Hindi

Modern Standard Hindi (आधुनिक मानक हिन्दी, Ādhunik Mānak Hindī),[9] commonly referred to as
Hindi, is the standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in Devanagari script. It is the Hindi
official language of India alongside English and the lingua franca of North India. Hindi is हिन्दी, Hindī
considered a Sanskritised register[10] of the Hindustani language, which itself is based primarily on
the Khariboli dialect of Delhi and neighbouring areas.[11][12][13] It is an official language in nine
states and three union territories and an additional official language in three other
states.[14][15][16][17] Hindi is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India.[18]

Hindi is also spoken, to a lesser extent, in other parts of India (usually in a simplified or pidginised
variety such as Bazaar Hindustani or Haflong Hindi).[14][15] Outside India, several other languages
are recognised officially as "Hindi" but do not refer to the Standard Hindi language described here The word "Hindi" in Devanagari script
and instead descend from other nearby languages, such as Awadhi and Bhojpuri. Such languages
Pronunciation [ˈɦɪndiː]
include Fiji Hindi, which has an official status in Fiji,[19] and Caribbean Hindustani, which is spoken
Native to India
in Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Guyana.[20][21][22][23] Apart from the script and formal
vocabulary, standard Hindi is mutually intelligible with standard Urdu, another recognised register Region Hindi Belt (Western Uttar
of Hindustani, as both Hindi and Urdu share a core vocabulary base derived from Prakrit (a Pradesh, Delhi)

descendant of Sanskrit).[24][25][26][27] Total speakers L1: 345 million speakers of

Hindi and various related
Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, Spanish and English.[28] languages who reported
their language as
If counted together with the mutually intelligible Urdu, it is the third most-spoken language in the
'Hindi' (2011 census)[1][2]
world, after Mandarin and English.[29][30] According to reports of Ethnologue (2022, 25th edition) L2: 264 million (2020)[2]
Hindi is the third most-spoken language in the world including first and second language
Language family Indo-European
speakers.[31]
Indo-Iranian
Hindi is the fastest growing language of India, followed by Kashmiri, Meitei, Gujarati and Bengali Indo-Aryan
according to the 2011 census of India.[32]
Central Indo-Aryan

Western Hindi[3]
Terminology Hindustani[3]
Hindi
The term Hindī originally was used to refer to inhabitants of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It was
borrowed from Classical Persian ‫ هندی‬Hindī (Iranian Persian pronunciation: Hendi), meaning 'of or Early forms Shauraseni Prakrit
belonging to Hind (India)' (hence, 'Indian').[33] Apabhraṃśa

Another name Hindavī (हिन्दवी) or Hinduī (हिन्दुई) (from Persian ‫' هندوی‬of or belonging to the Old Hindi
Hindu/Indian people') was often used in the past, for example by Amir Khusrau in his poetry.[34][35] Hindustani
Rekhta
The terms Hindi and Hindu trace back to Old Persian which derived these names from the Sanskrit
name Sindhu (सिन्धु), referring to the Indus River. The Greek cognates of the same terms are Indus Writing system
Devanagari (official)
(for the river) and India (for the land of the river).[36][37] Kaithi (historical)

The term Modern Standard Hindi is commonly used to specifically refer the modern literary Hindi Mahajani (historical)
language, as opposed to colloquial and regional varieties that are also referred to as Hindi in a wider Laṇḍā (historical)[4]
sense.[38] Latin (Hinglish,
unofficial)[5]
Devanagari Braille

History Signed forms Signed Hindi

Official status
Official language in
Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi India

Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit, Bihar
through Shauraseni Prakrit and Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa (from Sanskrit apabhraṃśa "corrupt"), Chhattisgarh
which emerged in the 7th century CE.[39] Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
The sound changes that characterised the transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi are:[40] Jharkhand
Madhya Pradesh
Compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding geminate consonants, sometimes with
spontaneous nasalisation: Skt. hasta "hand" > Pkt. hattha > hāth Rajasthan
Loss of all word-final vowels: rātri "night" > rattī > rāt Uttar Pradesh
Uttarakhand
Formation of nasalised long vowels from nasal consonants (-VNC- > -V̄̃C-): bandha
"bond" > bā̃dh Recognised minority South Africa (protected
language in language)[6]
Loss of unaccented or unstressed short vowels (reflected in schwa deletion): susthira
"firm" > sutthira > suthrā United Arab Emirates
(third official court
 Collapsing of adjacent vowels (including separated by a hiatus: apara "other" > avara > language)[7]
aur Regulated by Central Hindi Directorate[8]
Final -m to -ṽ: grāma "village" > gāma > gāṽ Language codes
Intervocalic -ḍ- to -ṛ- or -l-: taḍāga "pond" > talāv, naḍa "reed" > nal. ISO 639-1 hi (https://www.lo
v > b: vivāha "marriage" > byāh c.gov/standards/iso
639-2/php/langcodes
_name.php?iso_639_1
Hindustani =hi)
During the period of Delhi Sultanate in medieval India, which covered most of today's north India, ISO 639-2 hin (https://www.lo
eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh[41] and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and c.gov/standards/iso
639-2/php/langcodes
Muslim cultures, the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from
_name.php?code_ID=1
Persian, evolving into the present form of Hindustani.[42][43][44][45][46][47] Hindi achieved 88)
prominence in India after it became the official language of the imperial court during the reign of ISO 639-3 hin
Shah Jahan.[48] It is recorded that Emperor Aurangzeb spoke in Hindvi.[49] The Hindustani
Glottolog hind1269 (https://g
vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence
lottolog.org/resour
movement,[50][51] and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern ce/languoid/id/hind
Indian subcontinent,[52] which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and 1269)
songs.[53][54] Linguasphere 59-AAF-qf (http://w
ww.hortensj-garden.
Standard Hindi is based on the language that was spoken in the Ganges-Yamuna Doab (Delhi, org/index.php?tnc=1
Meerut and Saharanpur) called Khariboli;[39][55] the vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding region &tr=lsr&nid=59-AAF-
came to replace earlier prestige languages such as Awadhi and Braj. Standard Hindi was developed qf)
by supplanting foreign loanwords from the Hindustani language and replacing them with Sanskrit
words, though Standard Hindi does continue to possess several Persian loanwords.[56][57][58]
Modern Hindi became a literary language in the 19th century. Earliest examples could be found as
Prēm Sāgar by Lallu Lal, Batiyāl Pachīsī of Sadal Misra, and Rānī Kētakī Kī Kahānī of Insha Allah
Khan which were published in Devanagari script during the early 19th century.[59]

John Gilchrist was principally known for his study of the Hindustani language, which was adopted
as the lingua franca of northern India (including what is now present-day Pakistan) by British
colonists and indigenous people. He compiled and authored An English-Hindustani Dictionary, A
Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language, The Oriental Linguist, and many more. His lexicon of
Hindustani was published in the Perso-Arabic script, Nāgarī script, and in Roman transliteration.In
the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as a standardised form of Hindustani
separate from Urdu took form.[60] In 1881, Bihar accepted Hindi as its sole official language,
replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi.[61] However, in 2014, Urdu
was accorded second official language status in the state.[62]
Distribution of L1 self-reported speakers of Hindi in
India as per the 2011 Census
Independent India
After independence, the Government of India instituted the following conventions:

Standardisation of grammar: In 1954, the Government of India set up a committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee's report
was released in 1958 as A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi.[63]
Standardisation of the orthography, using the Devanagari script, by the Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture
to bring about uniformity in writing, to improve the shape of some Devanagari characters, and introducing diacritics to express sounds
from other languages.
On 14 September 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted Hindi written in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Republic of India
replacing the previous usage of Hindustani in the Perso-Arabic script in the British Indian Empire.[64][65][66] To this end, several stalwarts rallied and
lobbied pan-India in favour of Hindi, most notably Beohar Rajendra Simha along with Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Kaka Kalelkar, Maithili Sharan Gupt and
Seth Govind Das who even debated in Parliament on this issue. As such, on the 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts
came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language.[67] Now, it is celebrated as Hindi Day.[68]

Official status

India
Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Union. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union have been
prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English:

(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the
Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.[20]
(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language
shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement:
Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language
and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the
Union.[69]
Article 351 of the Indian constitution states:

It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for
all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms,
style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever
necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.

It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article
351),[70] with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on
non-native speakers, especially in South India (such as those in Tamil Nadu) led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for
the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread
of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies.[71]

Article 344 (2b) stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for the progressive use of Hindi
language and impose restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government. In practice, the official language commissions are constantly
endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government.

At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.[72] Hindi is an official language of Gujarat, along with Gujarati.[73] It acts as an additional official
language of West Bengal in blocks and sub-divisions with more than 10% of the population speaking Hindi.[74][75][76] Similarly, Hindi is accorded the
status of official language in the following Union Territories: Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.

Although there is no specification of a national language in the constitution, it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India. This is
often a source of friction and contentious debate.[77][78][79] In 2010, the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India
because the constitution does not mention it as such.[80][81]

Fiji
Outside Asia, the Awadhi language (an Eastern Hindi dialect) with influence from Bhojpuri, Bihari languages, Fijian and English is spoken in Fiji.[82][83] It
is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji,[84] where it referred to it as "Hindustani"; however, in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji, it is
simply called "Fiji Hindi" as the official language.[85] It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.[82]

Nepal
Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77,569 people in Nepal according to the 2011 Nepal census, and further by 1,225,950 people as a second
language.[86] A Hindi proponent, Indian-born Paramananda Jha, was elected vice-president of Nepal. He took his oath of office in Hindi in July 2008. This
created protests in the streets for 5 days; students burnt his effigies, and there was a general strike in 22 districts. Nepal Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that
his oath in Hindi was invalid and he was kept "inactive" as vice-president. An "angry" Jha said, "I cannot be compelled to take the oath now in Nepali. I
might rather take it in English."[87]

South Africa
Hindi is a protected language in South Africa. According to the Constitution of South Africa, the Pan South African Language Board must promote and
ensure respect for Hindi along with other languages.[6] According to a doctoral dissertation by Rajend Mesthrie in 1985, although Hindi and other Indian
languages have existed in South Africa for the last 125 years, there are no academic studies of any of them – of their use in South Africa, their evolution
and current decline.[88]

United Arab Emirates

Hindi is adopted as the third official court language in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.[7] As a result of this status, the Indian workforce in UAE can file their
complaints to the labour courts in the country in their own mother-tongue.[89]

Geographical distribution
Hindi is the lingua franca of northern India (which contains the Hindi Belt), as well as an official language of the Government of India, along with
English.[69]

In Northeast India a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has developed as a lingua franca for the people living in Haflong, Assam who speak other languages
natively.[90] In Arunachal Pradesh, Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively.[91]

Hindi is quite easy to understand for many Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi, is a standard register of the Hindustani language; additionally,
Indian media are widely viewed in Pakistan.[92]

A sizeable population in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul, can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood
films, songs and actors in the region.[93][94]
Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis (people having roots in north-India but having migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) of
Nepal. Apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the "Hindi Belt" of India. A substantially large
North Indian diaspora lives in countries like the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana,
Suriname, South Africa, Fiji and Mauritius, where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities. Outside India,
Hindi speakers are 8 million in Nepal; 863,077 in the United States of America;[95][96] 450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji;[82] 250,292 in South Africa;
150,000 in Suriname;[97] 100,000 in Uganda; 45,800 in the United Kingdom;[98] 20,000 in New Zealand; 20,000 in Germany; 26,000 in Trinidad and
Tobago;[97] 3,000 in Singapore.

Comparison with Standard Urdu

Linguistically, Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible.[99] Both Hindi and Urdu share a core vocabulary of
native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived words.[24][100][25] However, Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more direct tatsama Sanskrit-derived
words than Urdu, whereas Urdu is written in the Perso-Arabic script and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords compared to Hindi.[56] Because of this,
as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar,[13][24][100] a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of the
same language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu.[99][13][24][12] Hindi is the most commonly used scheduled language in India and is one of the two official
languages of the union,[101] the other being English. Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan and is one of 22 scheduled languages of
India, also having official status in Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Telangana,[102] Andhra Pradesh[103] and Bihar.[104]

Script
Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, an abugida. Devanagari consists of 11 vowels and 33 consonants and is written from left to right. Unlike Sanskrit,
Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to mark schwa deletion in spoken Standard Hindi.[105]

Romanisation
The Government of India uses Hunterian transliteration as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script. Various other systems also exist, such as
IAST, ITRANS and ISO 15919.
Romanised Hindi, also called Hinglish, is the dominant form of Hindi online. In an analysis of YouTube comments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52%
of comments were in Romanised Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% in Devanagari Hindi.[5]

Phonology

Consonants Vowels
Examples Examples
Devanagari English Devanagari English
IPA ISO IPA ISO
Hindi Urdu representation approximation Hindi Urdu representation approximation
15919 15919

b बीस ‫بیس‬ bīs ब् cabbie aː काम ‫کام‬ kām आ or ा father

‫ب ھالو‬ ‫ج‬
‫یب‬
bʱ भालू bhālū भ् clubhouse eː जेब jeb ए or े mail

d[106] दाल ‫دال‬ dāl द् the ɛ[116] रहना ‫رہ ن ا‬ rêhnā ऐ or ै pen

‫دھوپ‬ ‫کی سا‬

adhere (but
dʱ[106] धूप dhūp ध्
dental) ɛː कै सा kaisā ऐ or ै fairy

dʒ जान ‫ج ان‬ jān ज् budging ə कल ‫َک ل‬ kal अ about

‫ج‬
dʒʱ झड़ना ‫ھڑ ن ا‬ jhaṛnā झ् hedgehog ɪ जितना ‫ِج ت ن ا‬ jitnā इ or ि sit

ɖ[106] डालना ‫ڈ الن ا‬ ḍālnā ड् American bird iː जीतना ‫ج یتنا‬ jītnā ई or ी seat

‫ڈ ّک‬
‫ھن‬ ‫ب ولو‬
American
ɖʱ[106] ढक्कन ḍhakkan ढ्
birdhouse oː बोलो bolo ओ or ो grow

f ख़िलाफ़ ‫خ لاف‬ k͟ hilāf फ़् fuss ɔː कौन ‫َک ون‬ kaun औ or ौ job

ɡ गोल ‫گول‬ gol ग् ago ʊ उन ‫ُا ن‬ un उ or ु book

ɡʱ घर ‫گھر‬ ghar घ् loghouse uː ऊन ‫ُا ون‬ ūn ऊ or ू moon

‫ہ‬
‫٘ن س‬
The pause in
"uh-oh!", butter हँस ham̐ s
nasal vowel
ʔ[107] ‫اعت ب ار‬
[a]
एतबार iʻtibār "bu'er" (t-
◌̃ ँ faun
glottalizing
‫َم ی ں‬
([ãː, õː], etc.)
dialects) मैं maī̃

‫ب اغ‬
Similar to the
ɣ[109] बाग़ bāġ ग़्
French R Suprasegmentals

‫ہ‬
‫م‬
IPA Example Notes
हम ham ह्
stress
ɦ ahead ˈ◌ [ˈbaːɦər]
‫ک‬
(placed before stressed syllable)
हुक्म ‫ح م‬ h̤ ukm ह्
doubled consonant
◌ː [ˈʊtːəɾ pɾəˈdeːʃ]
(placed after doubled consonant)
j याद ‫ی اد‬ yād य् yuck

k कमज़ोर ‫کمز ور‬ kamzor क् scab

kʰ खाल ‫کھال‬ khāl ख् cab

l ‫لب‬
लब lab ल् leaf

m मगर ‫مگر‬ magar म् much

n नहीं ‫نہی ں‬ nahī̃ न् panther

ɳ[110] किरण ‫کرن‬ kiraṇ ण् American burn

ŋ रंग ‫ر٘ن گ‬ raṅg ङ् or bang

p पल ‫پل‬ pal प् spot

 pʰ फल ‫پ ھل‬ phal फ् pot

‫قر یب‬
somewhat like
q[109] क़रीब qarīb ‌क़्
caught

रस ‫رس‬ ras र्
r[111] Trilled ring
ज़र्रा ‫ذ ّر ہ‬ zarra र्

ɾ[111] ज़रा ‫ذ را‬ zarā र् American atom

‫لڑ ن ا‬
American
ɽ लड़ना laṛnā ड़
garter

‫پ ڑ ھا ئ ی‬
no English
ɽʱ पढ़ाई paṛhāī ढ़
equivalent

‫سب‬
सब sab

s साफ़ ‫صاف‬ s̤ āf स् sun

‫ث ابت‬
साबित s̱ ābit

‫ن‬
‫ش ٹ‬
ʂ[110] नष्ट naṣṭ ष् shrew

ʃ काश
‫کاش‬ kāś श् shoe

‫ت الاب‬
तालाब tālāb
similar to
[106]
t त् outthink,

‫لطی ف ہ‬
Spanish tomar
लतीफ़ा lat̤ īfā

tʰ[106] थैला ‫ت ھی لا‬ thailā थ् tub (but dental)

tʃ चोर ‫چ ور‬ cor च् catch

‫چ‬
tʃʰ छोड़ना ‫ھوڑ ن ا‬ choṛnā छ् achoo

‫ٹ ماٹر‬
stub (but
ʈ[106] टमाटर ṭamāṭar ‌ट्
retroflex)

‫ٹ ھن ڈ‬
tub (but
ʈʰ[106] ठं ड ṭhanḍ ठ्
retroflex)

ʋ[112] वर्ज़िश
‫ورز ش‬ varziś व् vat

w[112] पकवान ‫پ كوان‬ pakvān व् well

x[109] ‫خ راب‬ k͟ harāb

ख़राब ख़् Scottish loch

z[109] ‫کاغ ذ‬
काग़ज़ kāġaz ज़् zoo

ʒ[109][113] अझ़दहा[114] ‫اژ دہا‬ aždahā झ़् pleasure[115]

Vocabulary
Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology:

Tatsam (तत्सम transl. "same as that") words: These are words which are spelled the same in Hindi as in Sanskrit (except for the absence
of final case inflections).[117] They include words inherited from Sanskrit via Prakrit which have survived without modification (e.g. Hindi
नाम nām / Sanskrit नाम nāma, "name",[118] as well as forms borrowed directly from Sanskrit in more modern times (e.g. प्रार्थना prārthanā,
"prayer").[119] Pronunciation, however, conforms to Hindi norms and may differ from that of classical Sanskrit. Amongst nouns, the tatsam
word could be the Sanskrit non-inflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension.
Ardhatatsam (अर्धतत्सम transl. "semi-tatsama") words: Such words are typically earlier loanwords from Sanskrit which have undergone
sound changes subsequent to being borrowed. (e.g. Hindi सूरज sūraj from Sanskrit सूर्य sūrya)
 Tadbhav (तद्भव transl. "born of that") words: These are native Hindi words derived from Sanskrit after undergoing phonological rules (e.g.
Sanskrit कर्म karma, "deed" becomes Shauraseni Prakrit कम्म kamma, and eventually Hindi काम kām, "work") and are spelled differently
from Sanskrit.[117]
Deshaj (देशज transl. "of the country") words: These are words that were not borrowings from non-indigenous languages but do not derive
from attested Indo-Aryan words either. Belonging to this category are onomatopoetic words or ones borrowed from local non-Indo-Aryan
languages.
Videshī (विदेशी transl. "foreign") words: These include all loanwords from non-indigenous languages. The most frequent source languages
in this category are Persian, Arabic, English and Portuguese. Examples are क़िला qila "fort" from Persian, कमेटी kameṭī from English
committee.

Prakrit
Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from Shauraseni Prakrit, in the form of tadbhava words.[25] This process usually involves
compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g. Sanskrit tīkṣṇa > Prakrit tikkha > Hindi tīkhā.

Sanskrit
Much of Standard Hindi's vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit as tatsam borrowings, especially in technical and academic fields. The formal Hindi
standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by neologisms compounding tatsam words, is called Śuddh
Hindi (pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi.

Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for native speakers. They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in
Hindustani, causing difficulties in pronunciation.[120]

As a part of the process of Sanskritisation, new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary.
Usually these neologisms are calques of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi. Some terms such as dūrbhāṣ "telephone", literally "far-speech"
and dūrdarśan "television", literally "far-sight" have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in the place of the English borrowings (ṭeli)fon and
ṭīvī.[121]

Persian
Hindi also features significant Persian influence, standardised from spoken Hindustani.[56][38] Early borrowings, beginning in the mid-12th century, were
specific to Islam (e.g. Muhammad, Islām) and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic. Later, under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire,
Persian became the primary administrative language in the Hindi heartland. Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century, pervading all aspects
of life. Even grammatical constructs, namely the izafat, were assimilated into Hindi.[122]

The status of Persian language then and thus its influence, is also visible in Hindi proverbs:

हाथ कं गन को आरसी क्या, Hāth kaṅgan ko ārsī kyā, What is mirror to a hand with bangles,
पढ़े लिखे को फ़ारसी क्या। Paṛhe likhe ko Fārsī kyā. What is Persian to a literate.

The emergence of Modern Standard Hindi in the 19th century went along with the Sanskritisation of its vocabulary,[123] leading to a marginalisation of
Persian vocabulary in Hindi, which continued after Partition when the Indian government co-opted the policy of Sanskritisation. However, many Persian
words (e.g. bas "enough", khud "self") have remained entrenched in Standard Hindi, and a larger amount are still used in Urdu poetry written in the
Devanagari script. Many words borrowed from Persian in turn were loanwords from Arabic (e.g. muśkil "difficult", havā "air", x(a)yāl "thought", kitāb
"book").

Loanwords from Persian derived from Arabic[124]

Perso-Arabic word Hindi word Gloss

‫ وقت‬waqt वक़्त vaqt time

‫ قميص‬qamīṣ क़मीज़ qamīz shirt

‫ كتاب‬kitāb किताब kitāb book

‫ نصيب‬naṣīb नसीब nasīb destiny

‫ كرسي‬kursiyy कु र्सी kursī chair

‫ حساب‬ḥisāb हिसाब hisāb calculation

‫ قانون‬qānūn क़ानून qānūn law

‫ خبر‬ḵabar ख़बर xabar news

‫ دنيا‬dunyā दुनिया duniyā world

क़ानून ultimately comes from the Greek κανών (kanōn).

क़मीज़ ultimately comes from the Latin "camisia" pronunciation reinforced by Portuguese "camisa".

English
Hindi also makes extensive use of loan translation (calqueing) and occasionally phono-semantic matching of English.[125]

Portuguese
Many Hindustani words were derived from Portuguese due to interaction with colonists and missionaries:

Hindi Meaning Portuguese

anānās (अनानास) pineapple ananás

pādrī (पाद्री) priest padre

bālṭī (बाल्टी) bucket balde

čābī (चाबी) key chave

girjā (गिर्जा) church igreja

almārī (अलमारी) cupboard armário

botal (बोतल) bottle botelha

aspatāl (अस्पताल) hospital Hospital

olandez (ओलंदेज़) Dutch holandês

Media

Literature
Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being Bhakti (devotional – Kabir, Raskhan); Śṛṇgār (beauty – Keshav, Bihari);
Vīgāthā (epic); and Ādhunik (modern).

Medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and the composition of long, epic poems. It was primarily written in other
varieties of Hindi, particularly Avadhi and Braj Bhasha, but to a degree also in Delhavi, the basis for Standard Hindi. During the British Raj, Hindustani
became the prestige dialect.

Chandrakanta, written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi.[126] The person who brought
realism in Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive
movement. Literary, or Sāhityik, Hindi was popularised by the writings of Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Bhartendu Harishchandra and others. The rising
numbers of newspapers and magazines made Hindustani popular with educated people.

The Dvivedī Yug ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who played a major role in
establishing Standard Hindi in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love.

In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as Chāyāvād (shadow-ism) and the literary figures belonging to this school are
known as Chāyāvādī. Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant, are the four major Chāyāvādī poets.

Uttar Ādhunik is the post-modernist period of Hindi literature, marked by a questioning of early trends that copied the West as well as the excessive
ornamentation of the Chāyāvādī movement, and by a return to simple language and natural themes.

Internet
Hindi literature, music, and film have all been disseminated via the internet. In 2015, Google reported a 94% increase in Hindi-content consumption year-
on-year, adding that 21% of users in India prefer content in Hindi.[127] Many Hindi newspapers also offer digital editions.

Sample text
The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):

Hindi in Devanagari Script

अनुच्छेद १(एक): सभी मनुष्य जन्म से स्वतन्त्र तथा मर्यादा और अधिकारों में समान होते हैं। वे तर्क और विवेक से सम्पन्न हैं तथा उन्हें भ्रातृत्व की भावना से परस्पर के प्रति
कार्य करना चाहिए।

Transliteration (ISO)

Anucchēd 1 (ēk): Sabhī manuṣya janma sē svatantra tathā maryādā aur adhikārō̃ mē̃ samān hōtē haĩ. Vē tark aur vivēk sē sampanna
haĩ tathā unhē̃ bhrātr̥ tva kī bhāvanā sē paraspar kē pratī kārya karnā cāhiē.
Transcription (IPA)
[ənʊtːʃʰeːd eːk | səbʰiː mənʊʂjə dʒənmə seː sʋət̪ ənt̪ ɾə t̪ ətʰaː məɾjaːd̪ aː ɔːɾ əd̪ ʰɪkaːɾõː mẽː səmaːn hoːteː hɛ̃ː‖ ʋeː t̪ əɾk ɔːɾ ʋɪʋeːk seː
səmpənːə hɛ̃ː t̪ ətʰaː ʊnʰẽː bʰɾaːtɾɪt̪ ʋə kiː bʰaːʋənaː seː pəɾəspəɾ keː pɾət̪ iː kaːɾjə kəɾnaː tʃaːhɪeː‖]
Gloss (word-to-word)
Article 1 (one) – All humans birth from independent and dignity and rights in equal are. They logic and conscience from endowed are
and they fraternity in the spirit of each other towards work should.
Translation (grammatical)
 Article 1 – All humans are born independent and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with logic and conscience and they
should work towards each other in the spirit of fraternity.

See also
Hindi Belt
Bengali Language Movement (Manbhum)
Hindi Divas – the official day to celebrate Hindi as a language.
Languages of India
Languages with official status in India
Indian states by most spoken scheduled languages
List of English words of Hindi or Urdu origin
List of Hindi channels in Europe (by type)
List of languages by number of native speakers in India
List of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi
World Hindi Secretariat

Notes
a. Urdu transliteration. The Hindi variant is usually written as एतबार (etbār). Rekhta Dictionary transliterates this term as ए'तिबार (e'tibār) in
Devanagari.[108]

References
1. "Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength 12. Basu, Manisha (2017). The Rhetoric of Hindutva (https://books.g
- 2011" (http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-20 oogle.com/books?id=E7gtDQAAQBAJ). Cambridge University
11/Statement-1.pdf) (PDF). Registrar General and Census Press. ISBN 978-1-107-14987-8. "Urdu, like Hindi, was a
Commissioner of India. 29 June 2018. standardized register of the Hindustani language deriving from
2. Hindi (https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hin) at Ethnologue the Delhi dialect and emerged in the eighteenth century under the
(27th ed., 2024) rule of the late Mughals."
3. Hindustani (2005). Keith Brown (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language 13. Peter-Dass, Rakesh (2019). Hindi Christian Literature in
and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4. Contemporary India (https://books.google.com/books?id=hxmvD
4. Gangopadhyay, Avik (2020). Glimpses of Indian Languages. wAAQBAJ). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-00-070224-8. "Two forms of
the same language, Nagarai Hindi and Persianized Hindi (Urdu)
Evincepub publishing. p. 43. ISBN 9789390197828.
had identical grammar, shared common words and roots, and
5. Palakodety, Shriphani; KhudaBukhsh, Ashiqur R.; Jayachandran, employed different scripts."
Guha (2021), "Low Resource Machine Translation" (https://dx.do
14. Kawoosa, Vijdan Mohammad (22 November 2018). "How
i.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5625-5_5), Low Resource Social
Media Text Mining, SpringerBriefs in Computer Science, languages intersect in India" (https://www.hindustantimes.com/ind
Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 7–9, doi:10.1007/978-981- ia-news/how-languagesintersect-in-india/story-g3nzNwFppYV7Xv
16-5625-5_5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-16-5625-5_5), CumRzlYL.html). Hindustan Times. Archived (https://web.archive.
ISBN 978-981-16-5624-8, ISSN 2191-5768 (https://search.worldc org/web/20221015014438/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-
news/how-languagesintersect-in-india/story-g3nzNwFppYV7XvC
at.org/issn/2191-5768), S2CID 244313560 (https://api.semanticsc
holar.org/CorpusID:244313560), retrieved 24 September 2022 umRzlYL.html) from the original on 15 October 2022.
6. "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1: 15. "How many Indians can you talk to?" (https://www.hindustantime
s.com/static/iframes/language_probability_interactive/index.html).
Founding Provisions" (http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/
chapter-1-founding-provisions). www.gov.za. Retrieved Hindustan Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2019121
6 December 2014. 6113014/https://www.hindustantimes.com/static/iframes/language
_probability_interactive/index.html) from the original on 16
7. "Abu Dhabi includes Hindi as third official court language" (https:// December 2019. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
www.thehindu.com/news/international/abu-dhabi-includes-hindi-a
s-third-official-court-language/article26229023.ece). The Hindu. 16. Saravanan, Depak (9 October 2018). "Hindi and the North-South
10 February 2019 – via www.thehindu.com. divide" (https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/perspective/hindi-
and-north-south-divide-696931.html). Deccan Herald. Archived (h
8. "About Us" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120504043836/http://h ttps://web.archive.org/web/20221123052133/https://www.deccan
indinideshalaya.nic.in/english/aboutus/aboutus.html). Central herald.com/opinion/perspective/hindi-and-north-south-divide-696
Hindi Directorate. Archived from the original (http://hindinideshala 931.html) from the original on 23 November 2022.
ya.nic.in/english/aboutus/aboutus.html) on 4 May 2012. Retrieved
17. Pillalamarri, Akhilesh. "India's Evolving Linguistic Landscape" (htt
18 February 2014.
ps://thediplomat.com/2018/07/indias-evolving-linguistic-landscap
9. Singh, Rajendra, and Rama Kant Agnihotri. Hindi morphology: A e/). The Diplomat. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2019060
word-based description. Vol. 9. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1997. 1181209/https://thediplomat.com/2018/07/indias-evolving-linguisti
10. "The Constitution of India" (https://web.archive.org/web/2012040 c-landscape/) from the original on 1 June 2019. Retrieved
2064301/http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglis 22 December 2019.
h.htm). lawmin.nic.in. Archived from the original (http://lawmin.nic. 18. "PART A Languages specified in the Eighth Schedule (Scheduled
in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm) on 2 April 2012. Languages)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131029190612/htt
Retrieved 21 March 2012. p://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/
11. "About Hindi-Urdu" (https://web.archive.org/web/2009081502332 Language/Statement1.htm). Census of India. Archived from the
8/http://sasw.chass.ncsu.edu/fl/faculty/taj/hindi/abturdu.htm). original (http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_D
North Carolina State University. Archived from the original (http:// ata_Online/Language/Statement1.htm) on 29 October 2013.
sasw.chass.ncsu.edu/fl/faculty/taj/hindi/abturdu.htm) on 15
August 2009. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
19. "How Hindi travelled to these five countries from India" (https://ind 30. "Hindustani" (http://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/lan
ianexpress.com/article/research/hindi-diwas-2018-hindi-travelled- guage-linguistics-and-literary-terms/language-and-linguistics/hind
to-these-five-countries-from-india/). The Indian Express. 14 ustani). Columbia University Press. Archived (https://web.archive.
September 2018. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2022122 org/web/20170729004822/http://www.encyclopedia.com/literature
9020952/https://indianexpress.com/article/research/hindi-diwas-2 -and-arts/language-linguistics-and-literary-terms/language-and-lin
018-hindi-travelled-to-these-five-countries-from-india/) from the guistics/hindustani) from the original on 29 July 2017 – via
original on 29 December 2022. encyclopedia.com.
20. "Sequence of events with reference to official language of the 31. "What are the top 200 most spoken languages?" (https://www.eth
Union" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110802071514/http://rajbh nologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/). Ethnologue (Free All).
asha.nic.in/IIContent.aspx?t=enevents). Department of Official Retrieved 31 March 2023.
Language. Archived from the original (http://rajbhasha.nic.in/IICo 32. —R, Aishwaryaa (6 June 2019). "What census data reveals about
ntent.aspx?t=enevents8) on 2 August 2011. use of Indian languages" (https://www.deccanherald.com/india/w
21. "रिपब्लिक ऑफ फीजी का संविधान (Constitution of the Republic of Fiji, hat-census-data-reveals-about-use-of-indian-languages-738340.
the Hindi version)" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013110118025 html). Deccan Herald. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
4/http://www.fiji.gov.fj/getattachment/5912a2ce-0260-4df5-98b9-9 —Pallapothu, Sravan (28 June 2018). "Hindi Added 100Mn
55360cd3aad/Click-here-to-download-the-Fiji-Constitution-(Hind. Speakers In A Decade; Kashmiri 2nd Fast Growing Language" (ht
aspx). Fiji Government. Archived from the original (http://www.fiji. tps://www.indiaspend.com/hindi-added-100mn-speakers-in-a-dec
gov.fj/getattachment/5912a2ce-0260-4df5-98b9-955360cd3aad/C ade-kashmiri-2nd-fast-growing-language-93096/).
lick-here-to-download-the-Fiji-Constitution-(Hind.aspx) on 1 Indiaspend.com. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
November 2013. —IndiaSpend (2 July 2018). "Hindi fastest growing language in
22. "Caribbean Languages and Caribbean Linguistics" (https://web.ar India, finds 100 million new speakers" (https://www.business-stan
chive.org/web/20161220080555/http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspa dard.com/article/current-affairs/hindi-fastest-growing-language-in-
ce/bitstream/handle/2139/41235/Caribbean%20Heritage%20Ferr india-finds-100-million-new-speakers-118070200029_1.html).
eira%202012.pdf?sequence=1) (PDF). University of the West Business Standard. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
Indies Press. Archived from the original (http://uwispace.sta.uwi.e —Mishra, Mayank; Aggarwal, Piyush (11 April 2022). "Hindi grew
du/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/41235/Caribbean%20Heritag rapidly in non-Hindi states even without official mandate" (https://
e%20Ferreira%202012.pdf?sequence=1) (PDF) on 20 December www.indiatoday.in/diu/story/hindi-grows-in-non-hindi-states-witho
2016. Retrieved 16 July 2016. ut-official-mandate-1936196-2022-04-11). India Today. Retrieved
16 November 2023.
23. Richard K. Barz (8 May 2007). "The cultural significance of Hindi
in Mauritius". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 3: 1– 33. Steingass, Francis Joseph (1892). A comprehensive Persian-
13. doi:10.1080/00856408008722995 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2 English dictionary (https://web.archive.org/web/20200621060529/
F00856408008722995). http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:
1:6823.steingass). London: Routledge & K. Paul. p. 1514.
24. Gube, Jan; Gao, Fang (2019). Education, Ethnicity and Equity in Archived from the original (http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/p
the Multilingual Asian Context (https://books.google.com/books?i hilologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:6823.steingass) on 21 June 2020.
d=YkWHDwAAQBAJ). Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-981-13- Retrieved 13 February 2018.
3125-1. "The national language of India and Pakistan 'Standard
Urdu' is mutually intelligible with 'Standard Hindi' because both 34. Khan, Rajak. "Indo-Persian Literature and Amir Khusro" (http://vl
languages share the same Indic base and are all but e.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=11660). Delhi University.
indistinguishable in phonology and grammar (Lust et al. 2000)." Retrieved 17 February 2018.
35. Losensky, Paul E. (15 July 2013). In the Bazaar of Love: The
25. Chatterji, Suniti Kumar; Siṃha, Udaẏa Nārāẏana; Padikkal,
Selected Poetry of Amir Khusrau (https://books.google.com/book
Shivarama (1997). Suniti Kumar Chatterji: a centenary tribute. s?id=yexgmTQIYhUC). Penguin UK. ISBN 9788184755220 – via
Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 978-81-260-0353-2. "High Hindi written in Google Books.
Devanagari, having identical grammar with Urdu, employing the
native Hindi or Hindustani (Prakrit) elements to the fullest, but for 36. Mihir Bose (18 April 2006). The Magic of Indian Cricket: Cricket
words of high culture, going to Sanskrit. Hindustani proper that and Society in India (https://books.google.com/books?id=6gyAAg
represents the basic Khari Boli with vocabulary holding a balance AAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Routledge. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-1-134-24924-
between Urdu and High Hindi." 4.
26. Yoon, Bogum; Pratt, Kristen L., eds. (15 January 2023). Primary 37. "India" (https://www.etymonline.com/word/india). Online
Language Impact on Second Language and Literacy Learning. Etymology Dictionary.
Lexington Books. p. 198. "In terms of cross-linguistic relations, 38. Kachru, Yamuna (2006). Hindi. John Benjamins Publishing.
Urdu's combinations of Arabic-Persian orthography and Sanskrit ISBN 9789027238122.
linguistic roots provides interesting theoretical as well as practical 39. "Brief History of Hindi" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140306085
comparisons demonstrated in table 12.1." 510/http://hindinideshalaya.nic.in/english/hindi_orgin/briefhistory.h
27. "Ties between Urdu & Sanskrit deeply rooted: Scholar" (https://ti tml). Central Hindi Directorate. Archived from the original (http://hi
mesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/ties-between-urdu-san ndinideshalaya.nic.in/english/hindi_orgin/briefhistory.html) on 6
skrit-deeply-rooted-scholar/articleshow/108415962.cms). The March 2014. Retrieved 21 March 2012.
Times of India. 12 March 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024. "The 40. Masica, pp. 187–211
linguistic and cultural ties between Sanskrit and Urdu are deeply 41. Chapman, Graham. "Religious vs. regional determinism: India,
rooted and significant, said Ishtiaque Ahmed, registrar, Maula Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire." Shared space:
Azad National Urdu University during a two-day workshop titled Divided space. Essays on conflict and territorial organization
"Introduction to Sanskrit for Urdu medium students". Ahmed said (1990): 106–134.
a substantial portion of Urdu's vocabulary and cultural capital, as
42. "Women of the Indian Sub-Continent: Makings of a Culture –
well as its syntactic structure, is derived from Sanskrit."
Rekhta Foundation" (https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/wo
28. Mikael Parkvall, "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's men-of-the-indian-sub-continent-makings-of-a-culture-rekhta-foun
100 Largest Languages in 2007), in Nationalencyklopedin. dation/dwJy7qboNi3fIg?hl=en). Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved
Asterisks mark the 2010 estimates (http://www.ne.se/spr%C3%A 25 February 2020. "The "Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb" is one such
5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-spr%C3%A5k-2010) instance of the composite culture that marks various regions of
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121111051518/http://ww the country. Prevalent in the North, particularly in the central
w.ne.se/spr%C3%A5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-sp plains, it is born of the union between the Hindu and Muslim
r%C3%A5k-2010) 11 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine cultures. Most of the temples were lined along the Ganges and
for the top dozen languages. the Khanqah (Sufi school of thought) were situated along the
29. Gambhir, Vijay (1995). The Teaching and Acquisition of South Yamuna river (also called Jamuna). Thus, it came to be known as
Asian Languages (https://books.google.com/books?id=mB7TQc_ the Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, with the word "tehzeeb" meaning
OpdcC). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122- culture. More than communal harmony, its most beautiful by-
3328-5. "The position of Hindi-Urdu among the languages of the product was "Hindustani" which later gave us the Hindi and Urdu
world is anomalous. The number of its proficient speakers, over languages."
three hundred million, places it in third of fourth place after
Mandarin, English, and perhaps Spanish."
43. Matthews, David John; Shackle, C.; Husain, Shahanara (1985). 54. Hiro, Dilip (2015). The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry
Urdu literature. Urdu Markaz; Third World Foundation for Social Between India and Pakistan. PublicAffairs. p. 398. ISBN 978-1-
and Economic Studies. ISBN 978-0-907962-30-4. "But with the 56858-503-1. "Spoken Hindi is akin to spoken Urdu, and that
establishment of Muslim rule in Delhi, it was the Old Hindi of this language is often called Hindustani. Bollywood's screenplays are
area which came to form the major partner with Persian. This written in Hindustani."
variety of Hindi is called Khari Boli, 'the upright speech'." 55. Students' Britannica India. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2000.
44. Dhulipala, Venkat (2000). The Politics of Secularism: Medieval p. 299. "Hindustani developed as lingua franca in the medieval
Indian Historiography and the Sufis. University of Wisconsin– ages in and around Delhi, Meerut and Saharanpur because of
Madison. p. 27. "Persian became the court language, and many the interaction between the speakers of Khariboli (a dialect
Persian words crept into popular usage. The composite culture of developed in this region out of Shauraseni Prakrit) and the
northern India, known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a speakers of Persian , Turkish , and various dialects of Arabic who
product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam." migrated to North India. Initially it was known by various names
45. Indian Journal of Social Work, Volume 4. Tata Institute of Social such as Rekhta (mixed), Urdu (language of the camp) and Hindvi
Sciences. 1943. p. 264. "... more words of Sanskrit origin but or Hindustani (language of Hindustan). Though Khariboli supplied
75% of the vocabulary is common. It is also admitted that while its basic vocabulary and grammar, it borrowed quite a lot of
this language is known as Hindustani, ... Muslims call it Urdu and words from Persian and Arabic"
the Hindus call it Hindi. ... Urdu is a national language evolved 56. Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (2007). The Indo-Aryan
through years of Hindu and Muslim cultural contact and, as Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. "The primary
stated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, is essentially an Indian sources of non-IA loans into MSH are Arabic, Persian,
language and has no place outside." Portuguese, Turkic and English. Conversational registers of
46. Mody, Sujata Sudhakar (2008). Literature, Language, and Nation Hindi/Urdu (not to mentioned formal registers of Urdu) employ
Formation: The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900–1920. large numbers of Persian and Arabic loanwords, although in
University of California, Berkeley. p. 7. "...Hindustani, Rekhta, and Sanskritized registers many of these words are replaced by
Urdu as later names of the old Hindi (a.k.a. Hindavi)." tatsama forms from Sanskrit. The Persian and Arabic lexical
47. Kesavan, B. S. (1997). History Of Printing And Publishing In elements in Hindi result from the effects of centuries of Islamic
India. National Book Trust, India. p. 31. ISBN 978-81-237-2120-0. administrative rule over much of north India in the centuries
before the establishment of British rule in India. Although it is
"It might be useful to recall here that Old Hindi or Hindavi, which
was a naturally Persian- mixed language in the largest measure, conventional to differentiate among Persian and Arabic loan
has played this role before, as we have seen, for five or six elements into Hindi/Urdu, in practice it is often difficult to separate
centuries." these strands from one another. The Arabic (and also Turkic)
lexemes borrowed into Hindi frequently were mediated through
48. Kumar, Uday. Status of Hindi in India (https://books.google.com/b Persian, as a result of which a thorough intertwining of Persian
ooks?id=5QlWmycTKh0C). Readworthy. ISBN 978-93-5018-149- and Arabic elements took place, as manifest by such phenomena
2. " "During the period of Mughal Empire, Hindi was used as an as hybrid compounds and compound words. Moreover, although
additional official language" (Kansal 1991:48)." the dominant trajectory of lexical borrowing was from Arabic into
49. Language Problem in India (https://books.google.com/books?id=x Persian, and thence into Hindi/Urdu, examples can be found of
OGJAAAAMAAJ&q=aurangzeb+hindi+language). Institute of words that in origin are actually Persian loanwords into both
Objective Studies. 1997. p. 138. ISBN 9788185220413. Arabic and Hindi/Urdu."
50. Hans Henrich Hock (1991). Principles of Historical Linguistics. 57. Michael C. Shapiro. A PRIMER OF MODERN STANDARD HINDI
Walter de Gruyter. p. 475. ISBN 978-3-11-012962-5. "During the (https://jsis.washington.edu/southasia/publication/a-primer-of-mo
time of British rule, Hindi (in its religiously neutral, 'Hindustani' dern-standard-hindi/).
variety) increasingly came to be the symbol of national unity over 58. John Joseph Gumperz (1971). Language in Social Groups (http
against the English of the foreign oppressor. And Hindustani was s://archive.org/details/languageinsocial0000gump). Stanford
learned widely throughout India, even in Bengal and the University Press. p. 53 (https://archive.org/details/languageinsoci
Dravidian south. ... Independence had been accompanied by the al0000gump/page/53). ISBN 978-0-8047-0798-5. Retrieved
division of former British India into two countries, Pakistan and 26 June 2012.
India. The former had been established as a Muslim state and
had made Urdu, the Muslim variety of Hindi–Urdu or Hindustani, 59. RAHMAN, TARIQ (2011). From Hindi to Urdu A Social and
its national language." Political History. Karachi, Pakistan.: Oxford University Press.
p. 41.
51. Masica, Colin P. (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&q=masica). 60. Paul R. Brass (2005). Language, Religion and Politics in North
Cambridge University Press. pp. 430 (Appendix I). ISBN 978-0- India (https://books.google.com/books?id=SylBHS8IJAUC).
521-29944-2. "Hindustani - term referring to common colloquial iUniverse, Incorporated. ISBN 9780595343942.
base of HINDI and URDU and to its function as lingua franca 61. Parthasarathy, Kumar, p.120
over much of India, much in vogue during Independence 62. "Bihar: The language tussle – Indiascope News – Issue Date: Jul
movement as expression of national unity; after Partition in 1947 31, 19…" (https://archive.today/20220616083954/https://www.indi
and subsequent linguistic polarization it fell into disfavor; census atoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19800731-decision-to-make
of 1951 registered an enormous decline (86–98 per cent) in no. -urdu-second-official-language-in-bihar-provokes-furore-from-mait
of persons declaring it their mother tongue (the majority of HINDI hil-brahmins-821314-2014-01-17). 16 June 2022. Archived from
speakers and many URDU speakers had done so in previous the original (https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/
censuses); trend continued in subsequent censuses: only 11,053 19800731-decision-to-make-urdu-second-official-language-in-bih
returned it in 1971...mostly from S India; [see Khubchandani ar-provokes-furore-from-maithil-brahmins-821314-2014-01-17)
1983: 90–1]." on 16 June 2022.
52. Ashmore, Harry S. (1961). Encyclopaedia Britannica: a new 63. Central Hindi Directorate (2011). A Basic Grammar of Modern
survey of universal knowledge, Volume 11. Encyclopædia Hindi (http://archive.org/details/page1-converted-compressed).
Britannica. p. 579. "The everyday speech of well over 50,000,000 64. Clyne, Michael (24 May 2012). Pluricentric Languages: Differing
persons of all communities in the north of India and in West Norms in Different Nations (https://books.google.com/books?id=i
Pakistan is the expression of a common language, Hindustani." eMgAAAAQBAJ). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110888140.
53. Tunstall, Jeremy (2008). The media were American: U.S. mass 65. Choudhry, Sujit; Khosla, Madhav; Mehta, Pratap Bhanu (12 May
media in decline (https://archive.org/details/mediawereamerica00 2016). The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Constitution (https://bo
00tuns/page/160). Oxford University Press. p. 160 (https://archiv oks.google.com/books?id=QuEmDAAAQBAJ). Oxford University
e.org/details/mediawereamerica0000tuns/page/160). ISBN 978- Press. ISBN 9780191058615.
0-19-518146-3. "The Hindi film industry used the most popular 66. Grewal, J. S. (8 October 1998). The Sikhs of the Punjab (https://a
street level version of Hindi, namely Hindustani, which included a rchive.org/details/sikhsofpunjab0000grew). Cambridge University
lot of Urdu and Persian words." Press. ISBN 9780521637640.
67. "हिन्दी दिवस विशेष: इनके प्रयास से मिला था हिन्दी को राजभाषा का दर्जा" (http 80. Khan, Saeed (25 January 2010). "There's no national language in
s://www.patrika.com/news/jabalpur/know-hindi-had-the-status-of- India: Gujarat High Court" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/indi
national-language-1398330). 8 September 2015. Archived (http a/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/article
s://web.archive.org/web/20170911204803/https://www.patrika.co show/5496231.cms). The Times of India. Ahmedabad: The Times
m/news/jabalpur/know-hindi-had-the-status-of-national-language- Group. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140318040319/h
1398330/) from the original on 11 September 2017. ttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-langua
68. "Hindi Diwas celebration: How it all began" (http://indianexpress.c ge-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms) from
om/article/research/hindi-diwas-celebration-how-it-all-began/). the original on 18 March 2014. Retrieved 5 May 2014.
The Indian Express. 14 September 2016. Archived (https://web.ar 81. "Hindi, not a national language: Court" (http://www.thehindu.com/
chive.org/web/20170208134226/http://indianexpress.com/article/r news/national/hindi-not-a-national-language-court/article94695.ec
esearch/hindi-diwas-celebration-how-it-all-began/) from the e). The Hindu. Ahmedabad: Press Trust of India. 25 January
original on 8 February 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017. 2010. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140704084339/htt
69. "The Constitution of India" (https://web.archive.org/web/2014090 p://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hindi-not-a-national-languag
9230437/http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf) (PDF). e-court/article94695.ece) from the original on 4 July 2014.
Archived from the original (http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july0 Retrieved 23 December 2014.
8.pdf) (PDF) on 9 September 2014. 82. "Hindi, Fiji" (http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/hif/).
70. "Rajbhasha" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120131084820/htt Ethnologue. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170211075
p://www.india.gov.in/govt/documents/hindi/PARTXVII.pdf) (PDF) 826/http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/hif/) from the
(in Hindi and English). india.gov.in. Archived from the original (htt original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
p://india.gov.in/govt/documents/hindi/PARTXVII.pdf) (PDF) on 31 83. "Fiji Hindi alphabet, pronunciation and language" (http://www.omn
January 2012. iglot.com/writing/fijihindi.htm). www.omniglot.com. Archived (http
71. "The Official Languages Act, 1963 (as Amended, 1967) (Act No. s://web.archive.org/web/20170608100818/http://www.omniglot.co
19 of 1963)" (http://www.rajbhasha.nic.in/en/official-languages-act m/writing/fijihindi.htm) from the original on 8 June 2017.
-1963). Department of Official Language. Archived (https://web.ar Retrieved 22 June 2017.
chive.org/web/20161216142842/http://www.rajbhasha.nic.in/en/of 84. "Section 4 of Fiji Constitution" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090
ficial-languages-act-1963) from the original on 16 December 609110318/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/fj00000_.html).
2016. Retrieved 9 June 2016. servat.unibe.ch. Archived from the original (http://www.servat.unib
72. "Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 50th report e.ch/icl/fj00000_.html) on 9 June 2009. Retrieved 3 May 2009.
(July 2012 to June 2013)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160708 85. "Constitution of Fiji" (https://web.archive.org/web/2016101108554
012438/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pd 3/http://www.fiji.gov.fj/govt--publications/constitution.aspx). Official
f) (PDF). Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of site of the Fijian Government. Archived from the original (http://w
Minority Affairs, Government of India. Archived from the original ww.fiji.gov.fj/govt--publications/constitution.aspx) on 11 October
(http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf) (PDF) 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
on 8 July 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2014. 86. "Population Monograph of Nepal, Vol. 2" (https://nepal.unfpa.org/
73. Benedikter, Thomas (2009). Language Policy and Linguistic sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf)
Minorities in India: An Appraisal of the Linguistic Rights of (PDF). Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics. 2014. Retrieved
Minorities in India (https://books.google.com/books?id=vpZv2GH 29 March 2020.
M7VQC&pg=PA89). LIT Verlag Münster. p. 89. ISBN 978-3-643- 87. Nalankilli, Thanjai. "Hindi in Nepal – An Analysis" (https://web.arc
10231-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2016042523081 hive.org/web/20160318051111/http://www.tamiltribune.com/11/09
2/https://books.google.com/books?id=vpZv2GHM7VQC&pg=PA8 01.html). Tamiltribune.com. Archived from the original on 18
9) from the original on 25 April 2016. Retrieved 13 June 2018. March 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
74. Roy, Anirban (27 May 2011). "West Bengal to have six more 88. Mesthrie, Rajend (1985). A history of the Bhojpuri (or "Hindi")
languages for official use" (https://www.indiatoday.in/india/east/st language in South Africa (https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/19
ory/west-bengal-mamata-banerjee-recognizes-six-non-bengali-la 511). University of Cape Town (Doctoral Thesis). Retrieved
nguages-134507-2011-05-27). India Today. Retrieved 10 January 17 December 2022.
2020. 89. "UAE introduces Hindi as third official language" (https://www.bus
75. Roy, Anirban (28 February 2018). "Kamtapuri, Rajbanshi make it iness-standard.com/article/news-ani/uae-introduces-hindi-as-third
to list of official languages in" (https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/st -official-language-119021200048_1.html). Business Standard
ory/kamtapuri-rajbanshi-make-it-to-list-of-official-languages-in-11 India. 12 February 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
79890-2018-02-28). India Today. Archived (https://web.archive.or 90. Kothari, Ria, ed. (2011). Chutnefying English: The Phenomenon
g/web/20180330143710/https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/k of Hinglish. Penguin Books India. p. 128. ISBN 9780143416395.
amtapuri-rajbanshi-make-it-to-list-of-official-languages-in-117989
91. Chandra, Abhimanyu. "How Hindi became the language of choice
0-2018-02-28) from the original on 30 March 2018. Retrieved
in Arunachal Pradesh" (https://web.archive.org/web/20161211120
16 March 2019.
138/http://scroll.in/article/675419/how-hindi-became-the-language
76. Sen, Sumant (4 June 2019). "Hindi the first choice of people in -of-choice-in-arunachal-pradesh). Scroll.in. Archived from the
only 12 States" (https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hindi-th original (http://scroll.in/article/675419/how-hindi-became-the-lang
e-first-choice-of-people-in-only-12-states/article27459774.ece). uage-of-choice-in-arunachal-pradesh) on 11 December 2016.
The Hindu.
92. Gandapur, Khalid Amir Khan (19 September 2012). "Has Hindi
77. Choudhury, Sushmita; Sharma, Rajesh (15 September 2021). "70 become our national language?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
years on, India is still fighting over a national language" (https://ti 190731213305/https://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/13807/has-hindi
mesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/70-years-on-india-is-still-fighting- -become-our-national-language/). The Express Tribune. Archived
over-a-national-language/articleshow/86196740.cms). The Times from the original (https://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/13807/has-hi
of India. Retrieved 19 March 2022. ndi-become-our-national-language) on 31 July 2019. Retrieved
78. Swaddle, The (12 June 2021). "Hindi Isn't India's National 24 January 2020.
Language. Why Does the Myth Continue?" (https://theswaddle.co 93. Hakala, Walter N. (2012). "Languages as a Key to Understanding
m/hindi-isnt-indias-national-language-why-does-the-myth-continu Afghanistan's Cultures" (https://web.archive.org/web/2018031404
e/). The Swaddle. Retrieved 19 March 2022. 2412/http://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/asia_8.pdf)
79. "Why Hindi isn't the national language" (https://www.firstpost.co (PDF). National Geographic. Archived from the original (http://me
m/india/why-hindi-isnt-the-national-language-6733241.html). dia.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/asia_8.pdf) (PDF) on 14
Firstpost. 31 May 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2022. March 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2018. "In the 1980s and '90s, at
least three million Afghans—mostly Pashtun—fled to Pakistan,
where a substantial number spent several years being exposed
to Hindi- and Urdu-language media, especially Bollywood films
and songs, and being educated in Urdu-language schools, both
of which contributed to the decline of Dari, even among urban
Pashtuns."
 94. Krishnamurthy, Rajeshwari (28 June 2013). "Kabul Diary: 110. Mainly phonemes of Hindi. Urdu speakers usually replace [ɳ] and
Discovering the Indian connection" (http://www.gatewayhouse.in/ [ʂ] with [n] and [ʃ] respectively.
kabul-diary-discovering-the-indian-connection/). Gateway House:
Indian Council on Global Relations. Retrieved 13 March 2018. 111. /ɾ/ can surface as a trill [r] in word-initial and syllable-final
"Most Afghans in Kabul understand and/or speak Hindi, thanks to positions. Geminate /ɾː/ is always a trill.
the popularity of Indian cinema in the country."
95. "Hindi most spoken Indian language in US, Telugu speakers up 112. [w] occurs as an allophone of [ʋ] when /व ‫و‬/ is in an onglide
86% in 8 years" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/hindi-m
ost-spoken-indian-language-in-us-telugu-speakers-up-86-in-8-ye position between an onset consonant and a following vowel while
ars/articleshow/65893224.cms). The Times of India. 21 [ʋ], which may phonetically be [v], occurs otherwise.
September 2018. 113. Morelli, Sarah (20 December 2019). A Guru’s Journey: Pandit
96. "United States- Languages" (https://www.ethnologue.com/countr Chitresh Das and Indian Classical Dance in Diaspora. University
y/us). Ethnologue. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201702 of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-05172-2. "Hindi has a nasal
11075837/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/us) from the sound roughly equivalent to the n in the English sang,
original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2017. transliterated here as ṅ or ṁ, and has two slightly differing sh
97. Frawley, p. 481 sounds, transliterated as ś and ṣ. ... A few words contain
98. "United Kingdom- Languages" (https://www.ethnologue.com/coun consonants…from Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, and English: क़
try/GB). Ethnologue. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170 (‫ )ق‬is transliterated as q, ख़ (‫ )خ‬as kh, ग़ (‫ )غ‬as g, ज़ (‫ز‬, ‫ظ‬, or ‫)ض‬
201044623/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/GB) from the as z, झ़ (‫ )ژ‬as zh, and फ़ (‫ )ف‬as f."
original on 1 February 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
114. "Meaning of azhdaha in English" (https://www.rekhtadictionary.co
99. "Hindi and Urdu are classified as literary registers of the same m/meaning-of-azhdahaa?lang=en). Rekhta Dictionary. 2023.
language" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160602104222/http://s Retrieved 12 December 2023.
croll.in/article/809102/the-death-of-urdu-in-india-is-greatly-exagge
rated-the-language-is-actually-thriving). Archived from the original 115. Pandey, Dipti; Mondal, Tapabrata; Agrawal, S. S.; Bangalore,
(http://scroll.in/article/809102/the-death-of-urdu-in-india-is-greatly Srinivas (2013). "Development and suitability of Indian languages
-exaggerated-the-language-is-actually-thriving) on 2 June 2016. speech database for building watson based ASR system". 2013
Retrieved 1 June 2016. International Conference Oriental COCOSDA held jointly with
2013 Conference on Asian Spoken Language Research and
100. Kuiper, Kathleen (2010). The Culture of India. Rosen Publishing. Evaluation (O-COCOSDA/CASLRE). p. 3.
ISBN 978-1-61530-149-2. "Urdu is closely related to Hindi, a doi:10.1109/ICSDA.2013.6709861 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIC
language that originated and developed in the Indian SDA.2013.6709861). ISBN 978-1-4799-2378-6. S2CID 26461938
subcontinent. They share the same Indic base and are so similar (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26461938). "Only in
in phonology and grammar that they appear to be one language."
Hindi 10 Phonemes व /v/ क़ /q/ ञ /ɲ/ य /j/ ष /ʂ/ ख़ /x/ ग़ /ɣ/ ज़ /z/ झ़ /
101. "THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE POLICY OF THE UNION" (https://r
ajbhasha.nic.in/en/official-language-policy-union). Department of ʒ/ फ़ /f/"
Official Language - Governemtn of India. Retrieved 7 November 116. [ɛ] occurs as an allophone of /ə/ near an /ɦ/ that is surrounded on
2023. both sides by schwas. Usually, the second schwa becomes silent,
102. Javaid, Arfa (23 June 2021) [18 June 2021]. "List of Official which results in an [ɛ] preceding an /ɦ/.
Languages of Indian States and Union Territories" (https://web.ar
117. Masica, p. 65
chive.org/web/20211127162819/https://m.jagranjosh.com/general
-knowledge/amp/list-of-official-languages-of-indian-states-and-uni 118. Masica, p. 66
on-territories-1624022980-1). jagranjosh.com. Archived from the 119. Masica, p. 67
original (https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/amp/list-of- 120. Ohala, Manjari (1983). Aspects of Hindi Phonology. Motilal
official-languages-of-indian-states-and-union-territories-16240229 Banarsidass Publishers. p. 38. ISBN 9780895816702.
80-1) on 27 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. 121. Arnold, David; Robb, Peter (2013). Institutions and Ideologies: A
103. "Bill recognising Urdu as second official language passed" (http SOAS South Asia Reader. Routledge. p. 82.
s://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/bill-recogni ISBN 9781136102349.
sing-urdu-as-second-official-languagepassed/article65252966.ec 122. Bhatia, Tej K.; Ritchie, William C. (2006). The Handbook of
e). The Hindu. 23 March 2022. ISSN 0971-751X (https://search.w Bilingualism (https://archive.org/details/handbookbilingua00bhat_
orldcat.org/issn/0971-751X). Retrieved 4 March 2023. 489). John Wiley and Sons. p. 789 (https://archive.org/details/han
104. Ahmed, Farzand (17 January 2014). "Decision to make Urdu dbookbilingua00bhat_489/page/n797). ISBN 9780631227359.
second official language in Bihar provokes furore from Maithil 123. King, Christopher R. (1994). One Language, Two Scripts: The
Brahmins" (https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/ Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India. New Delhi:
19800731-decision-to-make-urdu-second-official-language-in-bih Oxford University Press.
ar-provokes-furore-from-maithil-brahmins-821314-2014-01-17).
India Today. Retrieved 17 December 2022. 124. Khalife, Leyal (25 December 2016). "9 Hindi words that sound
just like Arabic" (https://stepfeed.com/9-hindi-words-that-sound-ju
105. Bhatia, Tej K. (1987). A History of the Hindi Grammatical st-like-arabic-6921). Stepfeed.com. Retrieved 16 December
Tradition: Hindi-Hindustani Grammar, Grammarians, History and 2022.
Problems. Brill. ISBN 9789004079243.
125. Arnold, David; Robb, Peter (2013). Institutions and Ideologies: A
106. Hindi and Urdu contrast dental [t] and [d] with apical postalveolar SOAS South Asia Reader (https://books.google.com/books?id=tN
[ʈ] and [ɖ] (as well as aspirated variants). Both sets sound like /t/ 0rBgAAQBAJ). Routledge. p. 79. ISBN 9781136102349.
and /d/ to most English speakers although the dental [t] and [d] 126. "Stop outraging over Marathi – Hindi and English chauvinism is
are used in place of the English /θ/ and /ð/ for some speakers much worse in India" (http://scroll.in/article/756105/stop-outraging
with th-stopping. -over-marathi-hindi-and-english-chauvinism-is-much-worse-in-ind

107. In a number of words, the ‫ ع‬and/or ‫ ء‬is sometimes pronounced

ia). 18 September 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
150919230723/http://scroll.in/article/756105/stop-outraging-over-
marathi-hindi-and-english-chauvinism-is-much-worse-in-india)
as ʔ in Urdu, which is typically not represented or pronounced in from the original on 19 September 2015.
Hindi, except when the Urdu variant is transliterated into Hindi. 127. "Hindi content consumption on internet growing at 94%: Google"
108. "Meaning of etibar in English" (https://www.rekhtadictionary.com/ (https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/internet/hindi-content
meaning-of-etibaar). Rekhta Dictionary. Retrieved 18 March -consumption-on-internet-growing-at-94-google/articleshow/4852
2023. 8347.cms). The Economic Times. 18 August 2015. Archived (http
109. Mainly phonemes of Urdu. Hindi speakers may replace [x], [z], s://web.archive.org/web/20180215085102/https://economictimes.i
[ʒ], [ɣ] and [q] with [kʰ], [dʒ], [dʒʱ], [g] and [k] respectively. ndiatimes.com/tech/internet/hindi-content-consumption-on-intern
et-growing-at-94-google/articleshow/48528347.cms) from the
original on 15 February 2018. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
Bibliography
Bhatia, Tej K. (11 September 2002). Colloquial Hindi: The Complete Course for Beginners (https://books.google.com/books?id=7chEAQA
AQBAJ&pg=PT6). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-134-83534-8. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
Grierson, G. A. Linguistic Survey of India Vol I-XI, Calcutta, 1928, ISBN 81-85395-27-6 (searchable database) (http://joao-roiz.jp/LSI/)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230509170342/https://www.joao-roiz.jp/LSI/) 9 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
Koul, Omkar N. (2008). Modern Hindi grammar (https://web.archive.org/web/20140726150424/http://v2winners.com/Ebooks/spoeng/Spo
ken%20English/ModernHindiGrammar.pdf) (PDF). Springfield, VA: Dunwoody Press. ISBN 978-1-931546-06-5. Archived from the
original (http://v2winners.com/Ebooks/spoeng/Spoken%20English/ModernHindiGrammar.pdf) (PDF) on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 19 July
2014.
McGregor, R.S. (1995). Outline of Hindi grammar: With exercises (https://archive.org/details/OutlineOfHindiGrammar) (3. ed.). Oxford:
Clarendon Pr. ISBN 978-0-19-870008-1. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
Frawley, William (2003). International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: AAVE-Esparanto. Vol.1 (https://books.google.com/books?id=sl_dDVcty
cgC). Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 978-0-195-13977-8.
Parthasarathy, R.; Kumar, Swargesh (2012). Bihar Tourism: Retrospect and Prospect (https://books.google.com/books?id=dSZ987-0Fb8
C). Concept Publishing Company. p. 120. ISBN 978-8-180-69799-9.
Masica, Colin (1991). The Indo-Aryan Languages (https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
Ohala, Manjari (1999). "Hindi" (https://books.google.com/books?id=33BSkFV_8PEC&pg=PA100). In International Phonetic Association
(ed.). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: a Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 100–103. ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0.
Sadana, Rashmi (2012). English Heart, Hindi Heartland: the Political Life of Literature in India (https://books.google.com/books?id=U2W
NfFpT14IC). University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26957-6. Retrieved 19 July 2014.
Shapiro, Michael C. (2001). "Hindi". In Garry, Jane; Rubino, Carl (eds.). An encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and
present. New England Publishing Associates. pp. 305–309.
Shapiro, Michael C. (2003). "Hindi" (https://books.google.com/books?id=iUHfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT311). In Cardona, George; Jain,
Dhanesh (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. pp. 250–285. ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.
Snell, Rupert; Weightman, Simon (1989). Teach Yourself Hindi (2003 ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-142012-9.
Taj, Afroz (2002). A door into Hindi (http://taj.chass.ncsu.edu/). Retrieved 8 November 2005.
Tiwari, Bholanath (2004) [1966]. हिन्दी भाषा [Hindī Bhasha]. Allahabad: Kitab Pustika. ISBN 81-225-0017-X.

Dictionaries
McGregor, R.S. (1993), Oxford Hindi–English Dictionary (2004 ed.), Oxford University Press, USA.
Hardev Bahri (1989), Learners' Hindi-English dictionary (https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/bahri/), Delhi: Rajapala
Mahendra Caturvedi (1970), A practical Hindi-English dictionary (https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/caturvedi/), Delhi: National
Publishing House
Academic Room Hindi Dictionary Mobile App developed in the Harvard Innovation Lab (iOS, Android and Blackberry)
John Thompson Platts (1884), A dictionary of Urdū, classical Hindī, and English (https://books.google.com/books?id=iDtbAAAAQAAJ)
(reprint ed.), LONDON: H. Milford, p. 1259, retrieved 6 July 2011

Further reading
Bangha, Imre (2018). "Hindi" (https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/hindi-COM_30475?s.num=4&s.f.s2
_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=dynasty+india). In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson,
Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1873-9830).
Bhatia, Tej K. (1987). A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition. Leiden, Netherlands & New YorkY: E.J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-07924-6.

External links
The Union: Official Language (https://web.archive.org/web/20140308231234/http://knowindia.gov.in/knowindia/profile.php?id=33)
Official Unicode Chart for Devanagari (PDF) (https://web.archive.org/web/20140901145421/http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pd
f)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hindi&oldid=1258671431"