is the

development of appropriate building materials that can reduce energy consumption. In this

work, an investigation on the thermophysical properties of three wet composite building

materials was carried out: the black pouzzolan, the red pouzzolan and sand cinder blocks.

Experimental measurements were carried out on these three materials each with a water

contentrangingbetween0 and 5 %.Using an asymmetrical hot plate device, a transient method,

the thermal effusivity and volumetric heat capacity were estimated experimentally with

respect to water content. With the values of the mass specific heat capacity of pouzzolans,

sand and cement separately measured by the Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC)

method, the values of the volumetric heat capacity of these composite materials were

evaluated according to their water content calculated from the theoretical developed model.

The results obtained are in good agreement with those determined experimentally with the

asymmetrical hot plate method (maximum standard deviations 5 %). Results reveal that the

thermal conductivity of red pouzzolan cinder blocks (e.g. λ=0.503 W m-1K-1 at 0 % water

2
content) and of black pouzzolan cinder blocks (e.g. λ=0.549 W m-1K-1 at 0 % water content)

are lower than that of sand cinder blocks (e.g. λ=0.875 W m-1K-1 at 0 % water

content).Results also show that pouzzolans cinder blocks have higher volumetric heat

capacity than sand cinder blocks. These results further confirm that blocks based on

pouzzolans are better insulator materials than sand blocks (usually uses) and can contribute

significantly to the energy saving and thus reduce the GHG emission in the air-conditioning

building.

Keywords: composite wet porous materials, thermal properties, transient method, water

content, energy saving

3
Nomenclature

T Temperature (°C) Cp specific heat capacity (J kg-1 K-1)

E thermal effusivity (J m-2°C-1 s-1/2) λ thermal conductivity (W m-1 K-1)

a thermal diffusivity (m2 s-1) h Convective heat loss coefficient (W m-2°C)

Rc thermal contact resistance (°C W-1) θ Lapalce transform of temperature

Φ Laplace transform of heat flux p Laplace parameter

ρ density (kg m-3) φ heat flux dissipated in the heating element (W)

 Heat flux density (W m-2) ε porosity

e thickness (m) Bi Biot number

g gramme l liter

Xe water content Xc cement content

Subscripts

i insulating blocks h heating element

s sample e water

c cement exp experimental

Al aluminum blocks

BPZ: black pouzzolan RPZ: red pouzzolan

SM: Simplified model CM: Completed model

4
1. Introduction

It is well known that the use of adequate insulating building materials presents high potential

in energy saving. The main outcome of the UN Conference on Climate Change held in

Copenhagen from the 7th to the 19th of December 2009 was to limit the increase in average

global temperature to 2°C [1]. For this, it was then agreed that by 2020 developed countries

collectively reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 25 to 40 % above the level in the

1990’s. By 2020, Developing countries should also significantly reduce their present rate of

emission by 15 to 30% [1]. To achieve these objectives, actions need to be taken also in the

building sector which significantly contributes to the increase in worldwide energy

consumption and consequently to greenhouse gas emission. Indeed, in France for example,

regarding the consumption of energy, building sector alone consumes 46 % of the total energy

to which is added 3.8 % due to construction sites [2]. In Cameroon, the studies made by the

European Union Energy Initiative [3] show that this sector represents 37 % of the electricity

demand on the public network (720 GWh), with an increase rate estimated at around 55%

between 2012 and 2015. The above estimations of energy consumption show that an increase

in energy consumption in the building sector will lead to an increase in CO2 emissions, since

electricity generation through thermal plants generates CO2 emissions into the environment.

The application of standards in sustainable construction and regulations on thermal insulation

is one of the main actions to achieve the Copenhagen goals. For this, in most industrialized

countries we are currently witnessing the extensive renovation projects in existing buildings

by using more efficient insulation, and the use of renewable building materials with regard to

news buildings. An example in France is the use of new plant-based materials: starch hemp

concrete is the most used. As Africa is concerned, the need of heating is limited but the need

of cooling in buildings can’t but increase. Although only a minority of African population use

5
air conditioners because of its current high cost, the needs of air conditioners will increase due

to the increase in the population and level of life standards and therefore the risk of rise in

temperature. One of the advocated solutions would be to limit the usage of air conditioners

which emit CO2 by adopting standards for more efficient buildings. One of the standards

recommended by the Agency for Standards and Quality in Cameroon is the use of local

insulating building materials.

Based on the advocated solutions by the two continents Europe and Africa, the conclusion is

that the quality of building materials is a parameter that can contribute significantly to achieve

energy savings. This is also consistent with the study made by Constantinos[4]. It has shown

that the selection of materials with low environmental impact could help effectively reduce

energy consumption, and CO2 emissions, thus contributing to improve the thermal comfort

inside a room. Indeed, several other studies have also shown that the use of insulating

materials has a significant impact in the reduction of energy consumption of the building.

Banazzok et al [5] use rubber waste materials with low thermal conductivity so as to reduce

heat transfer in a building in order to decrease the energy consumption. Aboubakar-cherki et

al [6] enhance thermal properties of gypsum plaster by combining it with cork. Meukamet al

[7, 8] studied the thermal properties of bricks to which were added natural black pouzzolan

(maximum diameter of 12.5mm granulates). They concluded that adding a percentage of

pouzzolan reduces the thermal conductivity of the composite material produced. Samri [9]

showed that hemp concrete (thermal conductivity λ = 0.1 W m-1 K-1) contributes in the

reduction of CO2 emissions. The conclusion of the study conducted by Trangle [10] shows

that the starch hemp concrete has more interesting hygrothermal characteristics (thermal

conductivity of about λ = 0.55 W m-1 K-1) and can reduce the energy consumption by 22.15 %

compared to the hemp concrete.

6
In Cameroon, 92% of the buildings are built with sand blocks [11] and the rest mostly with

lateritic brick or lateritic brick with additions of various aggregates. In most cases, only the

geotechnical properties are known.

The objective of this work was therefore to conduct a comparative study of thermophysical

properties (unknown) of three composite materials: black pouzzolan cement + water (E1), red

pouzzolan cement + water (E2) and sand + cement + water (E3). Indeed, the sand blocks

widely used for construction in large scale estate projects, have known mechanical properties

(flexural strength, tensile strength and compressive strength) but the thermal and acoustic

properties remain unknown. Meanwhile pouzzolan is a building material available in

Cameroon throughout the volcanic line, particularly in the slopes of mount Cameroon, the

slopes of Mount Manengouba, the Tombel plain, the Noun plain, the lake Nyos and

Adamaoua plateau. Although several authors have used black pouzzolan as adding aggregates

for the manufacturing of composite materials [7, 12, 13], no work has been previously

reported on the thermophysical properties of composite building materials containing only

pouzzolan. Also, no work has been previously reported concerning the red pouzzolan. In this

work the idea is to estimate the thermal properties of these three composite materials and to

determine which among them can constitute a system of energy saving while ensuring good

thermal comfort of the building and thus justify its choice for construction projects.

The asymmetrical hot plate method which is a transient method is used for measuring their

thermal properties (E, ρCp, λ). The sensitivity analysis of the experimental temperature to the

thermophysical properties is carried out. The effect of the water content on the volumetric

heat capacity and the thermal conductivity is investigated. Finally, the experimental values of

volumetric heat capacity of the composite building materials enable the estimation of the

volumetric heat capacity of pouzzolans, sand and cement from a program of minimization of

7
the standard deviations. The last results are compared to those obtained using the DSC

method.

2. Materials and method

2.1 Materials

2.1.1 Pouzzolan sand

The pouzzolan is used in different regions of Cameroon and central Africa for the production

of concrete with sand or gravel. The pouzzolan studied in this work was collected from

Djoungo (Mungo division, Littoral region of Cameroon). The particles size distribution was

carried out by Leonelli et al. [14]. The results of the chemical analyses obtained from an

energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS) [14] are presented in Table 1. The pouzzolan

deposit in Djoungo has been exploited for a long time by CIMENCAM, a local cement

factory which produces its CPJ35 cement using the pouzzolan ash. In this deposit, two types

of pouzzolan (in the form of rocks) were extracted: red pouzzolan (RPZ) and black pouzzolan

(BPZ). The pouzzolan residues rejected by CIMENCAM were then recovered and dried at

105°C for 48 hours using an electric oven. After sieving using a standard electric sieve, we

retained the black and red pouzzolan aggregates with a maximumdiameterof1 mm.

Table 1: Chemical analysis of pouzzolan

2.12 Sand

The sands used in this workwere collected from two sites: one extracted from the Sanaga

River (central region of Cameroon) usually called Sanaga sand (SS) and the other extracted

from the region Ebebda (central region of Cameroon) generally called fine sand (FS).

8
Also after drying them with an oven at 105 °C for 48 h and sieving, those with a maximum

diameter 1 mm for Sanaga sand and maximum diameter 80 μm for fine sand were retained for

the study. In the Central region of Cameroon, almost all the buildings are made with the sand

cinder blocks.

2.1.3 Cement

The cement used is Composed Portland cement CPJ35 from CIMENCAM in Cameroon. Its

characteristics are presented in table 2.

Table 2: Composition of cement CPJ 35 [15, 16]

2.2 Sample preparation

The samples were molded using a mold of dimensions10 cm×10 cm×3 cm. The samples were

manufactured as follows:

- first, we realized the mixture with different materials according to the quantities

indicated in Table 3,

- once the mixture was realized, it was vibrated by means of a vibrating table for 15sand

stored in the molds,

- after 24 h, these samples were removed from the molds, weighed and packed in a

sealed plastic bag (with known weight and thickness0.05mm) for a period of 28 days

of curing (time required for cement-making to obtain an active material [17]).

Table 3 summarizes the composition of realized samples and Fig 1 presents the three samples.

Table 3: Samples compositions

9
Fig 1: cinder block Samples: a) E1: black pouzzolan; b) E2: red pouzzolan; c) E3: Sand

2.3 Experimental procedure

Symmetrical transient hot plate method [18] requires two similar samples, since it is difficult

to obtain two identical samples having the same water content, the thermal effusivity (E) and

the volumetric heat capacity (ρCp) were measured using the asymmetrical transient hot plate

method (using only one sample) already use by Bal et al. [19] and Abouchar et al. [6]. The

experimental device designed for measuring the thermal properties is shown in Fig 2.

Fig 2: Experimental device: a) general view; b) sectional view

A heating element having the same section (10 cm × 10 cm) as the sample was placed under

the sample. This disposal was placed between two extruded polystyrene blocks with a

thickness 5 cm set between two aluminium blocks of a thickness 4 cm. The temperature in

this aluminium block was no longer assumed to be independent of time independent but was

hL
assumed uniform. This last hypothesis is validated if the Biot number Bi  is lower than
Al

0.1 [20]. Considering h=10 W m-2 K-1, the thermal conductivity of the blocks Al=200 W m-1

K-1 and sample dimension: length and width L=l=10 cm it leads to Bi=0.01 so that the

temperature of the aluminium blocks may be considered as uniform. A flux step was then sent

into the heating element and the transient temperature Th(t) at the center of heating element

was recorded.

3. Modelling of heat transfer at the center of heating element

The process of recording Th(t) is realized assuming that the system is at a uniform

temperature T0 at the initial time and the sample is opaque.

10
3.1 3D model

If T (x, y, z, t) is the temperature through the sample, the heat transfer equation is:

 2T ( x, y, z, t )  2T ( x, y, z, t )  2T ( x, y, z, t ) 1 T ( x, y, z, t )
   (1)
x 2 y 2 z 2 a t

Fig 3: 3Dview of the experimental set up

The initial condition is:

t  0, T ( x, y, z,0)  T0 (2)

The boundary conditions are(see Fig2.bandFig 3):

T (0, y, z, t )
x0 0 (3)
x

T ( x, 0, z, t )
y0 0 (4)
x

T (x, y, 0, t ) Th (x, y, t )  T (x, y, 0, t )

z0   (5)
z Rchs

Ti (x, y, 0, t ) Th (x, y, t )  Ti (x, y, 0, t )

z0 i  (6)
z Rchi

xa 0 ze
T (a, y, z, t ) (7)
  h(T (a, y, z, t )  T0 )
z

y b 0 ze
T ( x, b, z, t ) (8)
  h(T ( x, b, z, t )  T0 )
z

Th ( x, y, t ) T ( x, y, 0, t ) T ( x, y, 0, t )
z0 0  h ch eh   i i (9)
t z z

11
z  es  ei  eAl , T ( x, y, es  ei  eAl , t )  T0 (10)

Where:

 is the thermal conductivity of the composites materials,

i is the polystyrene thermal conductivity,

Rchs is the thermal contact resistance at the interface of the heating element/sample,

Rchi is the thermal contact resistance at the interface of the heating element/polystyrene,

Rcsi is the thermal contact resistance at the interface of the sample/polystyrene,

h is the convection heat coefficient on the lateral sides of the samples,

a is the thermal diffusivity of the sample,

2a and 2b are the width and length of the samples respectively,

ei, es and eAl are thicknesses of the polystyrene block, sample and aluminum block

respectively

h, ch and ehare the density, the mass specific heat capacity and the thickness respectively of

the heating element.

Ti is the temperature at the center of the polystyrene block; Th is the temperature at the center

of the heating element

0 is the heat flux density produced in the heating element

Using the method of separation of variables it is not possible to solve equation (1) with its

boundary conditions through an analytical method because T (x, y, z, t), Th (x, y, t) and Ti (x, y,

z, t) are not equal and moreover there is no continuity in the thermal diffusivity on these

interfaces. The only way to solve it is through the numerical methods.

3.2 1D model

A simplified model may be established by considering the hypothesis that, the heat transferred

remains unidirectional (1D) at the center of the material during the experiment. This

12
hypothesis will be verified a posteriori by 3D simulation performed with the software Comsol

and by the analysis of the residues of estimation. With this hypothesis the temperature at the

center of the heating element depends only on the z coordinate and the time t.

Using the quadrupole formalism presented by Maillet et al [21], and neglecting the convection

lateral heat losses on lateral faces of the insulating material and considering the heating

element as a thin system, the following matrix relations can be written (see Fig 2.b):

- when the heat flux density (  01 ) leaving the heating element through the sample is

considered:

 c   1 0   1 SRchs   As Bs   1 S s Rcsi   Ai Bi   0 
       
  01   Ch p 1   0 1   Cs Ds   0 1   Ci Di   1 
(11)
 A B 0 
  
 C D  1 

- when the heat flux density leaving (  02 ) the heating element through the polystyrene

blocks is considered:

 c   1 Si Rchi   Ai Bi  0 
     (12)
 02   0 1   Ci Di    2 

Where:

 sh(qe) 
 As Bs   ch(qe) cp
   q  with q p and Ch  h ch eh
 Cs Ds   
ch(qe) 
E
  qsh(qe)

and:

 sh(qi ei ) 
 Ai Bi   ch(qi ei ) p i c pi
  i qi  with qi 
 Ci Di    i
 i qi sh(qi ei ) ch(qi ei ) 

Where:

- c ( z, p)  L(T ( z, t )) is Laplace transform of the temperature difference Th(z,t)-T0

- ( z, p)  L( ) is Laplace transform of the heat flux density 

13
 - ρCp is the volumetric heat capacity

- p is the Laplace parameter

- S is the section of the heating element supposed to be equal to Si and Ss

The total heat flux density is calculated from relation

0  1  2 (13)

Combining relations (11); (12) and (13), the system leads to:

0 1
c ( z, p)  (14)
p D Di
B Bi  SDi Rchi

3.3 Simplified 1D model

A simplified 1D model may also be written with the hypothesis that the heat transferred

remains 1D at the center of the system and added to that, both composite materials and

insulating materials are semi-infinite medium. Within these hypotheses, one can write:

- when the heat flux density (  01 ) leaving the heating element through the aggregates is

considered:

 c   1 0  1 SRchs   1 
      (15)
  01   Ch p 1   0 1   E  p 1 

- when the heat flux density leaving (  02 ) the heating element through the polystyrene

blocks is considered:

 c   Ai Bi    2 
     (16)
  02   Ci Di   Ei  p  2 

Where: E and Ei are the thermal effusivity of samples and insulating materials respectively.

Combining equations (15) and (16) yields to:

0  S 1
 c ( x, p )   (17)
p Ch Sp  (1  Rchs Ch Sp) ES p Ei S p

1  Rchs ES p 1  Rchi Ei S p

14
For sufficiently long times (p0):

E 2  Rchs  Ei 2  Rchi Ch 2  0
T (0, t  )  0  S  (  )  t (18)
( E  Ei ) 2
S ( E  Ei ) 2
( E  Ei )  

The thermal effusivity may be calculated with the simplified 1D model from numerical

calculation of the slope  (t) of the linear part of the curve T(t)=f( t )

2  0
E  Ei (19)
 

4. Analytical model of the volumetric heat capacity

The studied samples are made up of two solid phases: pouzzolan or sand and cement; a liquid

phase: water and a gaseous phase: air. Their composition can therefore be defined by the

following parameters:

mc
Cement content X c  (20)
mi

me
Dry basis water content X e  (21)
mi  me

Where:

mc is the mass of dry cement (kg),

mi is the mass of either pouzzolan or sand and me is the mass of water.

Neglecting the mass of air and taking into account the relations (20) and (21), the mass

specific heat capacity of the composite building material was calculated by the equation:

Cag  X e (1  X c )Ce  Cc X c
Cmod  C( X e , X c )  (22)
(1  X e )(1  X c )

Where: Cag , Cc and Ce are the mass specific heat capacity of pouzzolan or sand, cement and

water, respectively.

Since the studied composite building materials are porous, the porosity is such that:

15
 Ve  Va
 (23)
V

Where: V, VeandVa are the total volume of composite materials, volume of water and volume

of air, respectively.

Knowing the intrinsic density of aggregates ρag and cement ρc and the porosity, the apparent

density can be written as:

(1  X e )(1  X c )mag
mod  ( X e , Xc )

mag mc
  V
ag c

In this last relation, expressing the relation V/mag, the apparent density of composite building

material was thus calculated from relation (24):

(1  X e )(1  X c )
mod  ( X e , Xc )
 (24)
1 X
 c
ag c

One can deduce that, the volumetric heat capacity of the composite building material is:

Cag  X e (1  X c )Ce  Cc X c
(  C ) mod  (  C )( X e , X c )  (1   ) (25)
1 X
 c
ag c

5. The thermal properties estimation method

The thermal effusivity and the volumetric heat capacity were measured using the

asymmetrical hot plate method. Temperatures were measured with type K thermocouple made

with two wires of 0.005 mm in diameter; it was stuck at the center of the heating element

MINKO HK 5178. The calibration process was first carried out (Fig 4).

Fig 4: Scheme of calibration process of the heating element

16
The thermal conductivity of insulating material measured by the center plate method [22] is

0.032 W m-1 K-1 and its volumetric heat capacity is 48000 J m-3 K-1. With these data, using a

hot plane symmetrical minimization program, the estimated surface of the heating

elementis0.010141m2 and the estimated thermal capacity of the heating element per unit area

estimated with plastic bag is 585.80 J m-1 K-1. Estimation of the parameter E and cp are

achieved by the completed model taking as initial value, the value pre-estimated from the

simplified model with experimental temperatures. The pre-estimated value of volumetric heat

capacity may be approximated from the slope γ(t) of the linear part of the curve T(t)=f(t).

Within the hypothesis of the simplified 1D model, Eq.27 can be written:

1 o
cp  (  i c pi ei  h ch eh ) (26)
es 

Since the thermocouple was in contact with polystyrene which is a deformable material, the

presence of the thermocouple did not increase the thermal contact resistance between the

heating element and polystyrene. Moreover, since the polystyrene block is an insulating

material, the thermal contact resistance Rchi was neglected. The estimated value of the thermal

contact resistance Rchs multiplied by the cross sectional area of the heating element Sis

Rchs=0.00010141 K W-1 m2. The theoretical curve Tmod(t) was calculated from relation (14)

using the De Hoog algorithm [23]. The Levenberg Marquert algorithm was integrated in the

Matlab code to estimate the value of E and cp which minimized the sum of quadratic errors

n
    Texp (ti )  Tmod el (ti )  [24] between the experimental curve Texp (t )  T (0, t )  Ta and
2

i 1

theoretical curve. The estimation was done on a time interval [t0, tmax] such that residues are

small and perfectly centered around 0 °C which validates the 1D model.

17
6. Sensitivity analysis

Using the inverse of relation (17) of the simplified model by the De Hoog algorithm, the

reduced sensitivities of the experimental temperature Texp(t) to the parameters E, ρCp and SRchs

were calculated numerically. This sensitivity analysis allows us to check whether it is possible

to estimate the parameters E, ρCp and SRchs from the completed model at the same time. From

the values of Texp(t) (Fig 5), the pre-estimated values of E and ρCp were evaluated with

relations(19) and(20) respectively.

Fig 5: Temperatures curves for E2 a) T=f(t) b) T(t)=f( t )

For example the results for the cinder block of black pouzzolan gave at zero water content: E

=951 J m-2 K-1 s-1/2 and Cp=1.62657 106 J m-3 K-1. The sensitivities to the temperature for the

parameters E, Cp and SRchs were calculated and shown in Fig6.

Fig 6: Reduced sensitivity a) E1 b) E2 c) E3

Note that for the simplified model:

-the reduced sensitivities of the temperature to the thermal effusivity and the volumetric heat

capacity are high and uncorrelated for all samples and may be estimated separately for all

samples. An accurate estimation of E could be done between [0,600 s] for sample E1 and E2,

and [0,300 s] for sample E3

-the reduced sensitivity of the temperature of the thermal contact resistance between the

heating element and the sample is very low and could not be estimated accurately with this

method

18
- for the cinder block pouzzolan, the temperature is sensitive to Cp for long durations, (t≥ 600

s), unlike to the sand cinder blockwhereat400 s, temperature is already sensitive to Cp.

This study of the sensitivities shows that the developed model can lead to a good estimation

of E and Cp. The study by the completed model allow the estimation of the values of E

andCp that minimize the squared deviations between Texp(t) and Tmod(t).

7. Experimental results and discussion

7.1 Experimental results

The experimental studies focused on three types of cinderblocks (see Fig 1):

E1: black pouzzolan cinder block

E2: red pouzzolan cinder block

E3: sand cinder block

Fig 7 shows the profiles of the experimental and simulated temperature curves for a dry sand

cinder block (Fig7.a) and a sand cinder block with a water content of 5.4 % in equilibrium

with the ambient air (Fig7.b).

Fig. 7: Experimental and modeled curves with residues (×10) curves: a) Dry cinder block of

sand b) cinder block of sand with 5.4 % of water content

Fig. 7.b presents the residues curve and shows that the water content has a significant

influence on the thermophysical parameters. The residues are not centeredat0°C, indicating

that the quadrupole model developed is no longer valid to estimate thermophysical parameters

at this water content. Comparing Figs.5 and7.a, it can be observed that the developed

completed model minimizes the sum of quadratic errors between Texp(t) and Tmod(t).The steps

used to measure thermophysical properties were:

19
 - After the curing period of 28 days, the sample was weighed with the sealed plastic bag

and a first measurement (see Fig 2) of the thermophysical properties was performed.

- The sample was then removed from the plastic bag and placed in an electric oven at

105 °C for 24 h,

- After these 24 h, the sample was weighed again and packaged in the plastic bag for 48

h to obtain uniform water content throughout the sample and new thermal properties

were then measured after these 48 h,

- This process was repeated at least five times for each sample until the sample was

placed in the electric oven for 4 days. The mass of the dried sample was then

measured and a last measurement of the thermal properties was then carried out.

Three measures were carried out for each cinder block and the mean values were retained.

From the completed model, the asymmetrical hot plate method and experimental values of

temperature, an estimation of E and Cp= (Cp)exp was realized for five values of the water

content and the thermal conductivity was deduced from the relation:

E2

C p

Table 4 shows the estimated values of E, (Cp)exp, λ for two values of the water content.

Table 4: Estimated values with water content

Fig. 8 shows the evolution of the thermal conductivity as a function of water content.

Fig 8: Experimental values (with points) of the thermal conductivity as a function of water

content

20
In order to validate the results obtained experimentally of E, (Cp)exp, λ, we compare the

experimental results with theoretical model :(Cp)expandCmodel= C(Xe, Xc),and(Cp)exp=(ρCp) (Xe,

Xc)model.

For this, the values of the mass specific heat capacity of composite building materials

(  C p )exp
estimated with the asymmetrical hot plate method (C p )exp  were compared to those
exp

obtained by equation (22). Also the experimental values of volumetric heat capacity estimated

( C p )exp were compared to those obtained with relation (25). As such, in a first experiment,

the values of the mass specific heat capacity of the aggregates of BPZ, RPZ, sand and cement

were measured by the DSC method (SETARAMμDSC3). All the results are reported in table

5.

Tableau 5: Mass specific heat capacity obtained by DSC method and porosity

In this table, εag is the porosity εag of the aggregates is measured using the pycnometer

described by Bal et al [19]. The intrinsic density ρag is calculated using relation (27):

mag
ag  (27)
Vapp (1   ag )

Where:

mag is the dry mass of aggregates used to manufacture the composite building material,

Vapp is the apparent volume of aggregates.

 ag is the porosity of aggregates

21
With a cement content Xc= 20 %andCe =4186 J kg-1 K-1, we have calculated for each water

content the theoretical values of Cp and ρCp. The results obtained are reported in table 6.

Table 6: Mass specific heat capacity and volumetric heat capacity: experimental values and

theoretical values calculated with relations (22) and (25)

Fig. 9 shows the evolution of the volumetric heat capacity as a function of water content for

the experimental values (estimated) and theoretical values (calculated from relation (25)).

Fig 9: Experimental (with lines and points) and theoretical (theo) values with relation (25)

(with points) of the volumetric heat capacity cp as a function of water content

Comparing the results from these two methods of determination of Cp, the mean values of the

mass specific heat capacity estimated by the method of the asymmetrical hot plate on one

hand and by the values obtained with relation (22) from data given in table 5 on the other

hand are in good agreement (error <5.5 %). A good fit may also be noted between the mean

values of the volumetric heat capacities (ρCp) of the composites building materials estimated

by the asymmetrical hot plate method and those calculated with theoretical models (relation

26). The standard deviation is less than 3 % which is quite acceptable.

Similarly, the values of (C)BPZ, (C)RPZ , (C)sand and (C)ce were estimated by using a program

which minimizes the mean square deviation between the values of the mass specific heat

capacity calculated by the model and the experimental values (C)exp. This method leads to the

results shown in table7.

22
Table 7: Mass specific heat capacity of powder materials obtain from minimization of relation

(22)

The good fit observed between experimental results and theoretical models permit to conclude

that, the 1D quadrupolar model developed permitted the accurate estimation of the thermal

conductivity.

7.2 Discussion

Generally, the main physical parameter that classifies a material as an insulating material is

the thermal conductivity. Although the thermal conductivity increases with the water content

for all materials (Fig 8), the experimental results show that the pouzzolan blocks have a much

lower thermal conductivity than the sand blocks (λ=0.87 W m-1 K-1). The difference observed

in the thermal conductivity may probably be related to the air content in the composite

building material. It is known that, the more porous a material is, the lower its thermal

conductivity. By observing the results of porosity in table 5, the red pouzzolan aggregates is

the most porous aggregate. It is then evident from these results that, the red pouzzolan cinder

block with the lowest value of the thermal conductivity (λ=0.54 W m-1 K-1) contributes more

in energy saving in air conditioning buildings and thus permits a decrease in energy

consumption in the buildings.

Also, by observing Fig 9, we notice that the black pouzzolan cinder block has the highest

volumetric heat capacity, so it presents a high thermal inertia and should procure a better

thermal comfort than that of sand cinder block when using night ventilation strategy.

23
8. Conclusion

The objective of this paper was to conduct a comparative study of the thermophysical

properties of composite building materials cinder block of pouzzolans and cinder block of

sand. The method of the asymmetrical hot plate developed allowed a satisfactory

characterization of samples having water content less than 4 %. For samples with higher

water content, it was observed thatthequadrupole1Dmodelwas no longer valid to estimate the

thermophysical parameters (residues no longer centered around 0°C). This study therefore

demonstrated that the pouzzolans used in most cases, for concrete particularly in littoral

region of Cameroon could also be used as filling material. It can contribute to the reduction of

the energy consumption of a building and thus reduce the emissions of CO2. This study also

showed that the water content greatly affects the thermophysical properties of these materials.

It would be interesting to study the mass transfer phenomena on the thermophysical

parameters of these composite building materials which will permit to extend the results on

higher values of the water contents. This study will be done in the upcoming paper.

24
References

[1] GIEC, 2009: Climate change 2009: synthesis Reports. Contribution of working Groups to

the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Genève

[2] ADEME, Rapport Type 2011, Audit-Energétique-Bâtiment, www.ademe.fr

[3] EUEI, PDF, Politique Nationale Stratégie et Plan d’Action pour l’Efficacité Energétique

dans le secteur de l’Electricité au Cameroun. Rapport Final, 2014. www.euei-pdf.org

[4] A. Constantinos, G. Athina, G. Elena, M. Sevastianos, S. Yianni, European residentials

buildings stock: energy consumption emissions and potential Energy Savings. Buildings

Environnement, vol. 42, 2007, pp 1298-1314.

[5] A.Banazzok, O. Douzane, K. Mezreb, B. Laidouli and M. Quéneudec. Thermal

conductivity of cement composites caintainning rubber waste particles :Experimentals study

and modelling, Constrcution and Building Materials, 22 (2008), 573-579

[6] A. Cherki, B. Remy, A. Khabbazi, Y. Jannot and D. Baillis. Experimental thermal

properties characterization of insulating cork-gypsum composite, Construction and Building

Materials 54 (2014), 202-209

[7] P. Meukam, Valorisation des briques de terre stabilisée en vue de l’isolation thermique de

bâtiments. ThèseDoctoratSpécialitéEnergétiqueUniversitéCergyPontoise, Novembre 2004

[8] P. Meukam, A. Noumowe, Y. Jannot and R. Duval, Thermophysical and mechanical

characterization of stabilized clay bricks for buildings thermal insulation, Materials and

structures, Vol.36 (2003), pp453-460

[9] D. Samri, analyse physique et caractérisation hygrothermiques des matériaux de

construction: Approche expérimentale et modélisation numérique. Thse de doctorat, ENTPE,

N02008-ISAL-0067, 2008

25
[10] A. D. Trangle, Etude des transferts hygrothermiques dans le béton de chanvre et leur

application au bâtiment. Thèse de doctorat, Laboratoire GRESPI, tel-00590819, version, 3-14,

janvier 2012

[11] A. Elimbi et al. Protocole d’analyses des matières premières et produitsfinis au

laboratoire, MIPROMALO, 2005

[12] Benkaddour et al, Durabilité des mortiers à base de pouzzolan naturelle et artificielle.

Laboratoire LABMA. Révue Nature ettechnologie, 01-Juin 2009

[13] N. Billong, U. C. Melo, F. Louvet, D.Njopwouo, Properties of compressed lateritic soil

stabilized with a burnt clay-lime binder: Effect of mixture components. Construction and

building Materials 23(2009) 2457-2460, 2008

[14] C. Leonelli, E. Kamseu, D.N Boccaccini, U. C.Melo, A. Rizzuti, N. Billong and P.

Miselli, Volcanic ash as alternative raw materials for traditional vitrified ceramic products,

adances in Apllied Ceramics: 2007 Vol 106, n01

[15] M. Mbessa, T. T. Tatiese. Influence of the powder of pouzzolan on some properties of

the concrete: case of pouzzolan of Djoungo, Materials and Civil Engineering, Vol 14, 2001.

[16] O. Pepple, C.Ogbanda, F. Opara, Thermal conductivity of reinforced cement stabilized

lateritic brick, J. Eng. Sci (2010); 5(2), pp 178-80

[17] M.Tyouri and El Bouardi, Caractérisation Thermophysique d'un béton actif par la

méthode des quadripôles thermiques. 12ieme Journées Internationales de Thermique,Tanger,

Maroc du 15 au 17 Novembre 2005

[18] Y. Jannot, Cours de transfert thermique, oct 2003, www.thermique55.com

[19] H. Bal, Y. Jannot, N. Quenette, A. Chenu, S. Gaye. Water content dependence of the

porosity and thermal capacity of laterite based bricks with millet waste additive, Construction

and Building Materials 31 (2012), 144-150

26
[20] S. Bories, M.Prantt, Transferts de chaleur dans les milieux poreux, Tech. Ing (1995), B8

(250)

[21] D. Maillet, S. Andre, J.C. Batsale, A. Degiovanni and C. Moyne, Thermal Quadrupoles,

Wiley, New york, 2000 (1).

[22] Y. Jannot, B. Remy and A. Degiovanni, A centered hot plate method for measurement of

thermal properties oh thin insulating materials, Measurements Sciences and Technology, 21,

2010

[23] F. R. De Hoog, A improved method for numerical inversion of Laplace transforms,

(1982). Soc. Ind. App. Math 3 357-66

[24] P.E Gill and W. Murray, Algorithms for the solution of the non linear least-squares

problems, J. Numr.Anal, Vol 15, N0 5 (1978), pp:977-992

27
List of Figs

Fig 1: cinder block Samples: a) black pouzzolan; b) red pouzzolan c) Sand

Fig 2: Experimental device: a) general view; b) sectional view

Fig 3: 3D view of the experimental setup

Fig 4: Scheme of calibration process of the heating element

Fig 5: Temperatures curves for E2 a) T=f(t) b) T(t)=f( t )

Fig 6: Experimental and modeled curves with residues curves a) Dry cinder block of sand b)

cinder block of sand with 5 % of water content

Fig 7: Experimental values of the volumetric heat capacity Cp as a function of water content

Fig 8: Experimental values of the thermal conductivity as a function of water content

Fig 9: Experimental (with lines and points) and theoretical (theo) values with relation (26)

(with points) of the volumetric heat capacity Cp as a function of water content

28
Fig 1: cinderblock Samples: a) E1: black pouzzolan; b) E2: red pouzzolan; c) E3: Sand

29
a)

b)
Fig 2: Experimental device: a) general view; b) sectional view

30
Fig 3: 3D view of the experimental setup

31
Fig 4: Scheme of calibration process of the heating element

32
 12
Tmod
Texp
10
Tsemi-infinite
Tunheated face
8
T(C)

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
t(s)

a)

12
Tmod
Texp
10
Tsemi-infinite
Tunheated face

8
T(C)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
sqrt(t)

b)

Fig 5: Temperatures curves for E2 a) T=f(t) b) T(t)=f( t )

33
 6

2
Reduced sensitivity

-2

-4 SRc
rho.c
E
-6
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
t(s)

a)
1

-1

-2
Reduced sensitivity

-3

-4

-5

-6
SRc
-7 rho.c
E
-8
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
t(s)

b)
3

0
Reduced sensitivity

-1

-2

-3
SRc
-4 rho.c
E
-5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
t(s)

c)

Fig 6: Reduced sensitivity a) E1 b) E2 c) E3

34
 12
Texp
Tmod
10
Residusx10

6
T(C)

-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
t(s)

a)

12
Texp

10 Tmod
Residusx10

6
T(C)

-2

-4
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
t(s)

b)
Fig. 7: Experimental and modeled curves with residues (×10) curves: a) Dry cinder block of
sand b) cinder block of sand with 5.4 % of water content

35
 1.25
y = 8.0553x + 0.8683
1.15
Thermal conductivity (W/K m)

R² = 0.9837
1.05

0.95

0.85 y = 6.5039x + 0.5421 PZN 1mm

R² = 0.9958
0.75 PZR 1mm

0.65 Sand 1mm

0.55 y = 2.9228x + 0.5056

R² = 0.9868
0.45
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
water content (Xe)

Fig 8: Experimental values (with points) of the thermal conductivity as a function of water
content

36
 2.1 y = 10.114x + 1.6143
R² = 0.9883
2
ρCp*10-6 (J/kg K m3 )

1.9
y = 8.6223x + 1.5463
BPZ1mm
1.8 R² = 0.9698
RPZ1mm
1.7
Sand 1mm
1.6 y = 4.913x + 1.5063
R² = 0.9763 BPZtheo
1.5 RPZtheo
1.4 Sandtheo
1.3
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
water content (Xe)

Fig 9: Experimental (with lines and points) and theoretical (theo) values with relation (26)
(with points) of the volumetric heat capacity cp as a function of water content

37
List of tables

Table 1: Chemical analysis of pouzzolan

SiO2 AL2O3 CuO MgO Na2O K2O Fe2O TiO2 SO3 P2O5 MnO loss total
BPZ 45.57 15.94 8.97 5.76 3.28 1.03 12.81 2.89 0.29 0 0.03 0.2 96.77
RPZ 44.02 14.39 8.42 5.88 3.73 1.19 12.59 2.97 0.78 0 0.12 3.6 97.69

38
Table 2: Composition of cement CPJ 35 [9, 10]

Commercial name CPJ 35

Apparent voluminal mass(kg/l) 3.1
Grains diameter 80 μm
Real resistance class at 28 days 32 MPa
Constitutive elements Clinker Gypsum pouzzolan
65 % 5% 30 %

39
Tableau 3: Samples composition

Matériaux Ref Ce (g) PZ (g) Sand (g) Wa (l) Wa/Ce

BPZ 1 mm E1 100 500 × 0.1 1
RPZ 1 mm E2 100 500 × 0.1 1
Sand E3 100 500 375/SS 0.1 1
125/FS
Ce: cement; BPZ: black pouzzolan; RPZ: red pouzzolan; Wa: water; SS: Sanaga sand; FS: fine sand

40
Table 4: Estimated values with water content

ref Xe E (Cp)exp λ
(J m-2 K-1 s-1/2) (J m-3 K-1) (W m-1 K-1)
E1 1.761 1072.43 1.77 106 0.64
0 945.31 1.62 106 0.54
E2 1.553 952.78 1.64 106 0.55
0 889.35 1.57 106 0.50
E3 1.153 1257.10 1.57 106 0.94
0 1143.45 1.49 106 0.87

41
Table 5: Mass specific heat capacity obtained by DSC method

DSC method
Powder BPZ RPZ Sand Cement
Cp (J kg-1 K-1) 771.56 769.56 763.048 894.49
Pycnometer method
εag 0.52 0.53 0.42 0.35
Intrinsic density
φag 2852.72 2853.18 2482.67 1532.47

42
Table 6: Mass specific heat capacity: experimental values and theoretical values calculated

with relations (23) and (26)

Ref Xe (Cp)exp C(Xe, Xc) (ρCp)exp (ρCp) (Xe, Xc) D1 (%) D2 (%)
(J kg-1 K-1) (J kg-1 K-1) (J m-3 K-1) (J m-3 K-1)
E1 3.88 970.16 918.92 2.01 106 2.02 106 5.28 0.04
2.91 933.09 888.08 1.92 106 1.93 106 4.82 0.55
2.22 890.38 865.92 1.82 106 1.87 106 2.74 2.69
1.76 870.44 850.79 1.77 106 1.83 106 2.25 3.19
0.94 848.86 823.75 1.71 106 1.76 106 2.95 2.52
0 813.01 792.03 1.62 106 1.66 106 2.57 2.93
E2 0 780.07 792.36 1.57 106 1.59 106 1.30 1.59
E3 0 788.38 791.63 1.45 106 1.45 106 0.53 1.41
D1 (%) standard deviation between (Cp)exp and C(Xe, Xc); D2 (%) standard deviation between (ρCp)exp and (ρCp) (Xe, Xc)

43
Table 7: Mass specific heat capacity of powder materials estimated with relation (23)

Cp (J kg-1 K-1)
Powder DSC method Minimization of C(Xe,Xc) D (%)
BPZ 771.559 789.64 2.289
RPZ 769.562 787.56 2.286
Sand 763.047 779.34 2.090
Cement 894.418 914.22 2.156
D (%) standard deviation between (cp) DSC and C(Xe, Xc)

44