This is a basic resistor circuit that demonstrates

Ohm’s Law.
The circuit consists of a resistor connected
series with a power source.
The main goal is to calculate the current flowing
through the resistor based on its resistance and the
applied voltage, using Ohm’s Law (I = V/R).
 This is a voltage divider circuit that splits an input
voltage into smaller, proportional output voltages.
The circuit consists of two resistors connected in
series across a power supply.
The circuit demonstrates how to use the voltage
divider formula (V_out = V_in * R2 / (R1 + R2)) to
calculate the output voltage.
 This is a current divider circuit that splits the total
current into smaller currents across multiple parallel
branches.
The circuit consists of two resistors connected in
parallel to a power source.
Based on the current divider rule (I1 = I_total * (R2 /
(R1 + R2)) and I2 = I_total * (R1 / (R1 + R2))).
 This is a combination of series and parallel circuits
designed to demonstrate the difference in behavior
between the two configurations.
In the series circuit, resistors are connected end-to-
end.
In the parallel circuit, resistors are connected across
the same voltage source,
 This is a basic LED control circuit that regulates
the current flow to light an LED based on a control
switch.
The circuit consists of an LED connected in series
with a current-limiting resistor .
This circuit demonstrates how to control the
operation of an LED .
 This is a switch-controlled LED circuit that allows
the user to turn an LED on and off by opening or
closing a switch.
When the switch is closed, current flows through
the circuit, causing the LED to light up.
When the switch is open, the circuit is incomplete,
and the LED turns off.
 This circuit demonstrates the charging and
discharging behavior of a capacitor in an RC (resistor-
capacitor) circuit.
During the charging phase, when the power supply
is connected, the capacitor gradually accumulates
charge, and its voltage increases.
During the discharging phase, when the power
supply is disconnected, the capacitor releases its
stored charge through the resistor, and its voltage
decreases
 This circuit demonstrates the RC time constant,
which defines the rate at which a capacitor charges and
discharges in an RC circuit.
The circuit consists of a resistor, a capacitor, and a
power supply.
The time constant (τ) is given by the formula
τ = R * C,
 This is a simple battery tester circuit designed to
measure the voltage of a battery and indicate its charge
level.
The resistor is used to limit the current and prevent
damage to the components.
If the voltage is above a certain threshold, the LED
lights up
 This is a voltage follower (also known as a buffer
amplifier) circuit that provides unity gain while isolating
the input and output stages.
The circuit typically consists of an operational
amplifier (op-amp) .
The primary function of the voltage follower is to
ensure that the voltage at the output is the same as the
input voltage (V_out = V_in)
 This is an inverting amplifier circuit that uses an
operational amplifier (op-amp) to invert and amplify an
input signal.
The circuit consists of an op-amp, a resistor
connected to the input signal, and a feedback resistor
connected between the output and the inverting input
of the op-amp.
This circuit is commonly used in applications where
signal inversion is required, such as audio processing,
signal conditioning, and waveform generation.
 This is a non-inverting amplifier circuit that uses an
operational amplifier (op-amp) to amplify an input
signal without inverting its phase.
The input signal is applied to the non-inverting input
of the op-amp.
This circuit is widely used in applications requiring
signal amplification with preserved polarity, such as
audio amplification, sensor signal conditioning.
 This is a summing amplifier circuit that combines
multiple input signals into a single output signal, which
is the weighted sum of the inputs.
The circuit typically consists of an operational
amplifier (op-amp), multiple input resistors, and a
feedback resistor.
This circuit is used in applications such as audio
mixing, signal processing, and analog computing,
 This is a differential amplifier circuit that amplifies
the difference between two input signals while rejecting
any common-mode signals (signals that are common to
both inputs).
The differential amplifier outputs a voltage
proportional to the difference between the two input
voltages.
This circuit is crucial for applications requiring
precise measurement of voltage differences, such as in
instrumentation, sensor interfacing.
 This comparator circuit compares two input
voltages and outputs a high or low voltage depending
on which input is greater.
It uses an operational amplifier to generate a
digital output that indicates which input voltage is
higher.
Making it useful in applications like voltage level
detection, zero-crossing detection, and pulse-width
modulation.
 The Schmitt trigger converts noisy or slow-varying
signals into clean digital outputs by introducing
hysteresis.
It uses positive feedback to set distinct upper and
lower threshold voltages, ensuring stable transitions.
This circuit is commonly used in signal conditioning,
noise filtering, and waveform shaping.
 Limits the voltage in a circuit by "clipping" any
voltage that exceeds a predefined threshold.
Uses diodes to conduct and protect the circuit
when the input voltage surpasses the set limit.
Commonly used in signal protection, waveform
shaping, and preventing overvoltage damage in
electronic circuits.
 Positive Clamper: Shifts the entire input signal
upward by adding a DC voltage, ensuring the signal
stays above a certain reference level. Typically uses a
diode and capacitor.

Negative Clamper: Shifts the input signal downward

by subtracting a DC voltage, ensuring the signal stays
below a certain reference level. It also uses a diode and
capacitor.
 Detects and holds the peak (maximum) value of
an input signal, maintaining this value for a certain
period.
Uses a diode, capacitor, and resistor to capture the
peak voltage and prevent the signal from dropping
below that level.
Commonly used in signal processing, audio peak
detection.
 Half-Wave Rectifier: Converts only one half (positive
or negative) of an AC signal into DC by allowing current
to flow through the load during one half-cycle, using a
single diode.

Full-Wave Rectifier: Converts both halves of an AC

signal into DC by using two or four diodes in a bridge
configuration, providing smoother output with a higher
average DC voltage.
 Allows low-frequency signals to pass through while
attenuating high-frequency signals.
Typically consists of a resistor and capacitor (RC
filter) or an inductor and capacitor (LC filter), with the
cutoff frequency .
Used in audio systems, signal processing, and noise
reduction to remove high-frequency noise or smooth
out signals.
 Allows high-frequency signals to pass through
while attenuating low-frequency signals.
Typically uses a resistor and capacitor (RC filter)
or an inductor and capacitor (LC filter), with the cutoff
frequency .
Used in audio processing, signal conditioning, and
noise filtering to eliminate low-frequency noise or
unwanted components from a signal.
 Allows signals within a specific frequency range to
pass through while attenuating frequencies outside this
range.
Combines a low-pass filter and a high-pass filter to
define the lower and upper cutoff frequencies, creating
a band of allowed frequencies.
Used in wireless communication, audio processing,
and instrumentation to isolate desired frequency bands
from a signal.
 Attenuates signals within a specific frequency range
while allowing frequencies outside this range to pass
through.
Combines a low-pass filter and a high-pass filter in
parallel, creating a "notch" where the undesired
frequencies are blocked.
Used in communication systems, audio processing,
and power systems to eliminate interference.
 Passes low-frequency signals while attenuating high-
frequency signals, with added amplification.
Uses an operational amplifier (op-amp) along with
resistors and capacitors to improve gain and
performance compared to passive filters.
Commonly used in audio systems, signal processing,
and communication systems for noise reduction and
smoothing signals.
 Passes high-frequency signals while attenuating low-
frequency signals, with added amplification.
Utilizes an operational amplifier (op-amp) with
resistors and capacitors to improve gain and
performance over passive filters.
Used in audio processing, communication systems,
and signal conditioning to remove low-frequency noise
or interference.
 Filters signals by allowing specific frequencies to
pass while attenuating others, using inductors (L) and
capacitors (C).
The inductor and capacitor work together to create
low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, or band-stop filter
characteristics, depending on the configuration.
Commonly used in power supplies, radio frequency
(RF) circuits, and audio systems .
 Allows signals within a specific frequency range to
pass through while attenuating frequencies outside this
range.
Combines a resistor (R), inductor (L), and capacitor
(C) in series or parallel, with the resonant frequency
determined by the values of L and C.
Used in communication systems, audio processing,
and RF circuits to isolate or amplify desired frequency
bands.
 Attenuates a specific frequency (notch frequency)
while allowing other frequencies to pass, creating a
sharp "notch" in the frequency response.
Uses two T-shaped resistor-capacitor (RC) networks
arranged in parallel, one for high-pass and the other for
low-pass, to effectively cancel signals at the notch
frequency.
Commonly used in audio systems, instrumentation,
and communication systems .
 Provides simultaneous low-pass, high-pass, and
band-pass outputs, allowing versatile filtering of input
signals.
Utilizes multiple operational amplifiers (op-amps) in
a feedback configuration with resistors and capacitors
to define the filter characteristics and cutoff
frequencies.
Commonly used in audio processing, signal analysis,
and communication systems .
 Generates a sinusoidal waveform at a specific
frequency using resistors and capacitors (RC network).
Uses an RC network for frequency determination
and an amplifier (like an op-amp or transistor) to sustain
oscillations based on positive feedback.
Used in audio signal generation, function generators,
and as clock signals in low-frequency applications.
 Generates sinusoidal waveforms at high frequencies
using an inductor (L) and capacitor (C) as the frequency-
determining components.
The LC circuit forms a resonant tank that oscillates at
a specific frequency, sustained by positive feedback
from an amplifier.
Commonly used in radio transmitters, receivers, and
signal generation for communication systems and RF
circuits.
 Generates sinusoidal waveforms, typically in the
radio frequency (RF) range, using an LC circuit with a
tapped inductor.
determine the oscillation frequency, with positive
feedback provided by the tapped inductor to sustain
oscillations.
Widely used in RF oscillators, signal generators, and
communication systems.
 Generates sinusoidal waveforms at high frequencies
typically used in RF and communication systems.
Uses an LC tank circuit with a capacitive voltage
divider to determine the oscillation frequency, with
positive feedback provided by the divider.
Commonly used in RF signal generation, local
oscillators in transmitters, and frequency synthesizers
due to its stability and simplicity.
 Generates low-frequency sinusoidal waveforms
with excellent frequency stability.
Uses an RC network (Wien Bridge) for frequency
selection and an amplifier (usually an op-amp) with
positive feedback to sustain oscillations.
Commonly used in audio signal generation, testing
equipment, and function generators due to its
simplicity.
 Generates highly stable sinusoidal waveforms
with precise frequency control using a quartz crystal.
Utilizes the piezoelectric properties of the quartz
crystal to create oscillations at a fixed natural
frequency, sustained by an amplifier circuit.
Widely used in clocks, microcontrollers,
communication systems.
 Generates a continuous square wave output without
requiring an external trigger.
Configures the 555 timer in astable mode using
resistors and a capacitor to set the frequency and duty
cycle of the oscillation.
Commonly used in pulse generation, clock signals,
LED and motor control, and other timing-related
circuits.
 Generates a single pulse of a fixed duration in
response to an external trigger.
Configures the 555 timer in monostable mode,
where the pulse width is determined by a resistor and
capacitor connected to the circuit.
Used in timing applications like pulse width
generation, debouncing switches, and creating delay
circuits.
 Generates sinusoidal waveforms at low to mid-range
frequencies using phase shift networks.
Uses an amplifier (like a transistor or op-amp) and a
series of RC networks to produce a 180-degree phase
shift, combined with amplifier feedback to sustain
oscillations.
Commonly used in audio frequency generation,
signal processing, and testing equipment .
 Generates a frequency that is directly proportional
to an input control voltage, allowing the frequency to
be adjusted dynamically.
Uses an electronic oscillator circuit where the
control voltage modulates the timing components (e.g.,
capacitors or inductors) to change the oscillation
frequency.
used in communication systems, frequency
modulation, synthesizers, and signal generation .
 Converts AC (alternating current) to DC (direct
current) to provide power to electronic devices.
Typically includes a transformer to step down
voltage, a rectifier to convert AC to DC, a filter to
smooth the output, and a voltage regulator to provide a
stable DC output.
Used in powering low-voltage devices, such as
electronic circuits, microcontrollers, and
communication equipment.
 Maintains a constant output voltage by allowing
current to flow in the reverse direction once the Zener
diode reaches its breakdown voltage.
The Zener diode is placed in reverse bias across the
load, and when the input voltage exceeds the Zener
voltage.
Commonly used in low-power voltage regulation
applications, providing stable voltage for circuits like
power supplies, protection circuits.
 Provides a stable output voltage that can be adjusted
within a specific range by using external resistors.
The LM317 adjusts the output voltage based on the
ratio of two external resistors connected to its
adjustment pin, allowing for a wide range of output
voltages.
Used in power supplies, battery chargers, and other
applications where a stable and adjustable DC voltage is
required .
 Converts an input voltage to a different, stable
output voltage using a high-efficiency switching
method, either step-up (boost) or step-down (buck).
Utilizes inductors, capacitors, and semiconductor
switches to rapidly switch the input voltage on and off,
storing energy in the inductor and then releasing it to
regulate the output voltage.
Commonly used in power supplies, battery-
operated devices, and energy-efficient circuits.
 Steps up (increases) a lower input voltage to a
higher, stable output voltage.
Uses an inductor, a diode, a switch (typically a
transistor), and a capacitor to store energy during the
"on" phase and release it during the "off" phase,
boosting the voltage.
Commonly used in battery-powered devices, power
supplies, and renewable energy systems where a higher
voltage is required.
 Provides a stable output voltage that can be either
higher or lower than the input voltage, depending on
the configuration and load requirements.
Combines the principles of both buck (step-down)
and boost (step-up) converters, using an inductor,
switch, diode, and capacitor to regulate the voltage.
Used in applications where the input voltage can
vary above or below the desired output voltage, such as
in battery-powered devices.
 Converts DC voltage from a lower level to a higher
(boost) or lower (inverted) level using capacitors as
energy storage elements instead of inductors.
Uses a series of capacitors and switches (typically
diodes or transistors) to transfer and "pump" charge in
a sequence, changing the voltage level.
Often used in low-power applications, such as in
voltage doubling, inverting, or generating higher voltage
rails .
 Converts solar energy into electrical energy to
charge batteries or power electronic devices.
Uses a solar panel to convert sunlight into DC
electricity, which is then regulated by a charge
controller to safely charge the battery and prevent
overcharging.
Commonly used in solar-powered devices, off-grid
systems, and portable battery charging solutions .
 Manages the charging, discharging, and overall
health of a rechargeable battery to ensure safe and
efficient operation.
Includes a battery protection circuit to prevent
overcharging, over-discharging, and excessive current,
as well as a charge controller to regulate charging.
Commonly used in lithium-ion and other
rechargeable battery-powered devices, including
electric vehicles, power banks.
 Provides backup power to electronic devices during
power outages, ensuring continuous operation and
preventing data loss.
Consists of a battery, charger, and inverter system,
which stores energy in a battery and supplies it to
connected devices .
Widely used in homes, offices, and data centers to
protect sensitive equipment like computers, servers,
and medical devices.
 Implements the logical AND operation, outputting a
high signal only when both inputs are high.
Uses two transistors in series, with each transistor
acting as a switch. The output is high only when both
transistors are turned on by their respective inputs,
completing the circuit.
Commonly used in digital logic circuits for performing
binary operations.
 Implements the logical OR operation, outputting a
high signal when at least one of the inputs is high.
Uses two transistors in parallel, with each transistor
acting as a switch. The output is high if either of the
transistors is turned on by its respective input,
completing the circuit.
Commonly used in digital circuits for decision-
making processes, binary logic operations.
 Implements the logical NOT operation, inverting
the input signal (output is high when input is low and
vice versa).
Uses a single transistor, typically in a common-
emitter configuration, When the input is high, the
transistor conducts and the output is low; when the
input is low, the transistor is off, and the output is high.
Used in digital logic circuits, signal inversion, and in
building more complex logic gates and circuits.
 Implements the logical NAND operation, outputting a
low signal only when both inputs are high; otherwise, it
outputs a high signal.
Uses two transistors in series (similar to an AND gate),
but with a NOT operation applied to the output. When
either input is low, at least one transistor is off, and the
output is high.
Commonly used in digital electronics for building
more complex logic circuits, memory storage, and
arithmetic operations.
 Implements the logical NOR operation, outputting a
high signal only when both inputs are low; otherwise, it
outputs a low signal.
Uses two transistors in parallel, arranged in a way
that when both inputs are low, neither transistor
conducts, and the output is high.
Used in digital logic circuits, especially in building
other complex gates, memory circuits, and for
performing decision-making operations .
 Implements the logical XOR (exclusive OR)
operation, outputting a high signal when the inputs are
different (one high, one low), and a low signal when the
inputs are the same (both high or both low).
The output is high only when exactly one of the
two inputs is high, as the transistors switch accordingly.
Used in digital circuits for tasks such as error
detection, arithmetic operations (like adders), and
signal comparison in logic systems.
 Implements the logical XNOR (exclusive NOR)
operation, outputting a high signal when the inputs are
the same (both high or both low), and a low signal when
the inputs are different.
Typically uses a combination of XOR and NOT gates.
The circuit is built with multiple transistors arranged in
series and parallel .
Commonly used in digital circuits for equality
comparison, parity checking.
 Performs the addition of two single-bit binary
numbers, providing a sum and a carry output.
The sum output is generated by an XOR gate, and
the carry output is generated by an AND gate. The
circuit adds the two input bits and handles carry-over
when both bits are 1.
Used in digital systems, particularly in arithmetic
logic units (ALUs), binary addition operations.
 Adds three input bits and produces a sum and a
carry-out.
The sum output is generated by an XOR gate (for the
two input bits and carry-in), while the carry-out is
determined by an OR gate combining the results of two
AND gates, each evaluating the carry conditions from
the inputs.
Used in digital arithmetic operations, including in
the construction of ALUs .
 Selects one of two input signals based on a control
(select) line and outputs the chosen signal.
The MUX has two data inputs (I0 and I1), one select
input (S), and one output (Y). The output is determined
by the value of the select input: when S is 0, the output
is I0; when S is 1, the output is I1.
Commonly used in digital systems for data routing,
signal multiplexing, and in applications requiring the
selection between two data sources.
 Selects one of two input signals based on a control
(select) line and outputs the chosen signal.
The MUX has two data inputs (I0 and I1), one select
input (S), and one output (Y). The output is determined
by the value of the select input: when S is 0, the output
is I0; when S is 1, the output is I1.
Commonly used in digital systems for data routing,
signal multiplexing.
 Counts in a sequence based on clock pulses, where
all flip-flops receive the clock signal simultaneously,
ensuring synchronized operation.
Each flip-flop in the counter changes state in sync
with the clock signal, and the output changes according
to the binary counting sequence (e.g., 0-1-2-3, etc.).
Used in applications requiring synchronized counting,
such as timers, frequency division, and digital clocks.
 Converts serial input data into parallel output,
shifting data bit by bit through a series of flip-flops,
with each flip-flop storing one bit of data.
Data is fed serially into the first flip-flop, and as the
clock pulses, each flip-flop shifts its data to the next
one. After several clock cycles, the data is available in
parallel at the outputs.
Commonly used in data transfer applications where
serial data needs to be converted to parallel form.
 Converts parallel input data into serial output,
allowing multiple bits of data to be loaded
simultaneously and then shifted out one bit at a time.
Data is loaded in parallel into the shift register’s
flip-flops. With each clock pulse, the data is shifted
through the register, and eventually, it is output serially
from the last flip-flop.
Used in digital systems for applications such as data
transmission, serial data storage systems.
 A counter that counts in BCD, representing decimal
digits (0-9) in binary form, where each digit is encoded
using four bits.
The counter increments in binary but resets after
reaching 9 (1001 in binary), ensuring it only counts valid
decimal digits, typically used for displaying decimal
numbers.
Commonly used in digital clocks, seven-segment
displays, and other systems.
 A counter that counts in Gray code, where each
successive value differs from the previous one by only
one bit.
The counter generates a sequence of Gray code
values, where each output bit changes in such a way
that only one bit changes at a time.
Used in rotary encoders, digital position tracking,
and in systems where minimizing errors during state
transitions is critical.
 A counter that increments or decrements based on
a control input (up/down).
The counter counts up or down with each clock pulse,
depending on the control signal.
Used in systems requiring bidirectional counting,
such as digital clocks and position encoders.
 A counter that counts from 0 to 9, representing
decimal digits in binary.
The counter increments with each clock pulse and
resets to 0 after reaching 9.
Used in applications requiring decimal digit
counting, such as digital clocks, calculators, and
frequency counters.
 A counter where only one bit is "high" at any time,
and it circulates through a sequence of states, returning
to the initial state after completing the cycle.
The counter shifts the "high" bit around the register
with each clock pulse, creating a continuous loop of
states.
Used in sequence generation, digital control
systems, and in applications where cyclic counting or
rotation is required.
 A counter that generates a unique sequence by
feeding back the inverted output of the last flip-flop
into the first.
Shifts bits through flip-flops to produce a sequence
that cycles through 2n states.
Used in sequence generation, PWM, and LED
control.
 Generates a precise time delay based on external
resistor and capacitor values.
The 555 timer operates in monostable mode,
producing a single pulse of desired duration when
triggered.
Used in timing applications like delay circuits, pulse
generation, and triggering systems.
 Generates a pulse-width modulated (PWM) signal
to control the duty cycle of an output waveform.
Operates in astable mode, where the duty cycle is
adjusted by varying the resistors or a control voltage.
Used in motor speed control, LED dimming, and
signal modulation.
 Activates multiple outputs sequentially, each for a
set time interval, based on a clock or trigger signal.
Uses a series of 555 timers or counters to control
the timing and order of activation for connected
outputs.
Used in automation systems, lighting control, and
process sequencing.
 Combines two independent timers in a single
circuit to generate two different time delays or
intervals.
Typically uses a dual 555 timer (e.g., NE556) to
operate in monostable or astable modes for separate
timing functions.
Used in multi-stage timing, pulse generation, and
sequential operations in automation systems.
 Produces a single output pulse of a fixed duration
when triggered.
Operates in monostable mode, where the pulse
width is determined by external resistor and capacitor
values.
Used in pulse generation, debouncing switches, and
triggering events in digital circuits.
 Blinks an LED at a regular interval by generating a
square wave.
The 555 timer operates in astable mode, with the
blinking rate controlled by external resistors and a
capacitor.
Used in basic LED indicators, signal testing, and
timing demonstrations.
Generates periodic pulses of a specific width and
frequency.
Often built using a 555 timer in astable mode, with
pulse characteristics controlled by external
components.
Used in clock signal generation, testing digital
circuits, and triggering applications.
 Activates a relay after a preset time delay.
Uses a 555 timer or similar device to generate a delay
based on resistor and capacitor values, triggering the
relay once the delay elapses.
Used in automation systems, motor control, and
delayed power-on circuits.
 Automatically adjusts the fan speed based on
temperature changes.
Uses a temperature sensor (e.g., thermistor or
LM35) to detect heat levels and control the fan through
a transistor or PWM signal.
Used in cooling systems for electronics, HVAC
systems, and appliances.
 Detects motion and triggers an alarm or alert system.
Uses a motion sensor to detect infrared radiation
from moving objects, activating a buzzer or LED when
motion is detected.
Used in security systems, automated lighting, and
intrusion detection.
 Provides continuous amplification by operating in
the linear region of the transistor for the entire input
signal cycle.
The transistor conducts throughout the signal
cycle, resulting in high fidelity but low efficiency.
Used in high-quality audio amplifiers, signal
processing, and precision applications where linearity is
crucial.
 Amplifies the input signal by using two active devices,
each amplifying one half of the signal waveform.
Each transistor or device conducts for 180° of the
signal cycle, reducing power loss compared to Class A
but introducing crossover distortion.
Used in power amplifiers for audio systems, radio
transmitters, and other applications.
 Combines the advantages of Class A and Class B
amplifiers, providing high linearity with improved
efficiency.
Each transistor conducts for more than half of the
input signal cycle, reducing crossover distortion while
maintaining better efficiency than Class A.
Commonly used in audio amplifiers, home theater
systems, and high-fidelity sound equipment.
Amplifies the voltage difference between two input
signals.
Uses two transistors to amplify the difference while
rejecting common-mode noise.
Used in operational amplifiers, audio systems, and
instrumentation for noise rejection.
 Provides voltage amplification with moderate gain
and phase inversion.
The input signal is applied to the base, and the
amplified output is taken from the collector, with the
emitter typically grounded.
Used in signal amplification for audio and RF
circuits, as well as in analog signal processing.
 Provides voltage gain with high input impedance and
low output impedance, acting as a buffer.
The input signal is applied to the base, with the
output taken from the emitter, resulting in no phase
inversion.
Used in impedance matching, signal buffering, and
as a voltage follower in various electronic circuits.
 Provides voltage amplification with low input
impedance and high output impedance.
The input signal is applied to the emitter, with the
output taken from the collector, resulting in no phase
inversion.
Used in high-frequency applications, such as RF
amplifiers and impedance matching in communication
systems.
 Provides high current gain by combining two
transistors in a way that amplifies current more
efficiently.
The output of the first transistor is connected to the
base of the second, resulting in a combined current gain
while maintaining the voltage gain characteristics.
Used in power amplifiers, audio amplifiers, and driver
circuits where high current gain is required.
 Provides efficient amplification by using two
transistors to handle both positive and negative halves
of the signal.
One transistor amplifies the positive half of the
signal, while the other amplifies the negative half,
improving efficiency and reducing distortion.
Used in power amplifiers, audio systems, and signal
amplification where high efficiency and low distortion
are essential.
 Amplifies the difference between two input signals
while rejecting common-mode noise.
Consists of three op-amps, with two forming a
differential amplifier and the third providing gain
control, ensuring high input impedance and precise
output.
Used in applications requiring high accuracy and
noise rejection, such as sensor signal amplification.
 A symmetrical network of resistors arranged in a cube
structure to analyze equivalent resistance between any
two points.
Uses symmetry and network analysis techniques to
calculate the total resistance based on series and
parallel combinations.
Commonly used in circuit theory problems and for
teaching network analysis concepts.
 A network of resistors arranged in a grid pattern to
calculate equivalent resistance between two nodes.
Uses series-parallel reduction and symmetry, or
advanced techniques like Kirchhoff's laws for complex
grids.
Used in teaching network analysis, circuit theory
problems, and resistance measurement studies.
 Detects and compares input voltage against a
reference voltage to indicate specific voltage levels.
Uses a comparator or operational amplifier to
output a high or low signal based on the input voltage
relative to the reference.
Used in battery level indicators, power supply
monitoring, and threshold detection systems.
Generates a sine wave signal using digital techniques,
often for testing or modulation purposes.
Utilizes a microcontroller, DAC, or digital logic to
create a sine wave through waveform synthesis
methods like lookup tables or PWM.
Used in signal processing, communication systems,
and waveform testing.
Reduces signal reflections by matching the line's
impedance.
Demonstrates the effect of proper and improper
terminations on signal integrity.
Used in RF systems and high-speed
communication to ensure signal fidelity.
Amplifies low-power audio signals to drive speakers
or headphones.
Boosts the signal's power using transistors or ICs
while maintaining audio quality.
Used in sound systems, home theaters, and
portable audio devices.
 Generates an output signal with double the
frequency of the input signal.
Uses nonlinear components like diodes or op-amps to
create harmonics, extracting the second harmonic as
the output.
Used in RF communication, signal processing, and
waveform generation.
 Activates a circuit or device by detecting a user's
touch, usually through capacitive or resistive sensing.
Detects changes in capacitance or resistance when a
finger touches the sensor, triggering an action like
turning on or off.
Common in consumer electronics, home automation,
touchscreens, appliances, automotive systems, and
security devices.
Produces high-voltage pulses by charging capacitors
in parallel and discharging them in series.
Capacitors charge and discharge through spark gaps
to create a high-voltage output.
Used in high-voltage testing, pulsed power systems,
and particle accelerators.
 Controls the flow of traffic by using colored lights
(red, yellow, green) to indicate stop, caution, or go.
A timer system switches the lights in a cycle to
manage vehicle and pedestrian movement.
Found at road intersections, pedestrian crossings,
and busy traffic areas to ensure safety and efficient
traffic management.