ASSIGNMENT

Unit 4: Measurements, Data collection, Sampling

1. Explain Scaling and its types in detail.

Answer:
Scale is a tool by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one
another on the variables of interest to our study.
Types of scales
There are 4 types of scales -
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval
4. Ratio

The ratio scale is the most powerful of the four scales because it has a unique zero origin
(not an arbitrary origin).

1.Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain categories
or groups.

A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as
“tags” or “labels” to classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals with the
non-numeric variables or the numbers that do not have any value.

Characteristics of Nominal Scale

A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more categories. In this measurement
mechanism, the answer should fall into either of the classes.
It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects.
The numbers don’t define the object characteristics. The only permissible aspect of
numbers in the nominal scale is “counting.”
What is your department?
O Marketing O Maintenance O Finance O Production O Servicing O Personnel O Sales
O Public Relations O Accounting
What is your gender?
O Male O Female
For example, the variable of gender, respondents can be grouped into two categories-
male and female. Notice
that there are no third category into which respondents would normally fall.
The information that can be generated from nominal scaling is to calculate the
percentage (or frequency) of
males and females in our sample of respondents.

2. Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking
of data without establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents the
“order.” Ordinal data is known as qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped,
named and also ranked.
Characteristics of the Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale shows the relative ranking of the variables
It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable
Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the rankings
of those variables
The interval properties are not known
The surveyors can quickly analyse the degree of agreement concerning the identified
order of variables
Ordinal scale: not only categorizes variables in such a way as to denote differences
among various categories, it
also rank-orders categories in some meaningful way.
What is the highest level of education you have completed?
O Less than High School O High School/GED Equivalent O College Degree O Masters
Degree O Doctoral Degree 12
The preference would be ranked (from best to worse; or from first to last) and numbered
as 1, 2, 3, and so on.
Example:
Ranking of school students – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.
Ratings in restaurants
Evaluating the frequency of occurrences
Very often, Often, Not often, Not at all
Assessing the degree of agreement
Totally agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Totally disagree

3. Interval Scale
Interval scale: whereas the nominal scale allows us only to qualitatively distinguish
groups by categorizing
them into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive sets, and the ordinal scale to
rank-order the
preferences, the interval scale lets us measure the distance between any two points on
the scale.
The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale. It is defined as a quantitative
measurement scale in which the difference between the two variables is meaningful. In
other words, the variables are measured in an exact manner, not as in a relative way in
which the presence of zero is arbitrary.
Characteristics of Interval Scale:
The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the values
It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables
To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values between
the variables
The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any numerical
values to arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.
Example:
Likert Scale
Net Promoter Score (NPS)
Bipolar Matrix Table

4. Ratio Scale
Ratio scale: overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin point of the interval scale,
in that it has an
absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero point, which is a meaningful measurement
point.
The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type of
variable measurement scale. It allows researchers to compare the differences or
intervals. The ratio scale has a unique feature. It possesses the character of the origin or
zero points.
Characteristics of Ratio Scale:
Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero
It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature
It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be orderly added,
subtracted, multiplied, divided. Mean, median, and mode can be calculated using the
ratio scale.
Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows unit
conversions like kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.
Example:
An example of a ratio scale is:
What is your weight in Kgs?
Less than 55 kgs, 55 – 75 kgs, 76 – 85 kgs, 86 – 95 kgs, More than 95 kgs
What is your age?
26
2. Mention the guidelines for a Questionnaire.

Answer:
Have a Goal
Too many questions are aimless. Ask yourself the following questions -
• What will change once the results are received ?
• Why am i collecting the data . For example - to get a broad grip of service, to
improve contact centre service, for marketing , for retention, to drive some strategies ?
etc.
1.Who is it aimed at ?
• Senior managers ? Staff ?
• Drives the detail and frequency
2. Acknowledge the art
3. Creating questionnaire is an art.
4. Relevance
• Only ask what is relevant, • Relevancy > Accuracy
5. Dynamic
• Balance trends with collecting relevance
6. Controllable and actionable
• Store reporting should be only for actionable items
• Unactionable items should not be recorded at store levels
7. Meaningful scores
• Does the overall score make sense?
• You can say our satisfaction has increased 2% and peopleknow what it means.
You cannot say the combined Service,Complaints and Efficiency target has increased 2%,
because it means nothing. If they must be combined, consider using an index instead of a
percentage.
8. Measure the important
• Measure things important to the customer.
• Survey customers., E.g. Don’t ask about security guard uniforms if they are not
important for the scenario.
9. Focus on the system
• Focus on the system, not the individual
• Focus on the store system, or network system, • Not the person
10. Trend is your friend
• Go for restricted budgets with low frequencies,
• Aim for less questions with higher frequency.

1: Identify your research aims and the goal of your questionnaire

What kind of information do you want to gather with your questionnaire? What is your
main objective?
Ideally, there are already existing questionnaires that have been validated by published
research that you can use (or maybe just to borrow a couple of ideas from). This can
occur frequently within psychological research, as there is a broad range of research
being carried out in a variety of different fields.
While this can be quite common, it’s not always the case. It might, for example, be rather
difficult to find or reuse existing questionnaires for commercial applications. In this case,
you might still be able to draw inspiration from pre-existing research, although greater care
in the following steps will likely be needed.

2: Define your target respondents

Clearly, you can’t test everyone – it’s rather plausible that there have to be certain
restrictions with respect to the target audience of your questionnaire. The selection of
groups is a key factor for maximizing the robustness of your study.
Another aspect to consider is whether you want to run multiple questionnaire sessions
over a longer period of time with a single group (longitudinal design), or if you want to
present your questionnaire once to two or more groups (cross-sectional design).
While the former allows you to analyze how the questionnaire results of the group change
over time, the latter delivers insights into differences among groups.

3: Develop questions
Smart questions are the cornerstone of every questionnaire. To make them work, they
have to be phrased in a way that prevents any misunderstandings or ambiguities.
It’s often a lost cause trying to analyze data from a questionnaire where people have
mixed things up, selected incorrect answers or haven’t been able to read or understand
the questions at all.
It makes a significant difference whether you want to hand a questionnaire to children,
adults, or maybe even elderly participants. It’s important to consider the cognitive,
attentional, and sensory competencies of your target group – handing out long
questionnaires with a huge amount of questions in small letter print and complicated
phrasing might be too taxing for many participant groups.
Additionally, remember to avoid jargon or technical language – the text needs to be fully
understood by anyone completing the questionnaire.

4: Choose your question type

There’s a wide variety in how to phrase questions. In explorative questionnaires, you will
find mainly open questions, where participants can fill in any answer (this makes sense
whenever you try to gain an understanding of the topics associated with your research
question).
By contrast, quantitative questionnaires primarily include closed-questions, which have
been predefined by the researcher either in form of multiple choice answers or rating
scales (such as the Likert scale). As is usually the case, both types of questions have
benefits and drawbacks that are worth considering in order to come up with a solid
questionnaire design that does the trick for you. Besides open and closed-format
questions, there are several other types of questions that you can use in your
questionnaire.

5: Design question sequence and overall layout

After optimizing each question separately it is time to improve the overall flow and layout
of the questionnaire.
Are there transitions from one question to the next? Are follow-up questions placed
correctly? Are skip-rules implemented (if needed) so that participants can skip questions
that do not apply to them?

6: Run a pilot
This stage is crucial for evaluation and optimization purposes. Any questionnaire should
be handed to a representative sample of your target audience before you go further with it.
During piloting, you can identify issues in readability and understanding, in phrasing and
overall arrangement. It could be helpful to discuss the questionnaire with pilot participants
to better understand their experience. Also, keep in mind to evaluate your pilot data
statistically to make sure that the analytic procedures of interest truly can be applied to the
data.

3. Explain the Primary methods of Data collection.

Answer:

The important methods of collection of Primary data are -

1. Observation Method
2. Interview Method
3. Questionnaires
4. Schedules

1.Observation method-

Observation method is a method under which data from the field is collected with the
help of observation by the observer or by personally going to the field.
In the words of P .V Young “Observation may be defined as systematic
viewing,coupled with consideration of seen phenomenon.”

Observation method is used when the study relates to behavioural science. This
method is planned systematically. It is subject to many controls and checks. The
different types of observations are:
 Structured and unstructured observation
 Controlled and uncontrolled observation
 Participant, non-participant and disguised observation

2.Interview method -

• The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli

and reply in terms of oral- verbal responses.
• Interviewer asks questions (which are aimed to get information required for study) to
respondent.
The method of collecting data in terms of verbal responses. It is achieved in two ways,
such as

Personal Interview – In this method, a person known as an interviewer is required to

ask questions face to face to the other person. The personal interview can be
structured or unstructured, direct investigation, focused conversation, etc.
Telephonic Interview – In this method, an interviewer obtains information by contacting
people on the telephone to ask the questions or views, verbally.

3. Questionnaires

• A Questionnaire is sent ( by post or by mail ) to the persons concerned with a

request to answer the questions and return the Questionnaire.
• A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite order on a
form.
Questionnaire Method

In this method, the set of questions are mailed to the respondent. They should read,
reply and subsequently return the questionnaire. The questions are printed in the
definite order on the form. A good survey should have the following features:

Short and simple

Should follow a logical sequence
Provide adequate space for answers
Avoid technical terms
Should have good physical appearance such as colour, quality of the paper to attract
the attention of the respondent
4.Schedules-

• Very similar to Questionnaire method

• The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the enumerator who is specially
appointed for the purpose.
• Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the questions from the
Questionnaire in the order listed, and records the responses in the space provided.
• Enumerator must be trained in administering the schedule

This method is similar to the questionnaire method with a slight difference. The
enumerations are specially appointed for the purpose of filling the schedules. It
explains the aims and objects of the investigation and may remove
misunderstandings, if any have come up. Enumerators should be trained to perform
their job with hard work and patience.
4. Explain the types and the advantages and disadvantages of Probability sampling.

Answer:
When we choose certain items out of the whole population to analyze the data and
draw a conclusion thereon, it is called sampling.
The way of sampling in which each item in the population has an equal chance (this
chance is greater than zero) for getting selected is called probability sampling.
Probability Sampling uses lesser reliance over the human judgment which makes the
overall process free from over biasness.

probability sampling
For instance, consider we need to sample 3 students from a group of 12. We firstly
assign a random number to each of the element in the given data. After we assign the
number, we mark the elements with the highest assigned random numbers in each
row (56 in the first row, 92 in second and 63 in the third) Then we proceed for further
analysis with the selected samples.
Since we assigned a number to each member of the population randomly, each one
has an equal chance of being selected, making our process probabilistic.

Advantages
Cost Effective
As the task of assignment ogf random number to different items of population is over,
the process is half done. This process saves cost and time to a great extent. We can
take any number of samples from this process.
Involves lesser degree of judgment
While assigning the number to an item of the population, the person assigns it in a
random trend that makes the process of probability sampling more effective and more
accurate.
Comparatively easier way of sampling
Probability sampling does not involve any complex and long process. Thus this is an
easier way for sampling.
Less time consuming
This process is a simple and short process. This takes lesser time to complete. The
saved time can be used for analysis and interpretation.
Can be done even by non- technical persons
Assignment of Random number can be done by any kind of person after a short
briefing as this does not involve any lengthy, complex and crucial process
Sample representative of population
Probability Sampling uses random numbers which ensures that the samples vary as
much as the population itself.

Disadvantages
Chances of selecting specific class of samples onlyIf a surveyor is appointed to survey
about any data relating to family members, there is likely chances that s/he will
develop a trend of starting to number from the eldest member to the youngest and
numbers will be only increasing or decreasing only. In this case, only oldest or the
latest generations will be taken as samples.
Redundant and monotonous work
As the surveyor is asked to do a repetitive job to assign the numbers and to take the
information, there is likely chances that the surveyor suffers from monotony and the
effectiveness of the system will be reduced.

5. Explain the general steps to Perform Quota Sampling?

Answer:
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling, a second type of purposive sampling, ensures that certain groups are
adequately represented in the study through the assignment of a quota. Generally, the
quota fixed for each subgroup is based on the total numbers of each group in the
population. However, since this is a non-probability sampling plan, the results are not
generalizable to the population. Quota sampling can be considered as a form of
proportionate stratified sampling, in which a predetermined proportion of people are
sampled from different groups, but on a convenience basis. For instance, it may be
surmised that the work attitude of blue-collar workers in an organization is quite
different from that of white-collar workers. If there are 60% blue-collar workers and
40% white-collar workers in this organization, and if a total of 30 people are to be
interviewed to find the answer to the research question, then a quota of 18 blue-collar
workers and 12 white-collar workers will form the sample, because these numbers
represent 60% and 40% of the sample size. The first 18 conveniently available blue-
collar workers and 12 whitecollar workers will be sampled according to this quota.
Needless to say, the sample may not be totally representative of the population; hence
the generalizability of the findings will be restricted. However, the convenience it offers
in terms of effort, cost, and time makes quota sampling attractive for some research
efforts. Quota sampling also becomes a necessity when a subset of the population is
underrepresented in the organization—for example, minority groups, foremen, and so
on. In other words, quota sampling ensures that all the subgroups in the population are
adequately represented in the sample. Quota samples are basically stratified samples
from which subjects are selected non-randomly. In a workplace (and society) that is
becoming increasingly heterogeneous because of the changing demographics, quota
sampling can be expected to be used more frequently in the future. For example,
quota sampling can be used to have some idea of the buying predispositions of
various ethnic groups, forgetting a feel of how employees from different nationalities
perceive the organizational culture, and so on. Although quota sampling is not
generalizable like stratified random sampling, it does offer some information, based on
which further investigation, if necessary, can proceed. That is, it is possible that the
first stage of research will use the non-probability design of quota sampling, and once
some useful information has been obtained, a probability design will follow. The
converse is also entirely possible. A probability sampling design might indicate new
areas for research, and non-probability sampling designs might be used to explore
their feasibility.

Quota Sampling Process

The steps for the process of quota sampling are listed below:
Step 1: Firstly, the population should be divided into mutually exclusive subgroups
Step 2: Next is to determine the proportions of the subgroups made in the previous
step, since the same proportion would be used during the sampling process
Step 3: Now, the researcher has to choose individual observations or items from the
subgroups. Also, the proportions found previously are to be taken into consideration
Step 4: The last and final step is to ensure that the obtained sample should be
representative of the whole population and allow the researcher to study
characteristics and traits.