1. Introduction. Methods of projection.

Practical solid geometry or descriptive geometry deals with the representation of

points, lines, planes and solids on a flat surface (such as a sheet of paper), in such a
manner that their relative positions and true forms can be accurately determined.
In the 2D system, we use only two coordinates X and Y but in 3D, an extra
coordinate Z is added. 3D graphics techniques and their application are
fundamental to the entertainment, games, and computer-aided design industries

.
In engineering drawing following four methods of projection are commonly used,
they are:
(1) Orthographic projection (3) Oblique projection
(2) Isometric projection (4) Perspective projection.
In the above methods (2), (3) and (4) represent the object by a pictorial view as
eyes see it. In these methods of projection, a three-dimensional object is
represented on a projection plane by one view only. While in the orthographic
projection an object is represented by two or three views on the mutual
perpendicular projection planes. Each projection view represents two dimensions
of an object. For the complete description of the three-dimensional object at least
two or three views are required.

2. Orthographic projection.
When the projectors are parallel to each other and also perpendicular to the plane,
the projection is called orthographic projection.
Orthographic projection, common method of representing three-dimensional
objects, usually by three two-dimensional drawings in each of which the object is
viewed along parallel lines that are perpendicular to the plane of the drawing. For
example, an orthographic projection of a house typically consists of a top view, or
plan, and a front view and one side view (front and side elevations).
There are three types of orthographic projections −
 Front Projection
  Top Projection
 Side Projection

3. Parallel projection.
Parallel projection discards z-coordinate and parallel lines from each vertex on the
object are extended until they intersect the view plane. In parallel projection, we
specify a direction of projection instead of center of projection. In parallel
projection, the distance from the center of projection to project plane is infinite. In
this type of projection, we connect the projected vertices by line segments which
correspond to connections on the original object. Parallel projections are less
realistic, but they are good for exact measurements. In this type of projections,
parallel lines remain parallel and angles are not preserved.

4. Oblique projection.

In oblique projection, the direction of projection is not normal to the projection of

plane. In oblique projection, we can view the object better than orthographic
projection.
There are two types of oblique projections − Cavalier and Cabinet. The Cavalier
projection makes 45° angle with the projection plane. The projection of a line
perpendicular to the view plane has the same length as the line itself in Cavalier
projection. In a cavalier projection, the foreshortening factors for all three principal
directions are equal.
The Cabinet projection makes 63.4° angle with the projection plane. In Cabinet
projection, lines perpendicular to the viewing surface are projected at ½ their
actual length.

5. Projection planes.

The two planes employed for the purpose of orthographic projections are called
reference planes or principal planes of projection. They intersect each other at right
angles. The vertical plane of projection (in front of the observer) is usually denoted
by the letters V.P. It is often called the frontal plane and denoted by the letters F.P.
The other plane is the horizontal plane of projection known as the H.P. All
projection theory is based on two variables: line of sight (projecting lines)
and plane of projection.

A line of sight (LOS) is an imaginary line between an observer’s eye and an

object. A plane of projection (i.e., an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat
plane upon which the image is projected. The projection is produced by connecting
the points where the lines of sight pierce the projection plane. As a result, the 3D
object is transformed into a 2D view.

If the distance from the observer to the object is infinite, then the projection lines
are assumed to be parallel, and the projection is called a parallel projection.
Parallel projection is orthographic if the plane of projection is placed between the
observer and the object, and the plane is perpendicular to the parallel lines of sight.
 6. The point. Projection of the point on the projection planes.
A point may be situated, in space, in any one of the four quadrants formed by the two principal
planes of projection or may lie in any one or both of them. Its projections are obtained by
extending projectors perpendicular to the planes. One of the planes is then rotated so that the
first and third quadrants are opened out. The projections are shown on a flat surface in their
respective positions either above or below or in xy.
Consider a point A placed in the first quadrant. This is at a height h mm above HP, at a distance
d mm in front of VP. Its front view a’ is projected onto VP and the top view a is projected onto
HP.

Consider a point C placed in the third quadrant. The point is at a height h mm below HP and a
distance d mm behind VP. Its front view c’ is projected onto VP and the top view c is projected
onto HP.
 7. Complex drawing. Description of the point in quadrants.
A point may be situated, in space, in any one of the four quadrants formed by the two principal
planes of projection or may lie in any one or both of them. Its projections are obtained by
extending projectors perpendicular to the planes. One of the planes is then rotated so that the
first and third quadrants are opened out. The projections are shown on a flat surface in their
respective positions either above or below or in xy.
Consider a point A placed in the first quadrant. This is at a height h mm above HP, at a distance
d mm in front of VP. Its front view a’ is projected onto VP and the top view a is projected onto
HP.

Consider a point C placed in the third quadrant. The point is at a height h mm below HP and a
distance d mm behind VP. Its front view c’ is projected onto VP and the top view c is projected
onto HP.
 8. Straight line. Straight line positions.
A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. Hence, the projections
of a straight line may be drawn by joining the respective projections of its ends
which are points. A straight line is placed with reference to the planes of projections in the
following positions.
1. Line perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP.
2. Line perpendicular to VP and parallel to HP.
3. Line parallel to both HP and VP.
4. Line inclined to HP and parallel to VP.
5. Line inclined to VP and parallel to HP.
6. Line inclined to both HP and VP.

1) Projection of a Line kept Perpendicular to HP and Parallel to VP

Consider a straight line AB kept perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. Its front
view is projected onto VP which is s line having true length. The top view is
projected onto HP which is a point

2) Projection of a Line kept Perpendicular to VP and Parallel to HP

Its top view is projected onto HP which is a line having true length (TL). The front
view is projected onto VP which is point.
3) Projection of a Line kept Parallel to Both HP and VP
Its front view is projected onto VP which is a line having true length (TL). The top
view is projected onto HP which is also a line having true length.

4) Projection of a Line kept inclined to HP and Parallel to VP

Its front view is projected onto VP which is an inclined line at an angle  to XY
and having true length (TL). The top view is projected onto HP which is also a line
but smaller than the true length and parallel to XY.

5) Projection of a Line kept Inclined to VP and Parallel to HP

Its top view is projected onto HP which is a line inclined at an angle  to XY and
having true length (TL). The front view is projected onto VP which is also a line
but smaller than true length

9. Traces of a straight line.

The point of intersection or meeting of a line with the reference plane, extended if necessary,
is known as the trace of a line. The point of intersection of a line with the HP is known as the
horizontal trace, represented by HT and that with the VP is known as the vertical trace,
represented by VT. No trace is obtained when a line is kept parallel to a reference plane.
 If the line is given parallel to a plane, it will never intersect that plane and,
therefore, no trace
 of the line on that plane.
 If the line is given parallel to VP and inclined to HP, only HT will be obtained and
no VT.
 If the line is given parallel to HP and inclined to VP, only VT will be obtained and
no HT.
 If the line is given parallel to both the planes, neither HT nor VT will be obtained.

(8 ci sualda olanlari cekib yazin)

10. Position of two interacted planes.

Two planes can intersect in the three-dimensional space. Imagine two adjacent
pages of a book. These two pages are nothing but an intersection of planes,
intersecting each other and the line between them is called the line of intersection.
A new plane i.e. a third plane can be given to be passing through this line of
intersection of planes. We are to find out the equation of this plane.
Let us assume that the equation of the first plane is π1 and that of the second is
π2. The equation of our required plane is π and we are to find out this equation
itself. This equation is given by – π1+λπ2=0
Now, the equation of the planes can be given in vector form or Cartesian form.
 11. Position of a point on a straight line.
A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. Hence, the projections
of a straight line may be drawn by joining the respective projections of its ends
which are points. A straight line is placed with reference to the planes of projections in the
following positions.
1. Line perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP.
2. Line perpendicular to VP and parallel to HP.
3. Line parallel to both HP and VP.
4. Line inclined to HP and parallel to VP.
5. Line inclined to VP and parallel to HP.

6. Line inclined to both HP and VP. (8ci sualdan tekrardi)

Let us examine geometric images in pairs to distinguish their positional and
some metric properties. A point can or can not belong to a straight line.
If a point belongs to a straight line, this point projections lie in the uninamed
projections of the straight line.
Fig.33 shows that points ACKB belong to a straight line, as its both
projections belong to the corresponding straight line projections. Point D doesn’t
lie on a given straight line, as its horizontal projection doesn’t coincide with the
horizontal projection of the straight line. Point D is located in space above the
straight line and in front of it.
12. Determination of the true length of an arbitrary straight line.
A true length line is the actual straight-line distance between two points. In
orthographic projection, a true-length line must be parallel to a projection plane.
Many times if the top and front views of a line are given, the true length and true
inclinations of a line is required to be determined.
The top and front views of the object can be drawn from if any of the following
data are available:
(a) Distance between the end projectors,
(b) Distance of one or both the end points from HP and VP and
(c) Apparent inclinations of the line.
The problems may be solved by
(i) Rotating line method or
(ii) Rotating trapezoidal plane method or
(iii) Auxiliary plane method.

It sometimes is more practical to find the true length of a line by the revolution method
Finding the true length of a line by the revolution method.

13. Plane. Description of the plane in a complex drawing.

A surface comprising all the straight lines that join any two points lying on it is called a plane in
geometry. In other words, it is a flat or level surface. In a Euclidean space of any number of
dimensions, a plane is defined through any of the following uniquely:
Using three non-collinear points
Using a point and a line not on that line
Using two distinct intersecting lines
Using two separate parallel lines
If there are two different planes than they are either parallel to each other or intersecting in a
line, in a three-dimensional space
14. Positions of the plane.
Special position planes are projecting planes and level planes. Projecting planes are the planes
that are perpendicular to one of the projection planes. Their name corresponds to the name of
the projection plane, which they are perpendicular to. Horizontal projections of all the points
that belong to a horizontal projecting plane lie on one straight line, which is a horizontal trace of
the given plane (fig.45). This property of a horizontal trace of a horizontal projecting plane is
called a collecting property.

A front trace of a front projecting plane and a profile trace of a profile projecting plane have the
similar property. Level planes are the planes that are parallel to one of the projection planes.

A general position plane is a plane that is neither parallel, nor perpendicular to any of the
projection planes

15. The main lines of the plane.

A horizontal line, a front line and a line of the largest inclination belong to special
lines of a plane. Straight line h1 that belongs to the given plane and is parallel to
horizontal projection plane П1 is a horizontal line of a plane. Straight line f1 that
also belongs to the given plane and is parallel to front projection plane П2 is a
front line of a plane (fig.51).
A line of the largest inclination in relation to П1 is called a line of the largest slope.
It is perpendicular to a horizontal trace of the given plane or to its horizontal line.
A line of the largest inclination in relation to П1 is called a line of the largest slope.
It is perpendicular to a horizontal trace of the given plane or to its horizontal line.

16. Straight lines with the greatest inclination of the plane

Inclination is a quantity that characterizes the inclination of one
straight line relative to another. The slope in the drawing can be
indicated as the ratio of two digits (1: 5, 2: 7, etc.). The deviation
line is completed by an arrow resting on the surface indicating
the slope (Fig. 18). When placing the sign of inclination, its acute
angle must be indicated in the direction of the acute angle of
inclination.

17. The mutual state of the two planes.

The two planes employed for the purpose of orthographic projections are called
reference planes or principal planes of projection. They intersect each other at right
angles. The vertical plane of projection (in front of the observer) is usually denoted
by the letters V.P. It is often called the frontal plane and denoted by the letters F.P.
The other plane is the horizontal plane of projection known as the H.P. The line in
which they intersect is termed the reference line and is denoted by the letters xy.
The projection on the V.P. is called the front view or the elevation of the object.
The projection on the H.P. is called the top view or the plan.
When the two planes are brought in line with each other, the views will be seen as
shown in fig. 8-4(ii). The top view in this case comes above the front view.

18. Method of auxiliary planes.

Two views of an object, viz. the front view and the top view (projected on the
princpal planes of projection), are sometimes not sufficient to convey all the
information regarding the object. Additional views, called auxiliary views, are
therefore, projected on other planes known as auxiliary planes. These views are
often found necessary in technical drawings. Auxiliary views may also be used for
determining
(i) the true length of a line,
(ii) the point-view of a line,
(iii) the edge-view of a plane,
(iv) the true size and form of a plane etc.
They are thus very useful in finding solutions of problems in practical solid
geometry.
Auxiliary planes are of two types:
(i) auxiliary vertical plane or A.V.P., and
 (ii) auxiliary inclined plane or A.LP.
(i) Auxiliary vertical plane is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the
V.P. Projection on an A.V.P. is called auxiliary front view.
(ii) Auxiliary inclined plane is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to the
H.P. Projection on an A.LP. is called auxiliary top view.
The orthographic views of the auxiliary projections are drawn by rotating the
auxiliary plane about that principal plane to which it is perpendicular.

19. Perpendicularity of two planes

The projection of a plane on the reference plane parallel to it will show its true
shape. Hence, beginning should be made by drawing that view. The other view
which will be a line, should then be projected from it.
(1) When the plane is parallel to the H.P.: The top view should be drawn first
and the front view projected from it.
(2) When the is to the V.P.: Beginning should be made with the front view and
the top view projected from it.

Fig.2.1

20. INTERSECTIONS OF PLANES

The intersection of two planes is a straight line containing all points common to the two planes.
Since planes are themselves represented by straight lines, points common to two intersecting planes
may be located by finding piercing points of lines of one plane with the other plane, by the use of edge-
view method or the cutting-plane method.
Edge-view method In Fig.3.1, two planes are given: 1–2–3 and 4–5–6. If the edge view of either
plane is constructed, the piercing points of the lines of the other plane will lie along the edge view. At
(a) a horizontal line is introduced through point 3 of plane 1–2–3 in order to secure a true-length line in
the top view. (A horizontal line in plane 4–5–6 or frontal lines in either plane would serve just as well in
this problem.) Auxiliary view 1 is then constructed with its direction of sight parallel to the true-length
view of the line. The completed auxiliary view 1 shows the edge view of plane 1–2–3 and the piercing
points of lines 4–5 and 5–6 as indicated by the encircled points.
 At (b) the piercing points are projected to the top view and then to the front view. (It is good
practice to check accuracy by divider distances, as indicated by dimension ). Since the given planes are
not completely bounded, there is no reason to restrict the drawn length of the segment of the line of
intersection (⊔). However, the views of the line of intersection should be compatible from view to view.
Since the ⊔ is common to both planes, it must intersect or be parallel to each line of both planes. As
a check on accuracy, observe in this case that the ⊔ intersects line 1–2 at 7 and is parallel to line 2–3.

FIGURE 3.1 Intersection of Two Planes—Edge-View Method.

Cutting-plane method. Because it requires no additional views, the cutting-plane method is

frequently used to find the intersection of two planes, Fig.3.2 At (a) it is arbitrarily decided to introduce
an edge-view cutting plane coinciding with the top view of line 5–6, with the intention of finding the
piercing point of line 5–6 in plane 1–2–3–4. The student should realize that one could introduce cutting
planes in either view coinciding with any of the lines of the planes. With so many possibilities it is
imperative that the choice be indicated with proper use of the symbol EV, both to avoid confusion on
the student’s part and as a courtesy to the person who must read the drawing.
In this case the introduced plane cuts line 8–9 from plane 1–2–3–4. Point 8 is on line 1–2 and point
9 is on line 2–3. Observe this carefully to avoid mistakes in projecting to the front view. The front view
of line 8–9 intersects line 5–6 at the encircled piercing point which, after projection to the top view,
represents one point common to the given planes.
 FIGURE 3.2 Intersection of Two Planes—Cutting-Plane Method.

At (b) another piercing point is located by introducing an edge-view cutting plane along line 5–7.
The line of intersection,⊔, passes through the two piercing points as shown.
In this illustration the given planes are bounded and can therefore be considered limited as at (c).
The piercing point of line 5–7 falls outside plane 1–2–3–4 and is therefore not on the “real” portion of
the line of intersection, which is drawn as a visible line only in the area common to the views of both
planes. The termination of this segment is at the point that is actually the piercing point of line 1–4 in
plane 5–6–7. However, this result was not obvious at the start of the construction.
Special cutting-plane method. The line of intersection of two planes also may be found through
the use of cutting planes that do not coincide with the views of given lines. Any plane cutting the two
given planes, Fig.3.3 (a), cuts one line from each. Since these lines lie in the cutting plane as well as in
the given planes, they will intersect at a point common to the given planes. A second cutting plane will
establish a second common point, giving two points on the line of intersection. For convenience, the
edge-view cutting planes employed are usually drawn parallel to a regular coordinate plane, but this is
not necessary. It is suggested that the two planes be introduced in the same view for more control of the
distance between the points secured.
21. ANGLE BETWEEN LINE AND OBLIQUE PLANE.
 The true angle between a line and a plane of projection (frontal, horizontal, or profile) is seen in the
view in which the given line is true length and the plane in question is in edge view. This is a general
principle that applies to any plane: normal, inclined, or oblique. In Fig. 3.4 (a) two views of a plane 1–
2–3 and a line 5–6 are given. One cannot expect a primary auxiliary view to show plane 1–2–3 in edge
view and also line 5–6 in true length, for generally the directions of sight for these two purposes will not
be parallel.

FIGURE 3.4 Angle Between Line and Plane—True-Size Method.

In Fig. 3.4 (a) frontal line 2–4 is added to given plane 1–2–3.We thus now have a true-length line in
the front view, and edge-view auxiliary view 1 is projected from it. The true-size secondary auxiliary
view 2 is then constructed in the customary manner.
Any view projected from view 2 will show plane 1–2–3 in edge view. Therefore to show the true
angle between line 5–6 and the plane, direction of sight 3 is established at right angles to view 2 of line
5–6.View 3 then shows the required angle (<).

22. PARALLEL PLANES

Planes may be established parallel to each other by drawing their edge views parallel, Fig. 3.7. Let
it be assumed, as at (a), that plane 1–2–3 and point 4 are given, and it is desired to establish a plane 4–
5–6 parallel to plane 1–2–3. First, the edge view of plane 1–2–3 is constructed as shown. Then the edge
view of the other plane is drawn through point 4 parallel to the first edge view.
 FIGURE 3.7 Parallel Planes by Parallel Edge Views

Because no further information about points 5 and 6 is given, points 5 and 6 are assumed at any
random locations along the edge view of plane 4–5–6, as at (b). However, it is known that to represent a
plane in space, three points must not be in a straight line. Accordingly, projection lines are drawn from
points 5 and 6 in the auxiliary view to the top view, and points 5 and 6 are placed arbitrarily in the top
view along the respective projection lines. The front views are then located by projection from the top
view and transfer of distances such as D1.
The method depends on this principle: If a pair of intersecting lines in one plane is parallel to a
pair of intersecting lines in a second plane, the planes are parallel. The intersecting-line principle can
also be used to cheek for parallelism.

23. Surfaces and solids.

A surface is a two-dimensional geometric entity having (theoretically) no thickness. It thus has
area but not volume. A surface may be generated by a moving line, straight or curved, called the
generatrix. Any position of the generatrix is an element of the surface.
A ruled surface is generated by a moving straight line. The surface generated may be a plane, a
single curved surface, or a warped surface.
A plane is a ruled surface generated by a straight line one point of which moves along another
straight line (the directrix), while the generatrix remains parallel to its original position. Many of
the geometric solids are bounded by plane surfaces.
A single-curved surface is a developable ruled surface; that is, it can be unrolled to coincide with
a plane. A single-curved surface is generated by a straight line one point of which moves along a
plane-curve directrix, while the generatrix continues to pass through a fixed point (the vertex) as
for a cone, or remains parallel to its original position as for a cylinder.
A warped surface is a ruled surface that is not developable, Fig. 4.1. These surfaces are generated
by straight lines moving in various patterns, all characterized by the principle that no two adjacent
positions of the generatrix lie in the same plane. Many exterior “streamlined” surfaces of
automobiles or aircraft are warped surfaces.
A double-curved surface may be generated only by a curved line, and has no straight-line
elements. Such a surface, generated by revolving a curved line about a straight line in the plane of
the curve, is called a doublecurved surface of revolution. Common examples are the sphere,
torus, and ellipsoid. Solids bounded by plane surfaces are polyhedra, the most common forms of
which are the pyramid and prism. Convex solids whose faces are all congruent regular polygons
are the regular polyhedra, which include the tetrahedron, cube, oct hedron, dodecahedron, and
icosahedron, known as the five Platonic solids.
Plane surfaces that bound polyhedra are faces of the solids. Lines of intersection of faces are
edges of the solids.
A solid generated by revolving a plane figure about an axis in the plane of the figure is a solid of
revolution.
Solids bounded by warped surfaces have no group name. A common example of such solids is the
screw thread.
In practice the term solid is frequently used for convenience for any three-dimensional, closed
form, even though it may be a hollow sheet-metal form such as a “tin” can or heating duct, and
not solid at all.

24. Solids.
Solids can be divided into two main groups: (1) Solids bounded by plane surfaces such as prisms
and pyramids are generally known as polyhedra. See Figures 4.2 and 4.3.
Solids generated by the revolution of a line around another line are called solids of revolution.
Examples of such solids are cylinders and cones. See Figure 4.4.
Figures 4.4 (a) and (b) show a cylinder and a cone, respectively. If a straight line rotates about
another fixed straight line, which is parallel to it, and if the distance between the two is kept
constant, the rotating line generates a cylindrical surface. Similarly, if a straight line rotates
about another fixed straight line, keeping the angle between the two lines constant, the rotating
line generates a conical surface. Hence, these solids are known as solids of revolution and in
both the cases, the fixed line is known as the axis and the rotating one as the generator of the
solid.
When a part of a cone or a pyramid nearer to the apex is removed by cutting the solid by a plane
parallel to its base, the remaining portion is known as its frustum. Figures 4.5 (a) and (b) show
the frustum of a rectangular pyramid and that of a cone, respectively.
25. Intersection of plane and curved surface.
Plane and right-circular cylinder Fig. 4.15. To estabish the intersection of a plane and a circular
cylinder, the cylinder is treated as a multisided prism through the introduction of an appropriate
number of elements, as at (a).While theoretically these elements need not be equally spaced,
the symmetrical arrangement shown tends both to simplify the construction of the intersection
and to facilitate development. Treated in this way, the construction becomes similar to that of
Fig. 4.12. The finished solution with proper visibility is shown in Fig. 4.15 (b).

26. Intersections of planes and solids.

The principles involved in intersections of planes and solids have their practical application in the cutting of
openings in roof surfaces for flues and stacks or in wall surfaces for pipes, chutes, and so on, and in the building
of sheet-metal structures such as tanks and boilers.

Intersection of plane and pyramid Fig. 4.14. Because the plane 1–2–3–4 is limited—that is, it has definite
boundaries—some details of construction for the intersection with the pyramid are different from the more
general case illustrated in Fig. 4.13. At (b) point A is found by the cutting-plane method. When this method was
applied to the other lateral edges of the pyramid (construction not shown), it was discovered that these piercing
points are beyond the boundaries of plane 1–2–3–4 and are therefore theoretical or imaginary. Further
consideration leads to the realization that we must find the piercing points of certain edges or boundary lines of
the plane with the lateral surfaces of the pyramid. Accordingly, at (c), edge-view cutting planes are introduced
coinciding with the front view of lines 2–3 and 1–4. The resulting piercing points B, C, D, and E, together with
point A, permit the completion of the intersection as shown.

27. Intersection of solids.

Intersections of circular cylinders Fig. 4.24. To determine the intersection of two

circular cylinders, a series of elements is assumed on the horizontal cylinder and
numbered 1, 2, 3, Б , in the side view. The elements are then established in the top
and front views. The points of intersection of the elements with the surface of the
vertical cylinder are shown in the top view at A, B, C, and these points may be found
in the front view by projection to their intersections with the corresponding
elements 1, 2, Б , 3, When a sufficient number of points has been found to
determine the figure of intersection, the curve is drawn through the points with the
aid of the irregular curve.
 28.Methods used in the descriptive geometry.
In a complex drawing, the problems associated with determining the
distance and angles between geometric elements, as well as the true height of flat
figures, are called metric problems.
1. A group of issues related to determining the distance between geometric
elements. This includes: determining the distance between two points; determine
the distance from a point to a straight line; determine the distance from the point to
the plane; determine the distance between the point and the surface; determine
the
distance between two straight lines; determine the distance from a straight line to a
plane; determine the distance from the plane to the plane.
1. A group of problems related to the determination of angles between
intersecting and diagonal lines, straight lines and planes (assuming the size
of a hypocritical angle).
2. A group of issues related to the determination of the true size of a flat figure
and part of a plane. These issues can be solved by changing the drawing in
different ways. The basis of the solution of metric problems is the method of
right-angled projection, which means that any geometric figure can project
on the projection plane with its true size if it is located on a plane parallel to
the projection plane. If one of the geometric figures in the problem has a
special situation, the solution of the problem is much easier. If one of the
geometric figures is not in a special condition, it is necessary to carry out
certain construction work to bring one of them to this condition.

29.Rotational method
To rotate an
object:
a. Find a line axis: if rotating a point or a line, the subject cannot be
incident with the axis (the point cannot be on the axis)
b. Find the center of rotation: it is the line of axis in point view
 c. Find the path of rotation: The plane of rotation is perpendicular to the
line axis. When viewing the plane of rotation in true shape, the path of
rotation is a circular one. The radius of rotation is the distance between
the subject and the center of rotation.
Rotation in various views:
1. Viewing the line in point view: construct the circular path directly
2. Viewing the line in oblique views: Find the line in true length and
point view, then apply the construction above

30. Flat-parallel displacement method

As we mentioned, the plane-parallel displacement method is a special case of the
rotation method.

Here, all points of geometric elements and flat figures are moved along a plane
parallel to one of the projection planes. During this displacement, the projection of the
element on that projection plane does not change its shape and size. The other
projections of these points are the projections of the planes of rotation with the
cumulative property, that is, let's move along straight lines parallel to the X axis, and
that projection of the element will change its shape and size. The movement is
continued until the given geometric element is brought to the desired position with
respect to the projection planes.
Figure 2.40 shows how to find the real length of an arbitrary straight line segment
AB by placing it parallel to the H plane.
It is known that when a straight line segment is parallel to the H plane, its frontal
projection is parallel to the X projection axis. Therefore, a new frontal projection
A1"B1" of the straight line segment is constructed anywhere provided that AB is equal
to the given frontal projection and parallel to the X-axis. The horizontal projection of
the line segment A1"B1" - the line A1'B1' will be the true dimension of the arbitrary
line segment AB.

31.The method of replacing of the projection planes.

Figure 2.45 shows the method of finding the distance between point A and an
arbitrary BC straight line by substituting the projection planes. To do this, we
replace the system of projection planes H– F with the system of planes H - F1, and
in this new system determine the positions of the straight line BC and the frontal
projections of point A - B1"C1" straight line and point A1"(Figure 2.45, b). The
line "C1" is equal to the actual size of the given line BC. From point A1 we draw a
line perpendicular to the line B1 "C1". With this perpendicular we denote the
point of
intersection of the line B1"C1" (M1 "). We find the projections M 'and M" of the
found point M. The distance between point A and point M will be the distance
between point and the straight line BC (Figure 2.45, c).
In the second substitution, we replace the system N - F1 with the system N2 - F1
and find the true size of the distance between a straight line and a point -
A1'M1'(Figure 2.45, d).
32. metric problem
In a complex drawing, the problems associated with determining the
distance and angles between geometric elements, as well as the true height of flat
figures, are called metric problems.
1. A group of issues related to determining the distance between geometric
elements. This includes: determining the distance between two points; determine
the distance from a point to a straight line; determine the distance from the point to
the plane; determine the distance between the point and the surface; determine the
distance between two straight lines; determine the distance from a straight line to a
plane; determine the distance from the plane to the plane.
2. A group of problems related to the determination of angles between
intersecting and diagonal lines, straight lines and planes (assuming the size of a
hypocritical angle).
3. A group of issues related to the determination of the true size of a flat
figure and part of a plane. These issues can be solved by changing the drawing in
different ways. The basis of the solution of metric problems is the method of right-
angled projection, which means that any geometric figure can project on the
projection plane with its true size if it is located on a plane parallel to the projection
plane. If one of the geometric figures in the problem has a special situation, the
solution of the problem is much easier. If one of the geometric figures is not in a
special condition, it is necessary to carry out certain construction work to bring one
of them to this condition.

33.Determining the distance between a point and a plane

This distance is measured by the length of the perpendicular drawn from the
point to the plane.
Determine the distance from point D to the arbitrary triangle ABC (Figure 2.42,
a) A straight line perpendicular to the plane ∆AVS is drawn from a given point D.
In this case, the condition of perpendicularity of the straight line to the plane is
used. According to the condition, if a straight line is perpendicular to the plane, the
horizontal projection of that line must be perpendicular to the horizontal projection
of the horizontal, and the frontal projection of the line must be perpendicular to the
frontal projection of the frontal of the plane. Therefore, first of all we construct the
main lines of the plane: h', h"- projections of the horizontal; f', f" - projections of
the frontal. We draw lines perpendicular from point D' to line h' and from point
D" to line f". These lines were horizontal and frontal projections of a line
perpendicular to the plane ∆ AVS from point D (Figure 2.42, b).
To find the point of intersection of the plane ∆ ABC with the perpendicular we
draw, we draw an auxiliary frontal projection plane β from the perpendicular. The
βF frontal trace, which has the cumulative property of the β plane, coincides with
the frontal projection of a perpendicular straight line.

a) b)

34.Determining the distance between a point and a straight line

This distance is measured by the length of the perpendicular drawn from the point
to the straight line and is determined by the following two methods.
In Figure 2.44, finding the distance between point A and an arbitrary BC straight
line is given by this method.
I method. From point A, the plane α is drawn perpendicular to the straight line
BC. This plane is constructed by the main lines h and f. In order for the plane to be
perpendicular to the given straight line BC, the horizontal projection of its horizon
h 'is drawn perpendicular to the projection B'C' of the straight line, and the frontal
projection of the frontal f 'is drawn perpendicular to the frontal projection of the
given straight line B "C" (Fig. 2.44, b).
The point of intersection of the plane α with the given straight line BC is found. To
do this, use the sequence in determining the point of intersection of a straight line
with the plane
1) A frontal β (or horizontal) projection plane is drawn from a given straight
line BC. B"C" of this straight line falls on the βF frontal projection of the frontal
projection plane, which has a cumulative property;
2) A straight line of intersection of the β plane and the α plane is constructed. That
line is found with the help of two dots. These points are points 1 and 2 obtained
from the intersection of the lines f and h with the plane β. The 12 straight lines
passing through these points will be the intersection of the planes β and α.
3) Find the point of intersection M of the line BC with the 12 straight lines
we have constructed.
Thus, the point M will be the point of intersection of the α plane with the given
straight line BC.
The distance between point M we find and point A is the distance between point A
and BC in a straight line. We determine the true length of this distance by the
method of flat parallel displacement

35.Determining the distance between two parallel straight lines

This distance is measured by the length of the remaining perpendicular
between the parallel lines.
A point (point A) is taken on one of the two parallel lines (DE). The
distance between this point and the second straight line (BC) is found –
the AM straight line. So finding the distance between parallel straight
lines turns into finding the distance between a point and a straight
line.
We find the true length of a straight line segment AM by the method of
rotation (Figure 2.46 b, c, d).

36.Construction of projections of solids on the plane

when the axis of a solid is perpendicular to a plane, its base will be parallel to that
plane. We have already seen that when a plane is parallel to a reference plane, its
projection on that plane shows its true shape and size. Therefore, the projection of
a solid on the plane to which its axis is perpendicular, will show the true shape and
size of its base. Hence, when the axis is perpendicular to the ground, i.e. to the
H.P., the top view should be drawn first and the front view projected from it. When
the axis is perpendicular to the V.P., beginning should be made with the front
view. The top view should then be projected from it. When the axis is parallel to
both the H.P. and the V.P., neither the top view nor the front view will show the
 actual shape of the base. In this case, the projection of the solid on an auxiliary
plane perpendicular to both the planes, viz. the side view must be drawn first.
The compilation of a complex drawing of a polyhedron begins with the
construction of the projections of its base. As an example, let’s draw a complex
drawing of a triangular straight prism whose base is on the H plane.

First, the ABC lower base of this prism is constructed. Since this base is on the
horizontal projection plane, its A’B’C ‘frontal projection will be below the X axis,
and A “B” C “frontal projection will be on the X axis. The frontal projection
B1’C1 ‘’ will be parallel to the frontal projection of the lower base and at a
distance from it equal to the height of the prism.
Knowing that all the sides of a prism are parallel and equal to each other, it is
possible to determine its complex drawing. Projections of the side AA1, BB1 and
CC1 are formed by connecting the apexes of the same name of the base (Figure
2.47).
In order to create visibility in the projected projections, it is necessary to
separate the visible parts from the invisible parts in the complex drawing.

37. Construction of the complex drawing of the polyhedrons.

The compilation of a complex drawing of a polyhedron begins with the construction of
the projections of its base. As an example, let's draw a complex drawing of a triangular
straight prism whose base is on the H plane.
First, the ABC lower base of this prism is constructed. Since this base is on the
horizontal projection plane, its A'B'C 'frontal projection will be below the X axis, and
A "B" C "frontal projection will be on the X axis. The frontal projection B1'C1 '' will
be parallel to the frontal projection of the lower base and at a distance from it equal to
the height of the prism.
Knowing that all the sides of a prism are parallel and equal to each other, it is
possible to determine its complex drawing. Projections of the side AA1, BB1 and CC1
are formed by connecting the apexes of the same name of the base (Figure 2.47).
In order to create visibility in the projected projections, it is necessary to separate the
visible parts from the invisible parts in the complex drawing.
Let's determine the visible and invisible parts of the elements of the prism on the
projection planes.
In a complex drawing, a point close to the observer is visible, but a point far from
it is not visible. If we connect two invisible points, we will have an invisible line, and

if we connect two visible points, we will have a visible straight line. The invisible parts
of the elements are represented by a dashed line, and the visible parts by a solid line.
Let's use points M and N to determine the visible and invisible elements of a given
prism in a complex drawing. Assume that point M is on the top base of the prism and
N is on its bottom base. When the observer looks at the plane H, its horizontal
projection
M 'will be visible because point M is close to it, and its horizontal projection N' will not
be visible because point N is far from it. The frontal projections M '' and N '' of these
points will not be visible, as these points are covered by the BC and B1C1 sides of the
upper and lower base, respectively. The M '' and N' '' profile projections of these points
will also not be visible, as these points are covered by the AB and A1B1 sides of the
upper and lower base, respectively.

38. Construction of a complex drawing of curved surfaces.

*A cylindrical surface is a surface consisting of all the points on all the lines which are
parallel to a given line and which pass through a fixed plane curve in a plane not parallel
to the given line. Any line in this family of parallel lines is called an element of the
cylindrical surface.
* The most commonly used curved surfaces in the technique are rotating surfaces. Such
surfaces are formed by the rotation of the so-called generatrix line around a fixed axis.
*The surface formed by the rotation of a straight line called an axis around a fixed axis
parallel to it is called the cylindrical surface. The figure obtained by intersecting all the
faces of this surface with two planes parallel to each other is called a cylinder.
*A rotating cylinder perpendicular to the plane of the base is called a straight circular
cylinder. Its bases are round. The distance between the base planes of a cylinder is called
its height.
The surface formed by the rotation of a straight line called a generatrix around a fixed
axis is called the conical rotation surface.

39.Construction of a complex drawing of a cylinder.

Construction of a complex drawing of a straight circular cylinder begins with the
construction of the centers O and O1 of its bases. It is located on the central
horizontal plane, and O1 is in space.İts lower base is on the H plane and its upper
base is parallel to the H projection plane.The frontal projection of the lower base is
on the X projection axis, and the frontal projection of the upper base is a straight
line parallel to the X axis. Their projections are based on the given radii of the
base.
Vertical straight lines are drawn connecting the front points of the front and
profile projections of the upper and lower bases. These lines are the conspicuous
ones of the frontal and profile projections of the cylinder, respectively. The frontal
and profile projections of a straight circular cylinder are obtained in the form of
arectangle. Thus, a complex drawing of a straight circular cylinder is drawn.

40Construction of a complex drawing of a cone.

First, the O center of the cone base is constructed.The length of this straight line
is equal to the diameter of the circle. Then the vertex S of the cone is constructed.
The horizontal projection of a straight circular cone is a circle, and the frontal
projection is an equilateral triangle. The sides of this triangle are called the frontal
projections of the cone.
The profile projection of the cone base is taken as a straight line segment on the
Y axis. The length of this piece is equal to the diameter of the base. The profile
projection of the apex S of the cone is combined with the end points of the profile
projection of the base to obtain the profile projection of the cone. Its profile
projection also falls in the form of an equilateral triangle.
The projections of the cone have visible and invisible elements. When you look
at a straight circular cone from the side of the apex, the horizontal projections of all
the apexes of a given cone will be visible and the profile projections of the points
on the visible pointers are also visible, and the profile projections of the points on
the invisible generatrix are invisible.
41.Intersection of a polyhedron with a plane
A polygon is obtained by cutting a polyhedron with a plane. The appearance
and condition of the obtained polygon depends on the shape of the polygon, the
type and condition of the cutting plane. This polygon can be constructed in two
ways:
1. The points of intersection of a given plane with the sides of a polyhedron are
constructed. These points will be the apexes of the polygon obtained in the cross
section. Since the sides of a polyhedron are straight lines, the solution to this
problem
 is to construct the point of intersection of the plane with the straight line. This
method is more widely used.
The lines of intersection of the given plane with the faces of the polyhedron are
constructed. These intersecting straight lines will be the sides of the polygon obtained in
the cross section. As can be seen, the solution to this problem is the construction of a
straight line of intersection of the two planes

42.Intersection of the projection plane with the surface of the pyramid.

Figure 2.51 shows the structure of the section obtained from the intersection of the
pyramid surface with the α frontal-projection plane. To solve the problem, it is
necessary to construct the points of intersection of the α plane of the pyramid with
the sides SA, SB, SC and SD. Since each side of the pyramid is a straight line, the
solution of the problem is to determine the point of intersection of the projection
plane with the straight line.

43. Intersection of a prism surface with a projection plane

Figure 2.52 shows the structure of the section obtained

from the
intersection of the prism surface with the α frontal-projection
plane.
44.Intersection of a polynomial with a straight line

When a straight line intersects the surface of a polyhedron,

two points are obtained. These points are called entry and
exit points. In general, the following three operations should
be used to establish these points:
1.Auxiliary section plane is passed through a given straight line;
2.A polygon is constructed from the intersection of the
auxiliary plane and the polyhedral surface;
3. Find the points of intersection of a straight line with the
sides of the polygon we have constructed.
These points will be the entry and exit points from the
intersection of the polyhedron surface with a given straight
line.
In solving all problems of inverse geometry, especially
when constructing the points of intersection of a polyhedron
surface with a given straight line, the section plane should be
chosen so that the construction operations required to solve
the problem are possible, depending on the shape of the
polyhedron let it be small and simple.

45.The intersection of a straight line with the surface of a

pyramid

Construct the points of intersection of an arbitrary straight

line m with the surface of the pyramid on the plane H of the
base (Figure 2.53).
Draw an auxiliary frontal projection plane α from a given
straight line m (Figure 2.53, b). Since the frontal trace of this
plane has an accumulating property αF, that trace will
coincide with the m "frontal projection of the straight line.
 A polygon is constructed from the intersection of the
auxiliary α plane with the surface of the pyramid. To
construct this polygon, it is sufficient to construct its apexes.
These points are determined by the intersection of the α
plane of the pyramid with the sides SA, SB, SC and SD.
It is known that the frontal projection of the point of
intersection of the frontal projection plane with a straight
line will be the point of intersection of the frontal projection
of the plane with the frontal projection of that straight line.

46.Intersection of planes and curved surfaces

From the intersection of a plane and a curved surface, either a straight line or a
flat curve belonging to both the plane and the surface is obtained. The line obtained
as a result of the intersection is called an intersection.
There are two main methods used to construct the line of intersection of a plane
and a surface:
1. Find the points of intersection of the surface and the planes. The geometric
location of these points is the line of intersection of the given surface with the
plane. This method is more widely used in the construction of straight sections with
straight lines.
2. Using auxiliary section planes. This method is mainly used at the intersection
of curved surfaces with planes.

47.Intersection of a plane with a conical surface

The following lines can be obtained by sectioning a straight circular conical

surface:
- an equilateral triangle in the cross section if the plane cone passes through the
apex and intersects the base;
-circle in section if it is perpendicular to the axis of the plane cone;
- an ellipse in the section, if it is not parallel to any angle of the cone, forming an
angle of more than 900 with the axis of the conical cone;
- a parabola in section if it is parallel to only one straightener of a plane cone;
-if hyperbola in section if the plane is parallel to the two vertices of the cone.

48.Intersection of a plane with a cylindrical surface.

A cylindrical surface is a surface consisting of all the points
on all the lines which are parallel to a given line and which pass
through a fixed plane curve in a plane not parallel to the given
line. Any line in this family of parallel lines is called an element
of the cylindrical surface. From a kinematics point of view, given
a plane curve, called the directrix, a cylindrical surface is that
surface traced out by a line, called the generatrix, not in the
plane of the directrix, moving parallel to itself and always
passing through the directrix. Any particular position of the
generatrix is an element of the cylindrical surface.

49.Intersection of curved surfaces.

In geometry, an intersection curve is a curve that is common to
two geometric objects. In the simplest case, the intersection of
two non-parallel planes in Euclidean 3-space is a line. In general,
an intersection curve consists of the common points of two
transversally intersecting surfaces, meaning that at any common
point the surface normals are not parallel. This restriction
excludes cases where the surfaces are touching or have surface
parts in common.
The analytic determination of the
intersection curve of two surfaces is
easy only in simple cases; for
example: a) the intersection of two
planes, b) plane section of a quadric
(sphere, cylinder, cone, etc.), c)
intersection of two quadrics in special
cases. For the general case, literature
provides algorithms, in order to
calculate points of the intersection
curve of two surfaces

50.Intersection of the surfaces of two cylinders

The intersection of two cylinders is called a bicylinder.
Topologically, it is equivalent to a square hosohedron. The
intersection of three cylinders is
called a tricylinder. A bisected bicylinder is called a vault, and
a cloister vault in architecture has this shape.
In geometry, a Steinmetz solid is the solid body obtained as the
intersection of two or three cylinders of equal radius at right
angles. Each of the curves of the intersection of two cylinders is
an ellipse.
The intersection of two cylinders is
called a bicylinder. Topologically, it is
equivalent to a square hosohedron.
The intersection of three cylinders is
called a tricylinder. A bisected
bicylinder is called a vault,[1] and a
cloister vault in architecture has this
shape.

51.Intersection of the surface of a cone with the surface of

a cylinder
To construct the points of the intersection of a cone and a
cylinder we choose cutting planes that intersect both surfaces
along their generatrices.

A plane through the vertex of a cone intersects that cone in a

generatrix and a plane parallel with the axis of a cylinder
intersects that cylinder in its generatrix. Therefore, the system
of planes that intersect both surfaces in their generatrices is a
pencil of planes that contain the line through the vertex of the
cone parallel to the axis of the cylinder.
Every plane of that pencil intersects both the cone and the
cylinder in two generatrices. Four points which are
intersections of these four lines, different from the vertices of
the surfaces, are points on the curve of intersection.
52. Rules of drawing.
The standard is the result of concrete work on standardization, based on the
achievements of science, technology and daily practice, which is considered important.
It is a normative technical document that sets a set of norms, rules and requirements
for the object of standardization and is approved by the relevant authority. In a word, a
standard is a norm, rule, instruction, example and standard. Failure to comply with it
and non-compliance with the requirements shall be punished by law. At present, the
Republic of Azerbaijan uses the rules established by GOST) developed in the Soviet
system and adopted by the Commonwealth of Independent States in the compilation of
drawings and graphics. The standards specify the formats, scales, lines, fonts, etc. used
to compile the drawings. application information and requirements are systematized.
Format - refers to the dimensions of the sheet on which the drawing or design
document is executed. Drawings should be made on standard-sized format sheets.
Depending on the complexity of the drawing and the number of images, the size of the
formats is determined in accordance with GOST 2.301. The application of standard
formats allows efficient use of paper, drawing sketches in the form of an album, as well
as simplifies their storage and use. The standard defines five basic and a number of
additional formats. The format with an area of 1 m2 (1189x841) mm is called the base
format and is denoted as A0. Formats A1, A2, A3 and A4 are obtained by dividing it into
two equal parts, successively parallel to the small side
53.Lines. Using different types of lines in the design of drawings.

For general engineering drawings, the types of lines recommended by the Bureau
of Indian Standards shown in table 2 must be used. The thickness of the lines must
be chosen according to the type and size of the drawing from any of the six groups
given in Table 1.

In the case where other types of a thickness of lines are used for special cases, for
example, electrical and piping drawings, or if the lines specified in table 2 are used
for applications other than those detailed in the last column, the conventions
adopted must be explained by notes on the drawing concerned.
54.The main text of the drawing and its description in formats.

Text content, attributes, and properties are set and edited in the Format Text dialog
box. Use the Format Text dialog box to:
• Add or edit notes in drawings or text in sketches.
• Specify text attributes for title blocks, borders, datum identifiers, and sketch
symbols.
• Add or edit text for dimensions, view labels, hole notes, hole tags, and
chamfer notes.
• Insert model parameter references in text. When property values change, text
that contains the property updates with the new values.
• Insert iProperty text property references in text. When the text property
values change, text containing the text property updates with the new values.
Available for all drawing text.
For the current drawing, you can change the layer on which text is placed. On the
Annotate tab, Format panel, click the arrow to show the layers list, and select the
layer name.

Note: In drawings, the default text format is controlled by the active standard's
object default style. To change the default text format for a drawing or template,
modify the text style and object defaults style.

55.Dimensions.Dimension and extention lines.

Dimensions are classified into the following types:

1. Functional dimensions.
2. Non-functional dimensions.
3. Auxiliary dimensions.
Functional dimensions(F)
This is the dimensioning in engineering drawing that is essential to the function of
the piece or space.
Non-functional dimensions(NF)
This is the dimensioning in engineering drawing that is not essential to the function
of the piece or space.
Auxiliary dimensions (AUX)
The dimensioning in engineering drawing which is given for information purpose
only. It is derived from other values shown on the drawing or in related documents.
An auxiliary dimension is given in parentless and no tolerance applied to it.

The most important element to good placement is consistent spacing. This

translates to easy readability and fewer mistakes. Some other placement techniques
are:
1. Provide a minimum of 10 mm from the object outline to the first dimension
line
 2. Provide a minimum of 6 mm between dimension lines
3. Place shorter dimensions inside longer dimensions
4. Avoid crossing dimension lines with extension lines or other dimension lines
5. Dimension where the true size contour of the object is shown
6. Place dimensions that apply to two views between the views
7. Dimension the size and location of size features in the same view

An extension line will reach beyond a complex object to connect with a dimension
line that may give a specific height or distance.

56.Description of arrows and dimensional numbers.

Arrows — symbols at the ends of dimension lines showing the limits of the
dimension, leaders, and cutting plane lines.

57.Drawing of a diameter and radius lines.

1. Diameter symbol — a symbol indicating that the dimension shows the

diameter of a circle. The symbol used is the Greek letter phi Ø.
2. Radius symbol — a symbol indicating that the dimension shows the radius
of a circle. The radius symbol used is the capital letter R.

58.Demonstration of the dimensions of the angle in the drawing. Inclination and

geometric structures.
Angular dimensions include dimensions between:
• Three points
• Two lines
These angular dimensions were created by selecting the two sketch lines, then
selecting a different location for each dimension.

Creating Angular Dimensions Between Three Points

You can place an angular dimension between three sketch points, sketch segment
endpoints, or model vertices. You can also use the model origin as one of the three
points.

Creating Angular Dimensions Between Two Lines

You can place an angular dimension between two lines or a line and a model edge.
Select the two entities, then move the pointer to observe the dimension preview.
The angle to be dimensioned changes based on the pointer position.

Creating Angular Dimensions Using an Imaginary Line

You can use the Smart Dimension tool to create an angle dimension between a line
and an imaginary horizontal or vertical line.

Creating Symmetrical Angular Dimensions

You can create multiple half and full symmetric angular dimensions without
selecting the centerline each time.

.
59.Division of a straight line into equal parts.

Steps:
• Draw a line from the start point, heading somewhat upwards
• Use the compass to divide it into 3 segments
• Use the compass to create a parallel line heading backwards and down from
the end point.
• Use the compass to divide it into 3 segments
• Connect the intersection points of the two new lines, and where they cross
the original line it will be neatly subdivided.

60.Construction of angles and division into equal parts.

Division:

1. Construct any obtuse POQ = 120o.

2. With O as centre and any (suitable) radius, draw an arc to meet OP at R and OQ
at S.
3. With R as centre and radius more than half of RS, draw an arc. Also, with S as
centre and same radius draw another arc to meet the previous arc at B.
4. Join OB and produce it.
5. Let SR intersect OB at T.
6. With S and T as centre and radius more than half of ST, draw an arcs. Let them
intersect at A.
7. With R and T as centre and radius more than half of RT, draw an arcs. Let them
intersect at C.

61.Division of the circle into equal parts.

Draw a straight line through the middle and two sides of the circle using a ruler.
Place the ruler so that the line passes through the circle's center point. Extend the
line all the way through the edges of the circle. Two equal segments will now
appear on the circle. Actually, division depends on the number of segments we
need.

62.Find the center of a circle or arc and determination their radius.

Take any three arbitrary points on an arc. Now, join these points with each other.
Now, Draw Perpendicular Bisectors of these lines. The intersection point of these
perpendicular bisectors would be the center of the circle in which the arc is given.
Since Any point of the perpendicular bisector of Any line, the segment is
equidistant from its endpoints.

1- 2- 3-

63.Views.

Auxiliary View
An auxiliary view is simply a “helper” view, which shows the slanted part of the
object as it actually is. Auxiliary views are commonly found on many types of
industrial drawings.

There are three basic types of auxiliary views. In the first type, the auxiliary view
is projected from the front view of a three-view (orthographic) drawing. In the
second and third types of drawings, the auxiliary views are projected from the top
and side views.

Detail views
A detail view can be used when part of a view has detail that cannot be clear
dimensioned due to drawing scale or complexity. To establish a detail view, a thick
phantom line circle is placed around the area to be enlarged.
Break Views
Break Views are typically used to display parts that are very long in one dimension
on a drawing in such a way that you can see both ends or other important features.
Broken views make it possible to display the drawing view in a larger scale on a
smaller size drawing sheet.

64.Main views.

So let’s take a closer look at the different types of views that are often present in a
manufacturing drawing. Each serves a certain purpose. Bear in mind that adding
views should follow the same logic as dimensioning. Only must be included a view
if it contributes to the overall understanding of the design.

Isometric View
Isometric drawings show parts as three-dimensional. All the vertical lines stay
vertical (compared to front view) and otherwise parallel lines are shown on a 30-
degree angle.

The lines that are vertical and parallel are in their true length. Which means you
can use a ruler and the scaling of the drawing to easily measure the length straight
from a paper drawing, for example. The same does not apply to angled lines.

Orthographic View
This is the bread and butter of an engineering drawing. An orthographic view or
orthographic projection is a way of representing a 3D object in 2 dimensions.

Thus, a 2D view has to convey everything necessary for part production. This kind
of representation allows avoiding any kind of distortion of lengths.
65.Additional and local views.

Additional(auxilary) view: When an object has a slanted or inclined surface, it

usually is not possible to show the inclined surface in an orthographic drawing
without distortion. To present a more accurate description of an inclined surface,
an additional view, known as an auxiliary view, is usually required.
An auxiliary view is simply a “helper” view, which shows the slanted part of the
object as it actually is. Auxiliary views are commonly found on many types of
industrial drawings.

There are three basic types of auxiliary views. In the first type, the auxiliary view
is projected from the front view of a three-view (orthographic) drawing. In the
second and third types of drawings, the auxiliary views are projected from the top
and side views.

Where the auxiliary view is to be projected depends upon the position of the object
or which surface of the object is slanted.

Local view: Provided that the presentation is unambiguous, it is permitted to give a

local view instead a complete view for symmetrical items. The local view should
be drawn in third angle projection, regardless of arrangement used for general
execution of the drawing.
66.Section views. Sections and section line symbols.

A section view can easily display some of the part features that are not evident
when looking just from the outset. Cross section is the preferred option compared
to hidden lines as it brings more clarity. The cross hatching feature is and indicator
for cross sectional views.

Lines used in section views.

Cutting Plane Line: Used to show where the object is being cut. (Phantom line type)

Section Lines: Used to indicate where the cutting plane cuts the material. Section
lines are thin and the symbols (type of lines) are chosen according to the material
of the object. Section lines are generally drawn at a 45° angle.
67.Types and basic parameters of axonometric projections.

The three types of axonometric projection are isometric projection, dimetric

projection, and trimetric projection, depending on the exact angle at which the
view deviates from the orthogonal. Typically in axonometric drawing, as in other
types of pictorials, one axis of space is shown to be vertical.

In isometric projection, the most commonly used form of axonometric projection

in engineering drawing, the direction of viewing is such that the three axes of space
appear equally foreshortened, and there is a common angle of 120° between them.
As the distortion caused by foreshortening is uniform, the proportionality between
lengths is preserved, and the axes share a common scale; this eases one's ability to
take measurements directly from the drawing. Another advantage is that 120°
angles are easily constructed using only a compass and straightedge.

In dimetric projection, the direction of viewing is such that two of the three axes of
space appear equally foreshortened, of which the attendant scale and angles of
presentation are determined according to the angle of viewing; the scale of the
third direction is determined separately. Dimensional approximations are common
in dimetric drawings.

In trimetric projection, the direction of viewing is such that all of the three axes of
space appear unequally foreshortened. The scale along each of the three axes and
the angles among them are determined separately as dictated by the angle of
viewing. Dimensional approximations in trimetric drawings are common, and
trimetric perspective is seldom used in technical drawings.

68. Construction of axonometric projections of flat figures

Axonometric Projection
The feature that distinguishes axonometric projection from multiview projection is
the inclined position of the object with respect to the planes of projection. When a
surface or edge of the object is not parallel to the plane of projection, it appears
foreshortened. When an angle is not parallel to the plane of projection, it appears
either smaller or larger than the true angle. To create an axonometric view, the
object is tipped to the planes of projection so that principal faces, such as the top,
side, and front, show in a single view. This produces a pictorial drawing that is
easy to visualize.
-isometric projection has equal foreshortening along each of the three axis
directions.
-Dimetric projection has equal foreshortening along two axis directions and a
different amount of foreshortening along the third axis.
-Trimetric projection has different foreshortening along all three axis directions.

69.Construction of isometric projection of a rectangle and a regular hexagon.

rectangle
Make isometric sketches of simple rectangular objects
Isometric sketches are useful because they are easy to draw and clearly represent
an object or system. This clarity comes from using directional lines to represent the
three dimensions of length, width, and height, much like a picture.
Construction methods
The following steps explain how to draw an isometric cube. The three dimensions
of length, width, and height are drawn along the isometric axes shown in Figure
Hexagon
For every visible corner, draw a straight vertical line. Connect the end of the
vertical lines to finish the prism base. This will be your hexagon's top base. The
second hexagon will be your prism's lower base. They should mirror one another.
Connect each corner of the top hexagon to the bottom hexagon.Knowing this
technique will help you make 3D prisms of any figure. For added effects, make the
lines on the back a bit lighter. They should look like they're hidden from view.

70.Construction of frontal dimetric projection of a rectangle and a circle.

Dimetric projection
In dimetric pictorials (for protocols see dimetric projection), the direction of
viewing is such that two of the three axes of space appear equally foreshortened, of
which the attendant scale and angles of presentation are determined according to
the angle of viewing; the scale of the third direction (vertical) is determined
separately. Approximations are common in dimetric drawings. Make isometric
sketches of simple rectangular objects
Isometric sketches are useful because they are easy to draw and clearly represent
an object or system. This clarity comes from using directional lines to represent the
three dimensions of length, width, and height, much like a picture.
Construction methods
The following steps explain how to draw an isometric cube. The three dimensions
of length, width, and height are drawn along the isometric axes shown in Figure

If we want drawing circle, we need firstly circus. Also radius. We can draw easly
this construction
71. Construction of isometric and dimetric projections of a cube with an
ellipse on its surface.

Isometric projection (Figure 9.3a) has equal foreshortening along each

of the three axis directions.
Dimetric projection (Figure 9.3b) has equal foreshortening along two
axis directions and a different amount of foreshortening along the
third axis. This is because the third axis is not tipped an equal amount
to the principal plane of projection.

A dimetric projection is an axonometric projection of an object in which

two of its axes make equal angles with the plane of projection, and the
third axis makes either a smaller or a greater angle (Figure 9.4). The
two axes making equal angles with the plane of projection are
foreshortened equally; the third axis is foreshortened in a different
proportion. Usually, the object is oriented so one axis is vertical.
However, you can revolve the projection to any orientation if you want
that particular view. Do not confuse the angles between the axes in
the drawing with the angles from the plane projection. These are two
different but related things. You can arrange the amount that the
principal faces are tilted to the plane of projection in any way as long
as the two angles between the axes are equal and over 90°. The
scales can be determined graphically, as shown in Figure 9.5a, in
which OP, OL, and OS are the projections of the axes or converging
edges of a cube. If the triangle POS is revolved about the axis line PS
into the plane of projection, it will show its true size and shape as
PO’S. If regular full-size scales are marked along the lines OP and OS,
and the triangle is counter revolved to its original position, the
dimetric scales may be divided along the axes OP and OS, as shown.
You can use an architect’s scale to make the measurements by
assuming the scales and calculating the positions of the axes, as

follows:
where a is one of the two equal angles between the projections of the
axes, h is one of the two equal scales, and v is the third scale.
Examples are shown in the upper row of Figure 9.4, where length
measurements could be made using an architect’s scale. One of these
three positions of the axes will be found suitable for almost any
practical drawing. Approximate dimetric drawings, which closely
resemble true dimetrics, can be constructed by substituting for the
true angles shown in the upper half of Figure 9.4 angles that can be
obtained with the ordinary triangles and compass, as shown in the
lower half of the figure. The resulting drawings will be accurate enough
for all practical purposes.

72. Rectangular isometric and frontal dimetric projections.

Rectangular isometric and frontal dimetric projections are two types of
pictorial projections used in technical drawing and engineering to
represent three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional surface.
Isometric Projection:

Description: Isometric projection is a method of representing three-

dimensional objects in two dimensions. In isometric projection, all
three axes (length, width, and height) are equally foreshortened, and
angles between them are 120 degrees.
Characteristics:
All lines parallel to the three major axes are represented at 30-degree
angles.
It provides a more realistic representation of an object compared to
other types of pictorial projections.
Frontal Dimetric Projection:

Description: Frontal dimetric projection is another type of pictorial

projection, similar to isometric projection. In this method, two of the
three principal axes are foreshortened, while the third is not
foreshortened.
Characteristics:
Two of the three axes are usually inclined at different angles
(commonly 45 degrees) to the picture plane.
The object is viewed from the front, and the foreshortening of the axes
provides a sense of depth.
Both isometric and dimetric projections are used in technical drawings
to communicate the three-dimensional aspects of an object in a more
visually intuitive way than traditional orthographic projections. These
types of projections are commonly employed in engineering,
architecture, and design fields. They help convey spatial relationships
and dimensions more clearly than standard 2D drawings
73. Drawing an arc tangent to a line or arc and through a
point.
Drawing an arc tangent to a line or arc and through a point involves a
specific geometric construction. Here's a step-by-step guide:
Tangent Arc to a Line and Through a Point:
Given:

A line (let's call it Line AB).

A point not on the line (let's call it Point P).
Steps:
Draw the Line and the Point:
Draw Line AB on your paper.
Mark Point P not on the line.
Construct a Perpendicular Line:

From Point P, draw a perpendicular line to Line AB. This perpendicular

intersects AB at a point (let's call it C).
Bisect the Line Segment CP:

Bisect the line segment CP. This will give you a point D on CP.
Draw the Circle with Center D and Radius DP:
With D as the center and DP as the radius, draw a circle. This circle will
be tangent to Line AB at Point C.
Draw the Tangent Line from Point P to the Circle:

Draw the tangent line from Point P to the circle. The point of tangency
will be Point C.
Draw the Desired Tangent Arc:
The arc tangent to Line AB and passing through Point P is the portion
of the circle between Point C and the tangent point.
Note:

If you're dealing with an arc instead of a line, you can follow similar
steps.
For an arc, draw a tangent line to the arc at a given point. Then, draw
the circle with its center on the tangent line and passing through the
given point. The tangent arc will be the portion of this circle.
Remember, these steps provide a manual construction method. In
computer-aided design (CAD) software, these operations are typically
done more efficiently using specific tools and commands.
74. Drawing an arc tangent to two arcs.
Drawing an arc tangent to two existing arcs involves specific
geometric constructions. Here's a step-by-step guide:

Tangent Arc to Two Arcs:

Given:
Two existing arcs (let's call them Arc A and Arc B).
Steps:

Draw the Given Arcs:

Start by drawing the two existing arcs (Arc A and Arc B) on your paper.
Locate the Point of Tangency:

Identify a point on Arc A where you want the tangent arc to be

tangent.
Similarly, identify a point on Arc B where you want the tangent arc to
be tangent.
Draw a Line Between the Tangent Points:

Connect the two identified points on Arc A and Arc B with a straight
line. This line will help determine the tangent point of the new arc.
Bisect the Line:

Bisect the line segment connecting the tangent points. The midpoint
will be the center of the tangent arc.
Draw a Circle with the Bisected Line as Diameter:

With the midpoint of the line segment as the center, draw a circle with
a radius equal to half the length of the line segment.
Determine Tangent Points on Arc A and Arc B:

The points where the circle intersects Arc A and Arc B are the desired
tangent points.
Draw the Tangent Arc:
Connect the tangent points on Arc A and Arc B with the center of the
circle. This line represents the radius of the tangent arc.
Draw the tangent arc with its center on the bisected line.
Note:

The tangent arc will touch both Arc A and Arc B at the identified
tangent points.
Ensure that the arcs are close enough to allow for a tangent arc
between them. If the arcs are too far apart, there might be no solution.
This method provides a manual construction approach. In CAD
software, specific tools and commands can simplify the process of
creating tangent arcs between existing arcs.
75. Bisecting an angle.
76. Drawing a line through a point and parallel to a line
77. Drawing a triangle with sides given
78. Drawing a right triangle with hypotenuse and one side given.
79. Construction and hatching of sections in axonometric projections.

80. Compilation of a sketch of details and a working drawing.

Definition of detail drawing
: a separate large-scale drawing of a small part of a machine or structure
especially : WORKING DRAWING

Detail drawing
Detaildrawing.jpg

Detail drawings provide a detailed description of the geometric form of a part of an

object such as a building, bridge, tunnel, machine, plant, and so on. They tend to be
large-scale drawings that show in detail parts that may be included in less detail on
general arrangement drawings.

Detail drawings may be used to demonstrate compliance with regulations and other
requirements, to provide information about assembly and the junctions between
components, to show construction details, detailed form, and so on, that would not
be possible to include on more general drawings.

They may include dimensions, tolerances, notation, symbols and specification

information, but this should not duplicate information included in separate
specifications as this can become contradictory and may cause confusion.

81. Classification of joints. Non-permanent joints. Description of the thread in

the drawing.

Joints, also known as articulations, are a form of connection between bones. They
provide stability to the skeletal system as well as allowing for specialized
movement. Joints can be classified:
Histologically, on the dominant type of connective tissue. ie fibrous, cartilaginous,
and synovial.
Generally speaking, the greater the range of movement, the higher the risk of
injury because the strength of the joint is reduced
The two classification schemes correlate:
a. Synarthroses are fibrous joints
b. Diarthroses are synovial joints
Non-permanent joint refers to a fastening technique that can be easily separated.
This technique is mostly used in replacement, maintenance, repair or adjustment
works. The most common methods of non-permanent joining are

82. Conventional description, empirical expressions and design parameters of

the bolt joint in the drawing.
A bolted joint is one of the most common elements in construction and machine
design. It consists of a male threaded fastener that captures and joins other part
secured with a matching female screw thread. There are two main types of bolted
joint designs: tension joints and shear joints. A bolted joint is a connection of two or
more parts that are held together by a threaded bolt or an assembled bolt and nut.
There are two main types of bolted joint designs as shown below.

Figure 1 shows a clamped bolted joint where two parts are clamped together by a
bolt, nut, and washer. In a properly designed joint with appropriate torque load on
the bolt, the clamped parts will see no relative motion.

83. Stud joint.

A stud is essentially just a piece of threaded bar. This often resembles a machine
screw without a head, although some studs to have heads that get permanently
incorporated into the part they are attached to. Studs are often designed to be
permanently attached to one part, proving a means of attaching another part in
conjunction with a nut. This type of stud may be welded, swaged or bonded to
attach it and may, therefore, have a small head to enable this.
• Tap end stud bolts: These have a short length of thread at one end, designed to be
screwed into a tapped hole. They then have a shank and a longer length of thread at
the other end to accept a nut.

• Double end stud bolts: These have equal lengths threaded at each end, intended to
accept nuts, with a shank in the middle.

84. Screw joints.

A screw joint is a special type of sleeve joint that enables screws to be tightened
into surrounding joint sleeves. A screw joint is often seen in pre-assembled
furniture or mechanical equipment. The joint area is a pre-threaded hole that is
used for the assembly section of the furniture. This hole is used to attach two
pieces of material. A joint design enables the screw to be tightened to the
maximum depth of the pre- threaded joint hole. Screw joints can be used with a
variety of materials, including aluminum, brass, plastic, steel, and wood. Many
drain pipes and plumbing fixtures use a screw joint.
85. Pipe joints.
Pipe joints are connections at pipe ends that ensure that two pipe sections can be
joined to each other to install a pipeline of any length. These joints can make or
break a pipeline system depending on the resulting durability of the technique used
to form the joint. There are different materials of pipes used in the pipeline
industry. Different methods are used to join pipes based on the pipe material. Three
main methods are used to join pipes namely, butt welding, socket welding, and
screwed joints. grooved joints, flanged joints, and compression joints.

86. Flange and key joints.

WHAT IS A FLANGED JOINT?
A flanged joint is a connection between a pipe and another piping equipment (for
example, another length of pipe, a valve, or a pressure vessel). Hundreds, even
thousands, of flanged joints are necessary for a piping system to function. Welded
connections between pipes and flanges are used for high pressures and
temperatures applications, and diameters above 2 inches

The main components of a flanged joint are:

-two mating flanges (the “main” and the “companion” flange).
-a number of stud bolts for flanges

key joints
Key Joints are a continuous pour solution for contraction joints in slab on ground
applications. Key Joints are available in 3 and 6m lengths for slab thicknesses from
100mm to 300mm. Custom heights and lengths are available on request. Key Joint
is a high quality preformed metal key joint for the control of shrinkage cracking
and differential movement in concrete slabs.

Features
-Enables continuous pours
-4 different profile heights
-Can be used to screed off which makes getting the right level quick and easy
87. Spline and pin joints.
A spline joint is created when a wooden spline is inserted and glued into a slot or
groove that has been cut in another woodworking joint, usually a butt, edge or
mitered joint. The spline itself can be made from plywood, hardwood or the same
material as the joint being strengthened. For the ultimate in strength, the grain of
natural woods should be oriented so that it's running across the joint in the
workpiece.

Key Joints are a continuous pour solution for contraction joints in slab on ground
applications. Key Joints are available in 3 and 6m lengths for slab thicknesses from
100mm to 300mm. Custom heights and lengths are available on request.

Features
-Enables continuous pours
-4 different profile heights
-Can be used to screed off which makes getting the right level quick and easy

88. Welding and soldering joints

Welding joints
Welding joints is an edge or point where two or more metal pieces or plastic pieces
are joined together. The two or more workpieces ( either metal or plastic) are
joined with the help of a suitable welding process to form a strong join

The 5 basic welding joints are

1. Butt joint
2. Corner joint
3. Lap joint
4. Tee joint and
5. Edge joint
Soldering joints
What are soldering joints?
Soldered joints are material-closed joints (bonds) of two solderable metals. There
are different forms of soldered joints: - Wire-to-wire joints as parallel, cross or
hook joints as well as soldered joints with twisted wires. This type of joint is used
for fixed parts, i.e. located inside the enclosure of a device.

Soldering is used for:

-connecting cables to sockets,
-grips,
-other large mechanical components.

89. Riveted and adhesive joints.

Adhesive joint failure involves debonding by crack propagation along the adhesive
joint, making a fracture mechanics approach attractive for modelling joint failure.
Fracture mechanics assesses the energy required to propagate a crack along the
adhesive joint; if the available energy is lower than this fracture energy, the
adhesive joint will not fail.
It is almost impossible that huge structures such as bridges, skyscrapers, airplanes,
locomotives, etc., would be built without the inclusion of these small but strong
integrated mechanical devices. Rivets not only allow these structures to become
huge but also ensure equal strength and endurance to withstand many different
natural and emergent challenges.

Originally rivets are tools such as bolts, made of tensile metals, inserted through
parallel holes drilled across the joining members and on the other side to produce
true and permanent firm locking joints.
90. Drawing standart bolts
A bolt is a cylindrical rod with a head on one end and threads on the other.
There are a large number of types of bolts, which differ from each other in
the shape and size of the head and rod, as well as in manufacturing accuracy.
Among this variety of bolts, the most common are bolts with a hexagonal
head of normal accuracy, which are available in three designs.

Table 7.2 shows the main design parameters for hex head bolts.

Basic Design Parameters for Hex Head Bolts

Square head bolts are mainly used when joining wood products that do not
require head clamping when screwing. In addition, special-purpose bolts are
made with a semicircular, conical, cylindrical and other head shapes. When
designating a bolt, the version is indicated (version 1 is not indicated), the
thread diameter, the length of the bolt shaft, the strength class, and the
number of the standard according to which the bolt is manufactured. On
training drawings, they are limited to a simplified designation of the bolt. For
example:

Bolt M 16 x 70 GOST 7798-70; Bolt 2 M 20 - l.5 x 70 GOST 7798-70. The

bolt is drawn so that its axis is parallel to the main inscription of the drawing.
Figure 7.8 shows an example of a bolt drawing in two projections.

Figure 7.8 Bolt dimensions are determined by the following parameters:

d1=0.85d; L0=2d+6; c=0.15d; h=0.7d; D=2d; R=1.5d; D1=0.9S; r=1…3
mm; r1- by construction.

91. Specifications for bolts and nuts

92. Sketching hex bolts, cap screws, and nuts

1. These nuts are a combination of Hex nut and Cap nut.

2. Coming under the cap - nut fastener category, they have a domed crown
covering the bolt.

3. The cap gives the protruding bolt a finished look, avoiding its contact with
any other surface.

4. There are two types of acorn nuts, standard acorn nuts that have a round
cap and high acorn nut, which has a slightly raised crown to cover extra-long
studs.

5. Manufactured in Steel, Brass, Nylon, Stainless Steel, they also come with
Nickel plating along with a mirror finish.

Hex bolts, also known as hex cap screws or machine bolts,

are a type of fastener with a hexagonal head and threads
along the shaft. They are commonly used to fasten two or
more parts together in construction, manufacturing, and
various other applications. Here are some key features and
information about hex bolts:

Head Type: The hexagonal head is designed to be tightened

or loosened with a wrench or socket. This shape provides a
good grip for the tool, making it easier to apply torque.

Material: Hex bolts are available in various materials,

including carbon steel, stainless steel, and alloy steel. The
choice of material depends on factors such as the
application, environmental conditions, and the desired level
of corrosion resistance.

Thread Type: Hex bolts have threads running along a portion

of their shaft. The threads allow the bolt to be screwed into a
threaded hole in a nut or other tapped part. The length and
pitch of the threads can vary based on the specific
requirements of the application.
Size: Hex bolts come in a range of sizes, including different
diameters and lengths. The size is typically specified by the
diameter of the bolt and the length of the threaded portion.

Grade: Hex bolts are often classified by their strength or

grade. Common grades include Grade 2, Grade 5, and Grade
8 in the United States. Higher-grade bolts generally have
higher tensile strength and are suitable for more demanding
applications.

Coating: Hex bolts may be coated for additional protection

against corrosion. Common coatings include zinc plating,
galvanizing, and various types of coatings or finishes,
depending on the material and application.

Applications: Hex bolts are used in a wide range of

applications, from general construction and machinery
assembly to automotive and aerospace industries. They are
versatile and can be found in many structures and devices.

93. Types of nuts

A nut is a fastener with a threaded hole.

• Nuts are habitually used with a bolt, mating together to hold two objects
together.
• A bolt or screw with an undercut is inserted through a hole and are secured
with a nut, promoting sturdiness.
• Lock nuts prevent the loosening of bolts.

Acorn Nut
1. These nuts are a combination of Hex nut and Cap nut.
2. Coming under the cap - nut fastener category, they have a domed crown
covering the bolt.
3. The cap gives the protruding bolt a finished look, avoiding its contact with
any other surface.
4. There are two types of acorn nuts, standard acorn nuts that have a round
cap and high acorn nut, which has a slightly raised crown to cover extra-long
studs.
5. Manufactured in Steel, Brass, Nylon, Stainless Steel, they also come with
Nickel plating along with a mirror finish.

T - Nut:

1. Also known as Tee or blind nut, these fasten wooden work pieces and
other composite items.
2. It has a long body, with a head at one end resembling a T-shape.
3. When driven into wood, T – nuts create a threaded hole.
4. When used with flanges, they offer good retention and polished surface.

Square Nut:

1. It is a four – sided nut with larger contact surface with greater resistance to
loosing.
2. They are often used with flat washers to prevent damage to the
surrounding item.
3. They provide quick gauge as the nut and the head bolt sit parallel to the
railway tracks.

Coupling Nut:

1. A coupling nut is a threaded fastener.

2. Commonly known as an extension nut, it has threads on the inside, to
accept male threads in the form of a threaded rod or pipe.
3. They are produced in metal, PVC, Carbon, Steel, Brass, Aluminium, etc.
4. These nuts can come in many shapes, tightening a rod assembly inwards
or outwards.

Flange Nut: It has a side that is flat-shaped; helping it to function as a washer

too. The nut dispenses its retaining power evenly over the object surface,
permitting quick fastening. They are used to fasten wood and plastic. They
are often serrated i.e. saw – edged, biting into any material easily.
94. Types of nuts for special purpose

- YOU CAN WRITE SAME INFORMATION LIKE 93

95. Washers

96. A stud joint.

A through hole with a diameter of d0=d1 +(1…2) mm is drilled in the part to
be attached. Then, with the help of a washer and a nut, the parts are
interconnected (Fig. 7.17, e, f, g). The length of the landing end of the stud,
depending on the material of the part to be joined, may be different. For parts
made of steel, brass and bronze L1=1.6d, and for parts made of relatively
fragile materials L1=2.5d. The length of the stud is determined by the
formula: L = m + b + Hn + k. Here m is the width of the part; b = 0.15d -
washer height; Hn = 0.85d - nut height; k = (0.25 ... 0.5) d - the size of the
part of the stud that goes beyond the nut. Figure 7.18 shows a drawing of a
stud joint of parts in three projections.

97. Types of
welded joints.

 Butt joint welding

 Tee joint welding
 Corner joint welding
 Lap joint welding
 Edge joint weldin

Butt Joint Welding

A butt joint, or butt weld, is a joint where two pieces of metal
are placed together in the same plane, and the side of each
metal is joined by welding. A butt weld is the most common
type of joint that is used in the fabrication of structures and
piping systems. It’s fairly simple to prepare, and there are
many different variations that can be applied to achieve the
desired result.

Butt welds are made in a variety of ways, and each one

serves a different purpose. Varying factors include the shape
of the groove, layering and width of the gap. Listed below are
some typical examples of butt weld joints.

 Square
 Single bevel
 Double bevel
 Single J
 Double J
 Single V
 Double V
 Single U
 Double U grooves

The area of the metal’s surface that is melted during the

welding process is called the faying surface. The faying
surface can be shaped before welding to increase the weld’s
strength, which is called edge preparation. The edge
preparation may be the same on both members of the butt
joint, or each side can be shaped differently.

Reasons for preparing the faying surfaces for welding include

the following:

 Codes and standards

 Metals
 Deeper weld penetration
 Smooth appearance
 Increased strength

In some cases, the exact size, shape and angle can be

specified for a groove. If exact dimensions are not given, the
groove can be made to the necessary size. However, it’s
important to remember that the wider the groove, the more
welding it will require to complete.

As the metal becomes thicker, you must change the joint

design to ensure a sound weld. On thin sections, it is often
possible to make full penetration welds using a square butt
joint. When welding on a thick plate or pipe, it is often
impossible for the welder to get 100% penetration without
some type of groove being used.

When it comes to butt joints, commonly occurring defects

may include burnthrough, porosity, cracking or incomplete
penetration. However, these can be avoided by modifying
the welding variables.

Tee Joint Welding

Tee welding joints are formed when two pieces intersect at a
90° angle. This results in the edges coming together in the
center of a plate or component in a ‘T’ shape. Tee joints are
considered to be a type of fillet weld, and they can also be
formed when a tube or pipe is welded onto a base plate.

Image Credit: Maine Welding Company

With this type of weld, it’s important to always ensure there

is effective penetration into the roof of the weld. There are a
handful of welding styles that can be used to create a tee
joint:
  Plug weld
 Slot weld
 Bevel-groove weld
 Fillet weld
 J-groove weld
 Melt-through weld
 Flare-bevel-groove weld

Tee joints are not usually prepared with groove, unless the
base metal is thick and welding on both sides cannot
withstand the load the joint must support. A common defect
that occurs with tee joints is lamellar tearing—which happens
due to restriction experienced by the joint. To prevent this,
welders will often place a stopper to prevent joint
deformities.

98.Types of welds

Types of Welds
In commercial situations, a job sheet will often
include standardized weld symbols that indicate the type of weld to
be used. These contain far more detail than is necessary for
the beginner, and the following information is often sufficient
for DIY welding.
1. Fillet Weld

The fillet weld is undoubtedly the most common type of weld. It is

relatively easy for beginners to master with their first MIG welder, and
has the strength and versatility for a whole host of professional
applications. It can be used for many types of joints, whether the
metal is at an angle, overlapping, or when the end of a cylinder needs
to be welded to a flat sheet.
Materials to be joined require little preparation, and strong welds can
be achieved quickly.

2. Groove Weld

At first glance a groove weld looks similar to a fillet weld. They are
formed in much the same way, and have similar applications.
However, the groove weld penetrates further into the metal. This
additional thickness makes it the strongest type of weld in most
situations.

The drawback is that a groove is required for the molten metal to fill.
Thus a bevel, v-, or u-shape needs to be formed between the two
pieces to be joined (some groove welds are also called bevel welds).
This increases preparation time.

3. Plug Weld

A plug weld is used to join two overlapping pieces of metal. It

is often used when a spot welder (see below) doesn’t have
sufficient reach, or lacks the power to penetrate thicker
components. A typical application is for repairing vehicle
floor pans.

One or more holes are drilled or cut in the top piece, which is
then clamped over the second while the holes are filled with
weld material, thus creating a join.
4. Slot Weld

A slot weld is basically an elongated plug weld. Instead of a simple

hole (or holes), a slot is formed in the top surface. This slot can either
be enclosed or open ended. The main advantage that a slot weld
offers is increased weld contact area, and hence greater strength.
However, it does require significantly more weld material.

5. Surfacing Weld

As previously mentioned, surface welding is not used to join two

pieces of metal together, but rather to deposit weld material onto a
surface. This may be done to fill gaps and holes (replacing metal lost
through rust for example), or to thicken, and thus reinforce existing
components.
One or more runs of weld (called beads) are deposited, which may
then be ground back to provide a smooth surface for painting or
plating.

6. Spot Weld

With spot welding an electrical current is passed between two points

to melt the metal between them. Imagine clamping two sheets of
metal between your thumb and forefinger. The process is called
resistance welding. It is generally used for thin sheet metal, and it is
common to see a row of ‘spots’ used to stitch two pieces together.

99,100,101,102,103,104- The answers to these are in 98

105. Line AB is 75 mm long. It’s Fv and Tv measure 50 mm & 60 mm

long respectively. End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of
Vp. Draw projections of line AB if end B is in first quadrant. Find
angle with Hp and Vp.
SOLUTION STEPS:
1. Draw xy line and one projector.
2. Locate a’ 10 mm above xy and a 15 mm below xy
line. 3.Draw locus from these points.
4.Cut 60mm distance on locus of a’ & mark 1’ on it as it is LTV.
5.Similarly Similarly cut 50mm on locus of a and mark point 1 as it is
LFV.
6. From 1’ draw a vertical line upward and from a’ taking TL ( 75mm ) in compass,
mark b’1 point on it. Join a’ b’1 points.
7. Draw locus from b’1
8. With same steps below get b1 point and draw also locus from it.
9. Now rotating one of the components I.e. a-1 locate b’ and join a’ with it to get Fv.
10. Locate tv similarly and measure Angles
106. A line AB is 75 mm long. It’s Fv & Tv make 450 and 600
inclinations with X-Y line respectively. End A is 15 mm above Hp and
VT is 20 mm below Xy line. Line is in first quadrant. Draw
projections, find inclinations with Hp & Vp. Also locate HT.

SOLUTION STEPS:
Similar to the previous only change is instead of line’s inclinations, views inclinations
are given.
So first take those angles from VT & v Properly, construct Fv & Tv of extension,
then determine it’s TL( V-a1) and on it’s extension mark TL of line and proceed and
complete it.

107.A regular pentagon of 25 mm side has one side on the ground. Its
plane is inclined at 45° to the H.P and perpendicular to the V.P. Draw
its projections and show its traces.
Assuming it to be parallel to the H.P.
(i) Draw the pentagon in the top view with one side perpendicular to xy
[fig. 12-10(i)]. Project the front view. It will be the line a'c' contained by
xy.
(ii) Tilt the front view about the point a', so that it makes 45° angle with xy.
(iii) Project the new top view upwards from this front view and
horizontally from the first top view. It will be more convenient if the front
view is reproduced in the new position separately and the c'
(ii)top view projected from it, as shown in fig. 12-10(ii). The V.T. coincides with the
front view and the H.T. is perpendicular to xy, through the point of intersection
between xy and the front view-produced.

108. Draw the projections of a circle of 50 mm diameter, having

its plane vertical and inclined at 30° to the V.P. Its center is 30 mm
above the
H.P. and 20 mm in front of the V.P. Show also its traces.

(i) Assuming the circle to be parallel to the V.P., draw its projections.
The front view will be a circle [fig.12-11 (i)], having its centre 30 mm
1, above xy. The top view will be a line, parallel to and 20 mm below xy.
(ii) Divide the circumference into twelve equal parts (with a 30°-60° set
square) and mark the points as shown. Project these points in the top view.
The centre O will coincide with the point 4.

(iii) When the circle is tilted, so as to make 30° angle with the V.P., its top
view will become inclined at 30° to xy. In the front view all the points will
move along their respective paths (parallel to xy). Reproduce the top view
keeping the centre o at the same distance, viz. 20 mm from xy and inclined
at 30° to xy [fig. 12-11(ii)].

(iv) For the final front view, project all the points upwards from this top
view and horizontally from the first front view. Draw a freehand curve
through the twelve points 1 '1, 2'1 etc. This curve will be an ellipse.

109. A cone, diameter of base 50 mm and axis 50 mm long is

resting on its base on the H.P. It is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to the V.P., inclined at 75° to the H.P. and passing
through the apex. Draw its front view, sectional top view and true
shape of the section.

Draw the projections of the cone and on it, show the line V. T. for the
section plane.
Mark a number of points a', b' etc. on the V.T. and project them to points a, b etc. in
the top view by the circle method. It will be found that these points lie on a straight
line through o.

Thus, od is the top view of the line or generator o'd' and triangle odd1 is the top
view of the section. The width of the section at any point b' on the section is the line
bb1, obtained by projecting b' on this triangle. This method is called the generator
method.
Project the true shape of the section. It is an isosceles triangle, the base of which is
equal to the length of the chord on the base-circle and the altitude is equal to the
length of the section plane within the cone.

110.A pentagonal pyramid, base 30 mm side and axis 65 mm long has

its base horizontal and an edge of the base parallel to the V.P. A
horizontal section plane cuts it at a distance of 25 mm above the base.
Draw its front view and sectional top view.
111. A line AB, inclined at 40° to the V.P., has its ends 50 mm and 20
mm above the H.P. The length of its front view is 65 mm and its V.T. is
10 mm above the H.P. Determine the true length of AB, its inclination
with the H.P. and its H.T.

(i) Draw the front view a'b' as per given positions of A and B and the given
length.
(ii) Draw a line parallel to and 10 mm above xy. This line will contain the
V.T. Produce a'b' to cut this line at the V.T. Draw a projector through V.T. to v on xy.
(iii)Assuming a' V.T. to be the front view of a line which makes 40° angle
with the V.P. and whose one end v is in the V.P., let us determine its true
length.
Keeping V.T. fixed, turn the end a' to a'1 so that the line becomes parallel to xy.
Through v, draw a line making an angle of 40° with xy and cutting the projector
through a'1 at a1. The line through a1, drawn parallel to xy, is the locus of A in the top
view. Project a' to a on this line. av is the top view of the line, whose front view is a'
V.T. and whose true a1 length is equal to a1v.
(v) But a'b' is the given front view of AB. Therefore, project b' to b on av. ab is the
top view of AB. Obtain the inclination e with the H.P. by making the top view ab
parallel to xy, as shown. Produce a'b' to meet xy at h. Draw a projector through h to
cut ab-produced, at the H.T. of the line.

112. A point A is 50 mm below the H.P. and 12 mm behind the

V.P. A point B is 10 mm above the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the
V.P. The distance between the projectors of A and B is 40 mm.
Determine the traces of the line joining A and B. Draw the
projections ab and a'b' of the line AB.

Draw the projections ab and a'b' of the line AB.

Method I: (fig. 10-29):
(i) Through v, the point of intersection between ab and xy, draw a projector
to meet a'b' at the V.T. of the line.
(ii) Similarly, through h, the point of intersection between a'b' and xy, draw
a projector to cut ab at the H.T. of the line.
Method II: (fig. 10-30): At the ends a' and b', draw perpendiculars to
a'b', viz. a'A1 equal to ao1 and b'B1 equal to bo2 on its opposite sides (as a
and b are on opposite sides of xy). Draw the line A1B1 intersecting a'b' at the
V.T. of the line. [Ch. 10 Similarly, at the ends a and b, draw perpendiculars to ab, viz.
aA2 equal to a'o1 and bB2 equal to b'o2, on its opposite sides (as a' and b' are on
opposite sides of xy). Join A2 with B2 cutting ab at the H.T. of the line.
Note that A1B1 = A2B2 = AB and that θ and Ø are the inclinations of AB
with the H.P. and the V.P. respectively.

113. Draw 2D sectional view of the detail shown in the figure.

114. Draw 2D sectional view of the detail shown in the figure.

115. According to the visual image, construct three main views

of the part. Set dimensions. Create an isometric view of the part.

116. Based on the two given views, construct a third view. Set
dimensions. Create an isometric view of the part.
 117.The major axis of an ellipse is 150 mm long and the minor axis is
100 mm long. Find the foci and draw the ellipse by 'arcs of circles'
method. Draw a tangent to the ellipse at a point on it 25 mm above the
major axis.

118. Draw orthographic projections of the figure shown below.

119. A point P is 30 mm and 50 mm respectively from two straight lines which

are at right angles to each other. Draw a rectangular hyperbola from P within
10 mm distance from each line.
Solution Steps:
1) Extend horizontal line from P to right side.
2) Extend vertical line from P upward.
3) On horizontal line from P, mark some points taking any distance and name them after P-1,
2,3,4 etc.
4) Join 1-2-3-4 points to pole O. Let them cut part [P-B] also at 1,2,3,4 points.
5) From horizontal 1,2,3,4 draw vertical lines downwards and
6) From vertical 1,2,3,4 points [from P-B] draw horizontal lines.
7) Line from 1 horizontal and line from 1 vertical will meet at P1.Similarly mark P2, P3, P4 points.
8) Repeat the procedure by marking four points on upward vertical line from P and joining
all those to pole O. Name this points P6, P7, P8 etc. and join them by smooth curve.

120. Draw three views of a hexagonal nut for a 24 mm diameter bolt,

according to approximately standard dimensions.(use your dimensions)
121. Draw three views of a hexagonal-headed bolt, 24 mm diameter and 100
mm long, with a hexagonal nut and a washer. (use your values)

122. Draw the sectional front view, the top view and a side view of a single
riveted lap joint for 12 mm thick plates. Show the pitch, margin and width of
overlap.(calculate with your given parameters )

123. Draw three views of the triple-riveted lap joint shown in fig, taking t = 12
mm,
d = 20 mm, p = 60 mm and Pr = 40 mm.
Use your values.
124. Draw the projections of a circle of 75 mm diameter having the end A
of the diameter AB in the H.P., the end B in the V.P., and the surface
inclined at 30° to the H.P. and at 60° to the V.P.

125. A semi-circular plate of 80 mm diameter has its straight edge in the

V.P. and inclined at 45° to the H.P. The surface of the plate makes an angle of 30°
with the V.P. Draw its projections.
126. Draw the projections of the following solids, situated in their
respective positions, taking a side of the base 40 mm long or the diameter
of the base 50 mm long and the axis 65 mm long. A triangular pyramid,
base on the H.P. and an edge of the base inclined at 45° to the V.P.; the
apex 40 mm in front of the V.P.

127. Draw or sketch all necessary views.

128. Sketch the missing view.

129. Redraw the given views and add the front section view.
130. Pictorial views of objects are shown in Fig.8-58. Draw, scale
full size, views of each object as stated below. The front view in
each case, should be drawn as seen in the direction of the arrow X.
Unless otherwise specified, use first-angle projection method. Insert
all dimensions in the views. Fig.8-58: (i) Front view. (ii) Side view
from the left. (iii) Top view. Use third-angle projection method.