Rocket Science and Engineering

Sadok Smine

spacetimecollege@gmail.com

Sadok Smine
 WHAT IS A ROCKET?
A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket
engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellant carried within the rocket
before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction and push rockets forward simply by
expelling their exhaust gases in the opposite direction at high speed, and can therefore work in
the vacuum of space.

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 WHAT ARE ROCKETS USED FOR?

Crew Dragon on top of

the Falcon 9 Rocket

Dragon on it’s way to the

International Space
Station
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 Astronauts inside
Crew Dragon

The International
Space Station

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 Satellite in Orbit

Different Orbits

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 Nuclear
Warhead

Aaaaand this ..

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V-2 Rocket
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 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROCKETS
Chemical Rocket Engines
Liquid-Fuel Rocket Engines
Liquid-fuel rockets, as the name suggests, use
liquid propellants to create thrust. The liquid-fuel
rocket propelled the space race, first sending
Sputnik, the world's first satellite, into orbit with
the use of the Russian R-7 booster, and finally
culminating with the launch of Apollo 11 using
the Saturn V rocket. Liquid-fuel rockets can be
monopropellant or bipropellant in design, the
difference being that bipropellant is composed of
fuel and oxidizer(Kerosene + Liquid Oxygen), a
chemical that allows the fuel to burn when mixed.
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 Solid Rocket Engines
The oldest and simplest of the types of rockets use
solid fuel for thrust. Solid-fuel rockets have been
around since the Chinese discovered gunpowder.
This type is “monopropellant,” meaning several
solid chemicals are combined to make a single
mixture. This mixture is then placed in the
combustion chamber awaiting ignition.
One of the disadvantages of this kind of fuel type is
that once it starts to burn there is no way to stop it
and thus it will go through the entirety of its fuel
supply until it runs out. Although relatively easy to
store compared to liquid fuels, some ingredients
used for solid fuel, such as nitroglycerin, are highly
volatile.

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 Hybrid Rocket Engines
It is possible to use a solidified fuel only and flow an
oxidizer through the perforation. This type of engine is
called a hybrid rocket engine. Oxidizer is flowed
through the perforation of the solid fuel where it is
ignited. Oxidizer is only present on the burning surface
of the solid fuel and, therefore, it will only burn when
the oxidizer is flowing. This concept allows for shut
down and restarts of the engine, which cannot be
accomplished with a solid
motor.

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 Electric Rocket Engines
Ion Thruster
More efficient than conventional as rocket
technology, the ion rocket uses electrical energy
from solar cells to provide thrust. Rather than
forcing pressurized hot gas out of a nozzle –
which limits how much thrust you can achieve
by how much heat the nozzle can stand – the
ion rocket propels a jet of xenon ions whose
negative electrons have been stripped by the
rocket's electron gun. The ion rocket was tested
in space during Deep Space 1 on November 10,
1998, and again in SMART 1 on September 27,
2003.

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 Nuclear Rocket Engines
A nuclear fission reactor is the key
component in this rocket engine
that enables thermodynamic
expansion of propellant gases. A
fissile source, such as reactor-
grade uranium (U235), is used to
generate heat. The level of the
radioactive fission process is
controlled by moderator control
rods and by reflectors of the same
material (typical graphite,
boron carbide, and beryllium). The propellant is normally flowed through the fission reactor as
coolant to the reactor system. In turn, the propellant is superheated and thermodynamically
expanded in the expansion chamber of the rocket engine. At this point, the rocket engine functions
just like any other inasmuch as the heated flow is forced from the expansion chamber into a
convergent–divergent nozzle.
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Photon-Based Engines

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 HOW DO ROCKETS WORK?

Newton’s Third Law: For every action there’s an equal and opposite reaction
 Thrust  Specific Impulse
 Mass Flow Rate  Weight Flow Rate
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 THRUST
The thrust is the force produced by a rocket propulsion system acting upon a
vehicle. In a simplified way, it is the reaction experienced by its structure due to
the ejection of matter at high velocity. It represents the same phenomenon
that pushes a garden hose backwards or makes a gun recoil.

𝑑𝑝 𝑑(𝑚𝑣)
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑣𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒 (𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒)
𝑑𝑡
What about the effects of
atmospheric pressure?
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 Forces On The Gas

𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴

𝐹𝐺 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 −𝑝𝑒 𝐴𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒

Control Volume
The exhaust stream at the exit Approach
plane of the nozzle is not affected
by the ambient pressure since the
gas traveling at supersonic speed,
and hydrostatic effects can only
travel at the speed of sound.

Constant Flow
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 Forces On The Rocket

𝐹𝑅 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 − 𝑝𝑎 𝐴𝑒

Again, NO HYDROSTATIC EFFECTS

at the exit plane of the nozzle
We have a retarding force 𝑝𝑎 𝐴𝑒
of magnitude: 𝑝𝑎 𝐴𝑒

Sadok Smine Un-firing Motor

𝐹𝐺 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 − 𝑝𝑒 𝐴𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 − 𝑝𝑎 𝐴𝑒

𝑝𝑑𝐴 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒 𝐴𝑒 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒 𝐴𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 𝐴𝑒

Rocket Thrust Equation: 𝑭𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗𝒆 + (𝒑𝒆 −𝒑𝒂 )𝑨𝒆 = 𝒎𝑪

𝐾𝑔 𝑝𝑒 : 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒;

𝑚: 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑁
𝑠 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒( 2 )
𝑚
𝑣𝑒 : 𝐸𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦( ) 𝑚
𝑠
𝐴𝑒 : 𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 (𝑚2 ) 𝑝𝑎 : 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒; 𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑚 𝐴𝑒
𝐶: 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ; C = 𝑣𝑒 + (𝑝𝑒 −𝑝𝑎 )
𝑠 𝑚
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 Specific Impulse
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑝
𝐼= 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑝 = ∆𝑝
𝑑𝑡

𝑚𝑓
𝑑𝑚
𝐼= 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = ∆𝑝 = 𝑚𝑓 − 𝑚𝑖 𝑣 = ∆𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑒
𝑚𝑖 𝑑𝑡

𝐼
𝑣𝑒 =
∆𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐼 𝐼 𝐶
Correction: 𝐶 = 𝐼𝑠𝑝 = = (𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠)
∆𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑔0 𝑔0
𝑔0 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠²
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 So what is Specific Impulse? And why is it in seconds?
 A Jet Engine/Rocket Engine is characterized by its specific impulse!
 Specific Impulse is the total number of seconds that the rocket can deliver thrust equal to
the weight of the total propellant mass under acceleration due to one standard Earth
gravity, g.
 Greater is this value Less propellant is needed to produce a given thrust for a given
time more efficient is the engine.
 It’s like miles per gallon for cars
1 Kg
𝐼 𝐹. 𝑡
𝐼𝑠𝑝 = :
∆𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚
𝑁. 𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝐹. 𝑠
𝑆𝐼: 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚:
𝐾𝑔 𝑙𝑏𝑀
9.8 N
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 𝐼 𝐶
𝐼𝑠𝑝 = = (𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔)
∆𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑔0 𝑔0
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 Nstar Ion Thruster

SSME Sadok Smine

Thrust Versus Isp For Various Rocket Engines
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 Weight Flow Rate

𝐼 𝐹𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 ∆𝑡 𝐹𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝐼𝑠𝑝 = = =
∆𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑔0 ∆𝑚𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑔0 ∆𝑚𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑔0
∆𝑡
𝐹𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡
Weight: W =mg 𝐼𝑠𝑝 =
𝑊
𝑑𝑊
𝑊=
𝑑𝑡

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 Tsiolkovsky’s Rocket Equation
𝐹𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝐶
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝑀 =− 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑀 = 𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 +𝑑𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
=0 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑣 = −𝐶
𝑀

The rocket starts from an initial to a final state

𝑣𝑓 𝑀𝑓
𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑣 = −𝐶
𝑣𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑀 Sadok Smine
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 𝑣𝑓 𝑀𝑓
𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑣 = −𝐶
𝑣𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑀
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 = −𝐶 ln 𝑀𝑓 − ln 𝑀𝑖 = 𝐶 ln 𝑀𝑖 − ln 𝑀𝑓

𝑀𝑖 Tsiolkovsky’s Rocket
∆𝑣 = 𝐶𝑙𝑛
𝑀𝑓 Equation
∆𝑣 = 𝐶𝑙𝑛 𝑀𝑅 ; 𝑀𝑅: 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

∆𝑣 𝑀𝑖 ∆𝑣 𝑀𝑖 ∆𝑣
= 𝑙𝑛 𝑒𝐶 = 𝑀𝑖 = 𝑀𝑓 𝑒 𝐶
𝐶 𝑀𝑓 𝑀𝑓
𝑀𝑖 A LOT OF PROPELLANT IS
If ∆𝑣 ≫ 𝐶 ≫1
𝑀𝑓 NEEDED!
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𝑀𝑖
= 10 → 𝑀𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 = 10𝑀𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
𝑀𝑓

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Rocket Staging
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑀𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑀𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 + 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑀𝑠1 + 𝑀𝑝1 + 𝑀𝑠2 + 𝑀𝑝2 +. . +𝑀𝑠𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑁

+ 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑀𝑅1 =
𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑀𝑝1

𝑀𝑠1 + 𝑀𝑝1 + 𝑀𝑠2 + 𝑀𝑝2 +. . +𝑀𝑠𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

=
𝑀𝑠1 + 𝑀𝑠2 + 𝑀𝑝2 +. . +𝑀𝑠𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑀𝑠2 + 𝑀𝑝2 +. . +𝑀𝑠𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑀𝑅2 =
𝑀𝑠2 +. . +𝑀𝑠𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
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 𝑀𝑠𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀𝑅𝑁 =
𝑀𝑠𝑁 + 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

We want to find the equation that describes the total Δ-v achieved by the rocket after
second-stage burnout for a 2-stage rocket.

𝑀𝑖 𝑀𝑠1 + 𝑀𝑝1 + 𝑀𝑠2 + 𝑀𝑝2 + 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

∆𝑣1 = 𝐶𝑙𝑛 = 𝐶𝑙𝑛
𝑀𝑓 𝑀𝑠1 + 𝑀𝑠2 + 𝑀𝑝2 + 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
∆𝑣 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝑣1 + ∆𝑣2
𝑀𝑖 𝑀𝑠2 + 𝑀𝑝2 + 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
∆𝑣2 = 𝐶𝑙𝑛 = 𝐶𝑙𝑛
𝑀𝑓 𝑀𝑠2 + 𝑀𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

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Dynamic Forces

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 Aerodynamic Forces
Drag D is the aerodynamic force on an object that resists
its motion through a fluid.
1 1
𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 ′ 𝑠 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 + 𝜌𝑣2 2
2
2 2
1 2
𝐷 = 𝑃𝐴 ≈ 𝜌𝑣 ∗ 𝐴
2 𝜌𝑣 2
𝐷 ∝ 𝐶𝐷 𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 ; 𝐶𝐷 : 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔
2
1 2
𝜌𝑣 : 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
2
Lift L is the aerodynamic force acting in a direction normal to
the flight path. Created by different pressures on opposite
sides of an object due to fluid flow past the object
𝜌𝑣 2
𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 𝐴 ; 𝐶Sadok
𝐿 : 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡
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The airflow velocity and atmospheric density against the Space Shuttle versus time after launch.
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Dynamic pressure, Q, against the Space
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Shuttle versus time after launch.
Attitude Control Systems (ACS)

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The 8-DOF (Degrees of Freedom)
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PID Controller
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  Thrust  Specific Impulse
 Mass Flow Rate  Weight Flow Rate

Rocket Science

Rocket Engineering

Ignition Heat Transfer Work/KE

Ideal Cycle

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 1-2: Compression outside the
combustion chamber

2-C: Combustion at Constant

Pressure inside the CC (Isobaric)

C-e: Gas expansion in the chamber

nozzle (Isentropic*)

e-1: Heat Rejection (Isobaric)

*Isentropic: both adiabatic and

reversible. The work transfers of the
system are frictionless, and there is
no transfer of heat or matter. Sadok Smine
1. The working substance (or chemical reaction products) is homogeneous.
2. All the species of the working fluid are gaseous. Any condensed phases (liquid or solid)
add a negligible amount to the total mass.
3. The working substance obeys the perfect gas law.
4. There is no heat transfer across the rocket walls; therefore, the flow is adiabatic.
5. There is no appreciable friction and all boundary layer effects are neglected.
6. There are no shock waves or discontinuities in the nozzle flow.
7. The propellant flow is steady and constant. The expansion of the working fluid is uniform
and steady, without vibration. Transient effects (i.e., startup and shutdown) are of very
short duration and may be neglected.
8. All exhaust gases leaving the rocket have an axially directed velocity.
9. The gas velocity, pressure, temperature, and density are all uniform across any section
normal to the nozzle axis.
10. Chemical equilibrium is established within the rocket chamber and the gas composition
does not change in the nozzle (frozen flow).
11. Stored propellants are at room temperature. Cryogenic propellants are at their boiling
points.
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 𝑉 𝐴𝑙
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙 → = = 𝐴𝑣 → 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑣𝑡
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚
𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑡; 𝜌=
𝑉

𝑚 𝑑𝑚
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑡 → = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 → = 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑣𝐴 ∶ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Continuity Equation → 𝐴 ↓ → 𝑣 ↑
𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑣𝐴𝑑𝜌 + 𝜌𝐴𝑑𝑣 + 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝐴 = 0

𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝐴
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝜌𝑣𝐴: + + =0
𝜌 𝑣 𝐴

Sadok Smine
 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌 𝐶𝑝
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤: =𝛾 ;𝛾= ∶ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠; 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.3
𝑃 𝜌 𝐶𝑣
𝐶𝑝 : 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐶𝑣 : 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑃𝑉 𝑛𝑅𝑢 𝑇 𝑉 1 𝑃
From the Ideal Gas Law: 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑢 𝑇 → = ; = → = 𝑅𝑇 → 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝜌 𝜌
𝐽
𝑅𝑢 : 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 8.31
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∗ 𝐾
𝑛𝑅𝑢
𝑅: 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 =
𝑚
𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑃 = 𝛾𝑃 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑑𝜌 ; 𝑎0 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇 ∶ 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝜌
𝑑𝑃 = 𝑎0 ²𝑑𝜌

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤: 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑣 = −𝑑𝑃

Sadok Smine
 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑎0 ²𝑑𝜌 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑣 = −𝑑𝑃

𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑣 = −𝑎0 ²𝑑𝜌

𝑣 𝑑𝜌
𝑣𝑑𝑣 = −
𝑣𝑎0 ² 𝜌

𝑣² 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜌 𝑣
=− ; 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑀𝑎 = ; if Ma > 1 → 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑎0 ² 𝑣 𝜌 𝑎0
if Ma < 1 → 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝐴
+ + =0 −𝑀𝑎2 + + =0
𝜌 𝑣 𝐴 𝑣 𝑣 𝐴

2
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝐴
1 − 𝑀𝑎 =−
𝑣
Sadok Smine 𝐴
 −𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝑣
𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑣 = −𝑑𝑃 → 2
=− 2
=
𝜌𝑣 𝐴 1 − 𝑀𝑎 𝑣
 For Ma < 1, (1 – Ma²) is positive:
dA and dP have the same sign and dv has opposite
sign.
• Pressure of fluid must increase and velocity must
decrease as the flow area of the duct increases,
and velocity must increase as the flow area
decreases

 For Ma > 1, (1 – Ma²) is negative:

dA and dP have opposite signs and dv has same Converging-Diverging Nozzle
sign.
• Pressure must decrease and velocity must
De Laval Nozzle
increase as the area increases and velocity must
Sadok Smine
decrease as the flow area decreases
Sadok Smine
 𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝛿𝑊𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐵𝑦 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝛿𝑊𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐵𝑦 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉

𝛿𝑄 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆
𝑇𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉
/Mass
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 (1)

𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦: 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣
𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑃 2

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 : 𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑃

/T
𝑑ℎ 𝑣𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑠 = −
𝑇 𝑇
Sadok Smine
 𝑑ℎ 𝑣𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑠 = −
𝑇 𝑇
𝑑𝑇 𝑅𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑠 = 𝐶𝑝 −
𝑇 𝑃
2
𝑑𝑇 𝑅𝑑𝑃
𝑠1 − 𝑠2 = 𝐶𝑝 −
1 𝑇 𝑃

𝑇2 𝑃2
𝑑𝑠 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑅𝑙𝑛
𝑇1 𝑃1

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑆 = 0 (𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

𝑇2 𝑅 𝑃2
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
𝑇1 𝐶𝑝 𝑃1

𝑇2 𝑃2 𝐶𝑅
=( ) 𝑝
𝑇1 𝑃1 Sadok Smine
 𝑅
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝐶𝑝
= 𝐶𝑝
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝛾=
𝐶𝑣
𝑅 𝐶𝑣 1 𝛾 1 𝛾−1
=1− =1− = − =
𝐶𝑝 𝐶𝑝 𝛾 𝛾 𝛾 𝛾

𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾
=
𝑇1 𝑃1

Sadok Smine
Ignition Heat Transfer Work/KE
𝑭𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗𝒆 + (𝒑𝒆 −𝒑𝒂 )𝑨𝒆
∆𝑄 = 𝐾𝐸

1
𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒 ²
2

1
𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒2
2

𝑣𝑒 ² = 2𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑒 )
𝛾−1
𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾
𝑇𝑒 𝑃𝑒
= =
𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑇1 𝑃1

Sadok Smine
 𝛾−1
𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑒 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑣𝑒 ² = 2𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑒 = 2𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑒 = 2𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑐 1 − = 2𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐
𝛾−1
2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑣𝑒 ² = 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐

𝛾−1
2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑣𝑒 = 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐

Sadok Smine
Exhaust/Exit velocity through a convergent–divergent nozzle as a
function of pressure. M = 12, Tc = 3,215 K, and Pc =5 MPa
Sadok Smine
Exhaust/Exit velocity through a convergent–divergent nozzle as a function
of pressure with varying chamber temperatures. M = 12 and Pc = 5 MPa
Sadok Smine
 Exhaust/Exit velocity through a convergent–divergent nozzle as a function of
pressure with varying molecular weights (deuterium, carbon, oxygen, xenon). Tc
= 3,215 KSadok
and SminePc = 5 MPa
 𝛾−1
𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑒 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑣𝑒 ² = 2𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑒 = 2𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑒 = 2𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑐 1 − = 2𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐
𝛾−1
2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑣𝑒 ² = 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐

𝛾−1
2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑣𝑒 = 𝑇𝑐 1 − 𝑭𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗𝒆 + (𝒑𝒆 −𝒑𝒂 )𝑨𝒆
𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒: 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 = 0(𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒)

𝑀𝑖
∆𝑣 = 𝐶𝑙𝑛 ; 𝐶 = 𝑣𝑒
𝑀𝑓

2𝛾 𝑅𝑢
→ 𝑣𝑒 = 𝑇𝑐
𝛾−1 𝑀 Sadok Smine
A rocket operates near sea level with a chamber pressure of Pc = 2.068 MPa, a chamber
temperature of 2222 K, and a propellant consumption of 𝑚 = 1.0 kg/sec. Take 𝛾 = 1.30 and
R = 345.7 J/kg-K. Calculate the ideal thrust and the ideal specific impulse.
Also plot the local velocity v, the absolute temperature T, and the local Mach number M with
respect to pressure along the nozzle.

𝐹 = 𝑚𝐶 = 1827𝑁 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 = 0.1013 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑃𝑒
= 0.049
𝛾−1 𝑃𝑐
2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑣𝑒 = 𝐶 = 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐 Ideal Optimum
= 1827 𝑚/𝑠 Best Case Scenario Best Result Out of
(Theoretical) the Real Scenario
𝐶
𝐼𝑠𝑝 = = 186 𝑠
𝑔0

Sadok Smine
 𝛾−1
𝛾−1
𝛾
0.231 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾
𝑃 2.068
𝑇(𝑃) = 𝑇𝑐 = 2222 𝐾 =
𝑃𝑐 𝑃 𝑇1 𝑃1

𝛾−1
𝛾 0.231
2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃 𝑃
𝑣(𝑃) = 𝑇𝑐 1 − = 2580 1 − 𝑚/𝑠
𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐 2.068

𝑣(𝑃)
𝑀𝑎(𝑃) =
𝛾𝑅𝑇(𝑃)

Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑣𝐴

𝛾−1
2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃 𝛾
𝑣= 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐

𝛾−1
2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃 𝛾
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐
𝛾−1
2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑣𝑒 = 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐

Sadok Smine
 𝛾−1
2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃 𝛾
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐

1 2 𝛾−1
𝑀 𝑃 𝛾 2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃 𝛾
𝑚=𝐴 𝑃𝑐 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐

1 2 𝛾−1
𝑀 𝑃 𝛾 2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃 𝛾
𝑚 = 𝐴𝑃𝑐 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐

2 𝛾−1
2
𝑀 𝑃 𝛾 2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃 𝛾
𝑚 = 𝐴𝑃𝑐 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐
Sadok Smine
 2 𝛾−1
2𝛾 𝑀 𝑃 𝛾 𝑃 𝛾
𝑚 = 𝐴𝑃𝑐 1− = Constant (Isentropic Flow)
𝛾 − 1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐

2 𝛾−1
𝑚 2𝛾 𝑀 𝑃 𝛾 𝑃 𝛾
= 𝑃𝑐 1− : Mass Flux/Flow Density
𝐴 𝛾 − 1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐

Sadok Smine
Converging Diverging Nozzle
Nozzle

Sadok Smine
 2 𝛾−1
𝑑 𝑚 2𝛾 𝑀 𝑃 𝛾 𝑃 𝛾
= 𝑃𝑐 1−
𝑑𝑃 𝐴 𝛾 − 1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐
=0

(𝛾+1)
𝑚 2 (𝛾−1) 𝑀
= 𝑃𝑐 𝛾
𝐴𝑡 𝛾+1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐

𝑚
𝐴𝑡 =
(𝛾+1)
2 (𝛾−1) 𝑀
𝑃𝑐 𝛾
𝛾+1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐

Sadok Smine
 𝑚
2 𝛾−1
2𝛾 𝑀 𝑃𝑒 𝛾 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑃𝑐 1−
𝑚 𝐴𝑒 𝛾 − 1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐
𝐴𝑒 = 𝜀= =
2 𝛾−1 𝐴𝑡 𝑚
2𝛾 𝑀 𝑃𝑒 𝛾 𝑃𝑒 𝛾 (𝛾+1)
𝑃𝑐 1− 2 𝑀
𝛾 − 1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 (𝛾−1)
𝑃𝑐 𝛾
𝛾+1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐

𝛾−1 2 𝛾+1
( )𝛾−1 𝐴𝑒
2 𝛾+1
𝜀= 2 𝛾−1 =
𝐴𝑡
𝑃𝑒 𝛾 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
1−
𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐

𝜀: 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
 1 1
𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒: ℎ + 𝑣² = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ℎ = − 𝑣²
2 2
1 2
ℎ𝑥 − ℎ𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 − 𝑣𝑥2 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑥 − 𝑇𝑦
2
𝛾𝑅 1 2
𝑇𝑥 − 𝑇𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 − 𝑣𝑥2
𝛾−1 2 𝐶𝑝
𝛾𝑅 𝛾𝑅 1 2 𝛾=
𝑇0 − 𝑇= 𝑣 𝐶𝑣
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 2
𝛾 − 1 𝛾𝑅 1 2 𝛾𝑅
𝑇= 𝑇0 − 𝑣 𝐶𝑝 =
𝛾𝑅 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
1 2 𝛾−1
𝑇 = 𝑇0 − 𝑣 0: 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2 𝛾𝑅
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑣 = 0
1 𝑣2
𝑇 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇 𝛾−1 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 + 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐
2 𝛾𝑅𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
1
𝑇 = 𝑇0 − 𝑀𝑎²𝑇 𝛾 − 1 𝑣
2 𝑀𝑎 = 𝑎0 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇
Sadok Smine 𝑎0
 1
𝑇0 = 𝑇 + 𝑀𝑎²𝑇 𝛾 − 1
2
1
𝑇0 = 𝑇 1 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀𝑎2
2
𝑇0 ≈ 𝑇𝑐
1
𝑇𝑐 ≈ 𝑇 1 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀𝑎2
2
𝛾
1 𝛾−1
𝑃𝑐 ≈ 𝑃 1 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀𝑎2
2

𝛾+1
𝛾−1 2(𝛾−1)
𝐴𝑒 1 1 + 2 𝑀𝑎²
𝜀= =
𝐴𝑡 𝑀𝑎 𝛾+1
2
Sadok Smine
An ideal rocket is designed to operate at sea level using a propellant whose products of
combustion have a specific heat ratio 𝛾 of 1.3. Determine the required chamber pressure if
the exit Mach number is 2.52. Also determine the nozzle area ratio between the throat and
exit.
𝛾
1 𝛾−1
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑒 1 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀𝑎2 = 1.84𝑀𝑃𝑎
2
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 = 0.1013 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝛾+1 𝛾
𝛾−1 2(𝛾−1) 1 𝛾−1
𝐴𝑒 1 1 + 2 𝑀𝑎² 𝑃𝑐 ≈ 𝑃 1 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀𝑎2
𝜀= = 2
𝐴𝑡 𝑀𝑎 𝛾+1
2
= 3.02

Sadok Smine
 𝐹𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒 𝐴𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎 𝐴𝑒
Retarding Force

𝑝𝑒 𝐴𝑒 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 − 𝐹𝐺

𝑝𝑎 𝐴𝑒 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 − 𝐹𝑅
OVER-EXPANDED IDEALLY EXPANDED UNDER-EXPANDED

𝐹𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒 (𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒)

𝛾+1
𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1
2 𝛾+1 𝐴𝑒
𝜀= 2 𝛾−1 =
𝐴𝑡
𝑃𝑒 𝛾 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
1−
𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐
Sadok Smine
Design an ideal nozzle for a rocket that operates at 25 km altitude and delivers 5000 N thrust
with a chamber pressure of 2.039 MPa and a chamber temperature of 2800 K. Assuming that
𝛾 = 1.20 and R = 360 J/kg-K, determine the exit velocity, the throat temperature, the throat
area and the exit area.
𝑷
𝛾−1 𝑷𝒂
2𝛾 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑣𝑒 = 𝑅𝑇𝑐 1 − = 2851 𝑚/𝑠
𝛾−1 𝑃𝑐 𝑅𝑢
=𝑅
𝑀
𝑃 25𝑘𝑚 = 0.1013 ∗ 2.5158 ∗ 10−2
= 2.549 ∗ 10−3 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝛾−1
2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑣𝑒 = 𝑇𝑐 1 −
𝑇𝑐 𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐
𝑇𝑡 = = 2545𝐾
1
1 + (𝛾 − 1)
2 1
𝑇𝑐 ≈ 𝑇 1 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀𝑎2 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 (25𝑘𝑚)
Sadok Smine
2
 𝐹 𝐹 𝑚
𝑚 = = = 1.754 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝐴𝑡 =
𝐶 𝑣𝑒 (𝛾+1)
2 (𝛾−1) 𝑀
𝑚 𝑃𝑐 𝛾
𝐴𝑡 = = 1332 𝑚𝑚² 𝛾+1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐
(𝛾+1)
2 (𝛾−1) 1
𝑃𝑐 𝛾
𝛾+1 𝑅𝑇𝑐

= 13.32 𝑐𝑚²

𝛾−1 2 𝛾+1
( )𝛾−1 𝐴𝑒
2 𝛾+1
𝜀= 2 𝛾−1 = ≈ 60
𝐴𝑡
𝑃𝑒 𝛾 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
1−
𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐

𝐴𝑒 = 60 ∗ 13.32 = 799 𝑐𝑚²

Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
1. The working substance (or chemical reaction products) is homogeneous.
2. All the species of the working fluid are gaseous. Any condensed phases (liquid or solid)
add a negligible amount to the total mass.
3. The working substance obeys the perfect gas law.
4. There is no heat transfer across the rocket walls; therefore, the flow is adiabatic.
5. There is no appreciable friction and all boundary layer effects are neglected.
6. There are no shock waves or discontinuities in the nozzle flow.
7. The propellant flow is steady and constant. The expansion of the working fluid is uniform
and steady, without vibration. Transient effects (i.e., startup and shutdown) are of very
short duration and may be neglected.
8. All exhaust gases leaving the rocket have an axially directed velocity.
9. The gas velocity, pressure, temperature, and density are all uniform across any section
normal to the nozzle axis.
10. Chemical equilibrium is established within the rocket chamber and the gas composition
does not change in the nozzle (frozen flow).
11. Stored propellants are at room temperature. Cryogenic propellants are at their boiling
points.
Sadok Smine
 (Bell Shaped)

Sadok Smine
𝜶

Sadok Smine
 1
λ= (1 + cosα)
2

Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
 Combustion Chamber and Converging Nozzle
𝑚 𝐴𝑐
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣 ≈ 0 → ≥4
𝑠 𝐴𝑡
𝐴𝑐 ≥ 4𝐴𝑡
𝐴𝑐
: 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐴𝑡
𝐴𝑐 1
𝐿𝑐𝑛 =
𝜋 tan(𝛽)

𝐴𝑡 𝐿∗ 𝑃𝑐 𝑟𝑐 1
𝐿𝑐 = < 𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 < 𝑟𝑐
𝜋𝑟𝑐 ² 2𝜎𝑐 10
𝑉𝑐 2λ𝐸∆𝑇
∗ 𝜎𝑐 =
𝐿 = 1−𝑣
𝐴𝑡 λ: Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of the Wall Material
𝐿∗ : 𝑀𝑖𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑣: 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝐸: 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Sadok Smine 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
Sadok Smine
 𝐹
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝐶𝑓 =
𝑃𝑐 𝐴𝑡

𝑭𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗𝒆 + (𝒑𝒆 −𝒑𝒂 )𝑨𝒆

(𝛾+1) 𝛾−1
2 (𝛾−1) 𝑀 2𝛾 𝑅𝑢 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝑚 = 𝐴𝑡 𝑃𝑐 𝛾 𝑣𝑒 = 𝑇𝑐 1−
𝛾+1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐 𝛾−1 𝑀 𝑃𝑐

(𝛾+1) 𝛾−1
2𝛾² 2 (𝛾−1) 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
𝐹 = 𝐴𝑡 𝑃𝑐 1− + (𝑝𝑒 −𝑝𝑎 )𝐴𝑒
𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝑃𝑐

(𝛾+1) 𝛾−1
2𝛾² 2 (𝛾−1) 𝑃𝑒 𝛾 (𝑝𝑒 −𝑝𝑎 ) 𝐴𝑒
𝐶𝑓 = 1− +
𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝐴𝑡
Sadok Smine
 (𝛾+1) 𝛾−1
2𝛾² 2 (𝛾−1) 𝑃𝑒 𝛾 (𝑝𝑒 −𝑝𝑎 ) 𝐴𝑒
𝐶𝑓 = 1− +
𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝐴𝑡

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒: 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 = 0 (𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒) (𝛾+1)

2𝛾² 2 (𝛾−1)
𝐶𝑓 =
𝛾−1 𝛾+1

Sadok Smine
𝐶𝑓 represents the amount of thrust a rocket can produce given the chamber pressure of its
propellants and a useful characteristic fluid area – the choked area of the nozzle.

Measure of the efficiency with which the nozzle extracts energy from the hot gas in the
combustion chamber

The characteristic velocity c* : measures the efficiency of conversion of thermal energy in

the combustion chamber into high-velocity exhaust gas

(𝛾+1)
2 (𝛾−1) 𝑀
𝑚 = 𝐴𝑡 𝑃𝑐 𝛾
1 𝛾+1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐
∗
𝑐 =
∗
𝑝𝑐 𝐴𝑡 (𝛾+1)
𝑐 = 2 (𝛾−1) 𝑀
𝑚 𝛾
𝛾+1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐
Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
What is the percent variance in thrust between sea level and 10 km for a launch vehicle
whose rocket propulsion system operates with a chamber pressure of 20 atm and has a
nozzle expansion area ratio 𝜖 of 6? (Use 𝛾 = 1.2).

𝑃𝑎 1
26.436𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.2609𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑆𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = = 0.05
𝑃𝑐 20
𝐶𝑓 𝑆𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 1.36

𝑃𝑎 0.2609
10𝑘𝑚 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑢𝑑𝑒 = = 0.013
𝑃𝑐 20

𝐶𝑓 10𝑘𝑚 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 1.6

1.6 − 1.36
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 17.6%
1.36
Sadok Smine
Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines

Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
The selection of a particular feed system and its components is governed primarily by:
 The rocket application
 Duration
 Number or type of combustion chambers
 Past experience
 Mission and by the general requirements of simplicity of design
 Ease of manufacture, low cost, and minimum inert mass

Sadok Smine
Propellant Feed System

Pressure: [1.3 .. 9 MPa]

Sadok Smine
Gas Pressure Feed System

Pressure: [7..70 MPa]

Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
Gear Pump

Sadok Smine
10,000-35,000 rpm

Sadok Smine
Cavitation: A mechanism in which vapor bubbles (or cavities) in a fluid grow and collapse
due to local pressure fluctuations. Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
 Pogo Instability
Additional Small
Propellant Tank

Pressure at
Thrust
Pump Inlet

Mass Flow
Rate

Sadok Smine
 ≈ 3000°𝐶

Sadok Smine
 𝑁𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑚

Regenerative Cooling Radiative Cooling

Steady State Heat Transfer: Engine reaches thermal equilibrium
Sadok Smine
 Film Cooling Heat Sink Cooling

Un-Steady (Transient) State Heat Transfer: Engine doesn’t reaches

thermal equilibrium
Sadok Smine
(10-30% of Convection)

Sadok Smine
 𝑄 𝑑𝑞𝑐𝑣
𝑞𝑐𝑣 = → 𝑞𝑐𝑣 = ∶ 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝐴 𝑑𝑡

𝑞𝑐𝑣 = ℎ 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑤
ℎ: 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑇𝑐 : 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇𝑤 : 𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐷𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑢𝑠 − 𝐵𝑜𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.33
𝑁𝑢 : 𝑁𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑅𝑒 : 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝑟 : 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑡 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

0.8
ℎ𝐷 𝐷𝑣𝜌
= 0.023
𝑘 𝜇
Sadok Smine
 0.8
ℎ𝐷 𝐷𝑣𝜌
= 0.023
𝑘 𝜇
𝑘: 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜇: 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜋𝐷² 4𝑚
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑣𝐴 = 𝜌𝑣 →𝑣=
4𝑚
0.8 4 𝜌𝜋𝐷²
𝐷 𝜌
ℎ𝐷 𝜌𝜋𝐷²
= 0.023
𝑘 𝜇
0.8
𝑞𝑐𝑣 = ℎ 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑤
𝑘 4𝑚
ℎ = 0.023 1.8
𝐷 𝜋𝜇

𝑃𝐴 0.8 𝑃𝑐 𝐴𝑡
𝑘 4 𝑐 ∗𝑡 𝑚= ∗
ℎ = 0.023 1.8 𝑐 𝑐
𝐷 𝜋𝜇

Sadok Smine
 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡
= 𝜎𝜀𝐴 𝑇2 4 − 𝑇1 4
𝑡
4 4
𝑞𝑟𝑑 = 𝜀𝜎 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑤

𝜎: 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑓𝑎𝑛 − 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

−8
𝑊
= 5.67 ∗ 10
𝑚2 𝐾 4
𝜀: 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

Sadok Smine
 Ensure that the fuel and the oxidizer enter the chamber in a fine spray so that the
evaporation is fast
 Enable rapid mixing of the fuel and oxidizer in the liquid or gaseous phase
 Deliver the propellant s to the chamber Sadok
at high
Smine
pressure with a high flow rate
 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∶ 𝐿𝑂𝑋 − 𝐿𝐻2
𝐶𝑟𝑦𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠: 𝑁𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
Sadok Smine
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒: 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑇𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 − 𝑈𝐷𝑀𝐻
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐
Sadok Smine 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠: 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑
 𝐹
𝐶𝑓 =
𝑃𝑐 𝐴𝑡 𝐹
𝑃𝑐 𝐴𝑡 = = 𝑐 ∗ 𝑚 → 𝐹 = 𝐶𝑓 𝑐 ∗ 𝑚
𝑝𝑐 𝐴𝑡
𝐶𝑓
∗
𝑐 =
𝑚
1
𝑐∗ =
(𝛾+1)
2 (𝛾−1) 𝑀
𝛾
𝛾+1 𝑅𝑢 𝑇𝑐

→ 𝑐 ∗ ∝ 𝑇𝑐
∗
1
→𝑐 ∝
𝑀
Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
 𝑚𝐻2 ≪ 𝑚𝑂2
𝑔
𝑚𝐻2 = 2
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔
𝑚𝑂2 = 32
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚𝑂2 32 8
= =
𝑚𝐻2 2 ∗ 2 1
8
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜:
1
𝑂
> 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 → 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝐹
𝑂
Sadok Smine < 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 → 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝑅𝑖𝑐ℎ
𝐹
 𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

Sadok Smine
Solid-Propellant Rocket Engines

Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
 𝑭𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗𝒆 + (𝒑𝒆 −𝒑𝒂 )𝑨𝒆 = 𝒎𝑪

𝑚 = 𝐴𝑏 𝑟𝜌𝑏
𝑚𝑚
𝑟: 𝐵𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑠
𝐴𝑏 : 𝐵𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜌𝑏 : 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)

𝑟 = 𝑎𝑃𝑐 𝑛

𝑎: 𝐵𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑛: 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥

Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
 Electric Propulsion

Mission:
MoreNSSK
Orbit Correction: Efficient
in Particular (North-South Station
Keeping)
Deep Space Propulsion
Higher Exhaust Velocity
Drag Cancellation
LEO-LEO and LEO-GEO Orbit Raising 11 km/s

Deorbiting

Sadok Smine
Electro-thermal Thrusters

Sadok Smine
 Resistojet

Useful in situations with excess power

Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
 Arcjet

Gasses heated to very high temperature by electrical discharge (arc)

Lifetime limited by heat damage to materials
Sadok Smine
Sadok Smine
Ion Thrusters

Sadok Smine
 𝑉 𝑉
𝐸=− 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 = −𝑞
𝑑 𝑑
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 = −𝑞𝑉
1
𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣²
2

−2𝑞𝑉 2𝑞𝑉
𝑣𝑒 = 𝐹𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒 = 𝑚
𝑚 𝑚
Sadok Smine
 NASA’s Deep Space Probe DS1 used a NASA Solar Technology
Application Readiness (NSTAR) ion engine. The accelerator
grids had a high-voltage potential difference of about 1,000 V
and used xenon gas for propellant. What was the thrust and
specific impulse supplied by the thruster if it continuously
flowed xenon gas through the engine for 20 months? Assume
a total fuel mass of 117.5 kg.

2𝑞𝑉 2 1.6 ∗ 10−19 ∗ 1000 𝑚

𝑣𝑒 = = −25
= 38,327
𝑚 2.18 ∗ 10 𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 117.5 𝑘𝑔
NSTAR Ion Thruster 𝑚= = = 5.875
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 20 𝑚𝑡ℎ
−6
𝑘𝑔
2𝑞𝑉 = 2.26 ∗ 10
𝐹𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒 = 𝑚 𝑠
𝑚 𝐹𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣𝑒 = 0.086𝑁

𝑚𝑋𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑜𝑛 = 2.18 ∗ 10−25 𝐼𝑠𝑝

Sadok= 𝑣/𝑔0 = 3910𝑠
Smine
Hall Effect Thrusters

Sadok Smine
Electromagnetic Thrusters

Sadok Smine
A thruster has an exhaust velocity of 13,700 m/sec, an average thrust of 860 μN, an average
𝑘𝑔
𝑚 of 8.3 × 10−8 , and an 𝐼𝑠𝑝 of 1,400 sec, the discharge capacitor is 1 μF, and the capacitor
sec
is charged to 2,000 V, what are the values of the charging and discharging resistors in order to
maintain the thruster performing at this level of operation?
𝐶𝑉² 1 ∗ 10−6 𝐹 ∗ 20002
𝑚= = = 2.13 ∗ 10−8 𝑘𝑔
𝑣² 13700²

𝑚
𝑛 = = 3.9 ≈ 4 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 (𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) 𝑚
1
10𝜏 ∗ 4 → 40𝜏 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 → 𝜏 = 𝑠 = 𝑅𝐶 = 0.025𝑠
40

0.025 0.025
𝑅= = −6
= 25 000 Ω
𝐶 1 ∗ 10

Sadok Smine