CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATIURE

This chapter is a review of related literature on the effects of modern technology as a

correlate of efficient management of university data. It was discussed as follows:

 Theoretical Framework

 Concept of Modern Technology

 Concept of Management

 Concept of Data

 Concept of University Data

 Concept of Data Management

 Concept of University Data Management

 Concept of Modern Technology for Efficient University Data Management

 Benefits of Modern Technology for University Data Management

 Problem Associated with Using Modern Technology for University Data

Management

 Strategies for Improving the Use of Modern Technology for Efficient University Data

Management

 Summary of Reviewed Literature

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of this study was built on the Systems Theory propounded

by Talcott Parsons in the year 1902. The system theory is an approach to understanding

complex systems by breaking them down into their component parts and understanding how

they interact with each other. The system theory concept assumes that any complex system

can be understood as a collection of discrete subsystems that interact with each other. Each

1
subsystem can be analysed separately, but the behaviour of the entire system cannot be

predicted based solely on the behaviour of its individual components. According to Lanade,

and Baumeister (2015), a system is composed of a whole made up of interacting parts, and

therefore, systems scientist in both the natural and social sciences study the interaction

between parts to better understand the complexities of reality. Thus, a system refers to set of

interrelated parts that function as a whole for the sole aim of a attaining a common goal.

According to the system theory, systems can be classified into two broad categories:

i. Close system: A close system is a self-contained system that does not interact

with any other system or environment outside itself. This type of system is

considered to be static, with no change or growth over time.

ii. Open system: An open system is a system that interacts with its environment,

allowing for exchange of information, matter, and energy between the system and

its surroundings. This type of system is considered dynamic, with the potential for

growth and adaptation over time.

The components of the system theory include the following:

1. Inputs: The resources or materials that are used in the system.

2. Processes: The activities that transform inputs into outputs.

3. Outputs: The results or products that are generated by the system.

4. Feedback: Information about the outputs of the system that is used to modify the

inputs or processes.

5. Control: The mechanisms used to regulate the system, including rules, procedures,

and policies.

6. Environment: The external factors that impact the system, such as competition,

regulation, and technology.

2
 7. Boundaries: The limits or scope of the system, including what is included and

excluded.

The relevance of this theory to the study is that many of the problems facing the

university data management system today can be resolved through systems analysis. Data

management efficiency can be achieved among the various departments and units in the

university whose duty is to manage and store data for the smooth operation of the institution

through good relationship, collaboration and cooperation among themselves and other sub

systems of the university. The system theory posits that a system is made up of

interconnected and interdependent parts, and that any change in one part of the system can

cause a ripple effect on other parts of the system. In the context of university data

management, modern technology is one part of the system that can have a significant impact

on the overall efficiency of the system. The system theory suggests that effective

management requires a holistic understanding of the entire system, including all of its

interconnected parts. In the context of university data management, this means that

researchers must consider how modern technology interacts with other factors, such as

institutional culture, governance structures, and the skills and competencies of staff.

Overall, the system theory is highly relevant to the study, as it provides a framework

for understanding how technology fits into the larger system of university operations and can

influence overall efficiency and effectiveness.

Concept of Modern Technology

Modern technology refers to advancements and innovations made in various fields

such as computing, telecommunications, transportation, medicine, energy, and many others.

According to Techopedia, modern technology refers to tools, machines, and systems that

improve upon traditional methods and enables us to accomplish tasks that were previously

3
impossible. Modern technology is constantly evolving set of tools, methods, and systems

designed to improve the way we live, work, and communicate (Marc J. Roberts, 2003).

The term modern technology also refers to the development of advanced

communication and networking infrastructure that enables people and devices to connect and

collaborate across geographic and cultural boundaries (world bank group). The use of

advanced technology has drastically reduced the time taken to accomplish tasks that were

once deemed time-consuming, complex and even impossible. For example, with the internet,

information can now be accessed and shared instantly over vast distances making

communication easier, cheaper and faster.

A notable impact of modern technology is the aspect of the Information

Communication Technology (I.C.T), which includes a wide range of hardware, software and

network resources used for communication, collaboration, data storage and processing, and

information dissemination. According to Rouse, (2012) Information and communications

technology (ICT) stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of

telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as well as necessary

enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, to enable users to access,

store, transmit, and manipulate information. These I.C.T technologies have transformed the

way people work, learn, communicate, and live their daily lives. They have made information

more accessible and have redefined the boundaries of time and space, enabling people to

connect and collaborate with others around the world.

Concept of Management

Management has various meaning in different context and it has been defined from

different perspective. UNESCO (1979) defined management as a social process which is

designed to ensure the coordination, participation, intervention and involvement of other for

4
the effective achievement of a given or pre-determined objective. According to Griffin

(1990), management is a set of activities directed at an organization’s human, financial,

physical and information resources with the aim of achieving organizational goals in an

efficient and effective manner. Management focuses on the organization as a whole, from

both short- and long-term perspectives.

management is the process of forming a strategic vision, setting objectives, crafting a

strategy and then implementing and executing the strategy (Sakina, 2004). To Ogbonnaya

(2004), management is regarded as a profession. In his view, management is a process that

demands the performance of a specific function.

Management therefore entails the planning, organizing, controlling, coordinating,

directing and utilizing the human, material, information, and fiscal resources efficiently, for

the effective accomplishment of predetermined goals.

Concept of Data

Data refers to the pieces of information that are collected, processed, and analyzed in

order to inform decision making, research, or other activities. Data are the raw, unorganized

facts that describes institutions, persons, places, things, ideas and events (Olubor, 2003). Data

can appear in diverse formats such as numerical or textual on physical documents, as binary

code preserved in digital storage, or as knowledge stored in an individual’s cognition. In a

technical sense, data denotes multiple pieces of information, while datum pertains to a

singular piece of information. According to Akintola (2006) data are language, mathematical

or symbols which are generally agreed upon to represent people, object, event and concepts.

Wikipedia defined data as a collection of discrete values that convey information,

describing quantity, quality, fact, statistics, other basic units of meaning, or simply sequences

5
of symbols that may be further interpreted. Data may be used to indicate abstract ideas or

concrete measurements. There are several types of data, including:

1. Numerical data: This type of data includes numbers and includes metrics such as

height, weight, and temperature.

2. Categorical data: This type of data includes non-numeric data and is often divided

into subcategories. Examples include gender, color, and ethnicity.

3. Ordinal data: This type of data has a specific order or ranking to it, such as a rating

system for a product or service.

4. Time series data: This type of data measures changes over time and includes data

such as stock prices or weather patterns.

5. Spatial data: This type of data is associated with locations and includes data such as

maps, GPS coordinates, and satellite imagery.

6. Text data: This type of data includes written words and phrases and includes data

such as customer reviews and social media posts.

7. Binary data: This type of data includes only two possible values or categories, such

as true or false, yes or no.

Data can be obtained through means such as assessment, examination, inquiry, or

scrutiny, and is commonly depicted as numerical or textual values that can undergo additional

manipulation.

Concept of University Data

University data refers to any information related to the activities and operations of a

university, including its students, faculty, staff, courses, finances, and facilities. This data is

essential for university administrators to make informed decisions and improve the overall

6
operations of the institution. University data refers to the information collected on the

activities of the institution.

University data can be quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative university data refers

to numerical information that is measurable and objective, and can be quantified or verified

and is amenable to statistical analysis. Examples of quantitative data are students’ enrollment,

test scores, demographic data etc. On the other hand, qualitative university data refers to

information used for describing characteristics which cannot be defined in numerical terms, it

relates to information on objectives, structure, curriculum and pedagogy. While quantitative

data defines, qualitative data describes.

Sources of university data may include administrative and student information

systems, third-party sources such as national databases and surveys, and individual research

studies. There are several types of university data that may be collected, including:

1. Enrollment data: This refers to the number of students who have officially registered

and are attending the university. The data may include demographic information such

as the number of international or domestic students, full-time or part-time students, or

students enrolled in particular programs or courses.

2. Financial data: This refers to the monetary resources available to the university, such

as revenue from tuition fees, donations, and grants, as well as the expenses incurred

by the university, such as salaries, maintenance costs, and equipment purchases.

Financial data may be evaluated based on annual or quarterly reports or audited

financial statements.

3. Payment record: This refers to data on students’ payment records, including tuition

fees, room and board, and other fees. This data is important for tracking outstanding

7
 payments and ensuring that the university is receiving the appropriate amount of

revenue.

4. Hostel accommodation data: This refers to data on the number of students living in

university-provided housing, including information on the availability, occupancy

rate, and pricing of on-campus housing.

5. Students results and test scores: This refers to data on students’ academic

performance, including grades in individual courses, cumulative grade point average,

and standardized test scores. The data may be used to evaluate the effectiveness of

academic programs and teaching strategies, as well as to identify areas of

improvement for individual students or the university as a whole.

6. Staff and faculty data: This refers to data on the university’s employees, including

the number and demographics of administrative and academic staff, faculty

appointment types (tenure-track, adjunct, visiting), and staff/faculty salaries, job titles,

departments, and areas of expertise.

7. Facilities data: This refers to data on the university’s facilities and infrastructure,

such as the number and size of buildings, classrooms, and laboratories, as well as

information on the availability and use of equipment and technology resources.

8. Graduation data: This refers to data on the number and demographic characteristics

of students who have completed their degree programs at the university. The data may

include information on employment rates, further education pursuits, and overall

satisfaction with their academic experience.

In conclusion, university data plays a vital role in informing the decision-making process

of university administrators. It is essential to collect and analyse a variety of data types from

different sources to gain a complete understanding of the university’s operations and to

identify areas for improvement.

8
Concept of Data Management

Data management refers to the process of collecting, storing, organizing, maintaining,

and utilizing data in a way that promotes efficient and effective access, analysis, and use. The

concept of data management involves the acquisition, storage, retrieval, processing, and

dissemination of various forms of data, including text, images, audio, and video.

Data management refers to the processes and procedures used to acquire, organize,

maintain, store, retrieve, and analyze data. It involves the development of strategies and

policies to ensure that data is accurate, complete, and timely. Effective data management is

crucial for businesses and organizations as it enables them to make informed decisions based

on reliable data. Techopedia explains data management as that which encompasses a variety

of different techniques that facilitate and ensure data control and flow from creation to

processing, utilization and deletion. Data management also helps to ensure compliance with

legal and regulatory requirements, and protect data from loss or unauthorized access.

Common practices in data management includes:

1. Data governance: Data governance refers to the overall management of data within

an organization, including policies, procedures, controls, and accountability

structures. This is important for ensuring that data is accurate, consistent, and secure.

2. Data quality management: Data quality management involves the processes, tools,

and techniques used to ensure that data is accurate, complete, and consistent across an

organization. Poor data quality can lead to faulty business decisions, customer

dissatisfaction, and regulatory non-compliance.

3. Data warehousing: Data warehousing involves the process of collecting and storing

data from various sources within an organization in order to facilitate analysis and

9
 reporting. This allows organizations to identify trends, make informed decisions, and

improve overall business performance.

4. Data security: Data security refers to the measures taken to protect data from

unauthorized access, use, disclosure, modification, or destruction. This includes the

safeguarding of sensitive information, such as personal or financial data, intellectual

property, and trade secrets.

5. Data migration: Data migration involves transferring data from one system to

another, either during a system upgrade or a business merger or acquisition. This

process can be complex and time-consuming, and requires careful planning to ensure

that data is transferred accurately and securely.

The Importance of data management has increased significantly in recent years, as the

volume of data generated by individuals and organizations has grown exponentially. Proper

data management ensures that data is kept accurate, consistent, and readily accessible by

authorized parties for decision making.

Effective data management involves several key steps, including:

1. Identification of the types of data required: The first step in effective data

management is to identify the types of data that are required for the particular project

or organization. The data can be related to customers, employees, operations,

finances, or any other area that requires analysis or decision-making. It is crucial to

identify the right types of data to ensure that the analysis and decision-making process

is effective and accurate.

2. Development of data collection plan: Once the data types are identified, the next

step is to develop a data collection plan that outlines the methods and processes for

collecting the data. This plan should include details such as who will collect the data,

10
 how often it will be collected, and what tools or technology will be used for the

collection. It is imperative to ensure that the data is collected accurately and

consistently to prevent errors and inconsistencies in the analysis process.

3. Creation of a data storage system: After data collection, it is essential to have a

robust data storage system in place that secures the data and makes it easily

accessible. There are different types of storage systems available, including cloud-

based storage, on-premise storage, or a combination of both. The choice of storage

system should be based on the organization’s needs, budget, and security

requirements.

4. Regular back up and maintenance of data: The final step in effective data

management is to ensure that the data is regularly backed up and maintained. This

includes creating a backup plan to prevent data loss due to system failures, natural

disasters, or cyber-attacks. It is also vital to maintain the data quality by monitoring

and cleaning the data regularly to eliminate duplicates or errors that could impact the

analysis results.

In conclusion, effective data management requires a comprehensive and systematic

approach that involves identifying the data types, developing a collection plan, creating a

storage system, and regularly backing up and maintaining the data. By following these steps,

organizations can ensure that the data is accurate, secure, and accessible, facilitating informed

decision-making and improving overall performance.

Concept of University Data Management

Every university generates and collects large amounts of data; these data may include

research data, student data, financial data, library data, administrative data, and many more.

University data management therefore refers to the process of organizing, categorizing,

11
maintaining, protecting, and archiving data related to the institution’s academic, operational,

and administrative activities. The effective management of university data is crucial to

ensure its accessibility, accuracy, consistency, and security. It allows universities to make

data-driven decisions, improve operational efficiencies, enhance student learning outcomes,

maintain compliance with regulations, and ensure data privacy.

One of the primary challenges of managing university data is its complexity and

diversity. Universities employ multiple departments and systems that generate various types

of data, often in different formats and languages. Therefore, an efficient university data

management system must be comprehensive and flexible enough to accommodate the diverse

data types and formats.

Another crucial aspect of university data management is data security. Universities

collect and store a vast amount of sensitive data, such as Social Security numbers, health

records, financial data, and intellectual property. Therefore, data security is critical to prevent

data breaches or leaks, which can result in significant financial, legal, and reputational

damages. Universities must follow data security protocols and guidelines to protect data from

unauthorized access or theft.

Moreover, data management is a continuous process, and universities must update and

archive data regularly. For instance, research data must be stored and preserved for long

periods for future reference and replication; student data must be regularly updated to ensure

its accuracy and completeness. In conclusion, data management is an essential aspect of

university operations. It facilitates data accessibility, accuracy, security, and enables

universities to make data-driven decisions to improve its operational efficiency and student

outcomes.

Concept of Modern Technology for Efficient University Data Management

12
 Modern technology has fundamentally transformed the way universities manage their

data. In today’s fast-paced digital world, universities need to leverage technology to

efficiently collect, store, monitor, and analyse data. With the right technology solutions,

universities can streamline their data management processes, making them more effective in

managing student records, financial aid systems, and academic performance analysis.

One of the most significant impacts of modern technology in university data

management is the ability to collect data remotely and in real-time, allowing for immediate

analysis and decision-making. For example, data mining and analytics tools make it easy for

universities to spot trends and identify areas of improvement in their academic programs,

ultimately enabling them to make data-driven decisions. Technology has also impacted the

university data management in the aspect of collection and transmission of data within and

outside the institution, as data can now be collected and transmitted with out physical contact

with students or staffs through the use of internet, electronic mails and other social media

platforms.

Moreover, the introduction of cloud-based data storage systems has revolutionized the

way universities store and access data. Universities can now store their data on the cloud,

providing remote access to students, faculty, and staff from anywhere in the world. This

enables universities to have more sophisticated information systems compared to

conventional storage methods. Cloud-based systems are also highly secure, thereby assuring

students and faculty that their data is safe from cyber threats and unauthorized access.

In conclusion, modern technology has revolutionized the way universities manage

their data. With advanced data management techniques such as real-time data collection,

analysis, and cloud-based storage systems, universities can leverage the advantages of

technology to collect, store, and manage data more efficiently. By keeping up with

13
technological advancements, universities can offer better learning experiences to students,

generate improved academic performance data, and ultimately spend less time and money on

data management tasks.

Benefits of modern technology for university data management

Modern technology has significantly revolutionized the ways in which universities

manage their data. Here are some of the top benefits of using modern technology for

university data management:

1. Improved Efficiency: With the growing volume of data, many university data

management systems become outdated, not to mention overloaded. With modern

technology, it is possible to manage data efficiently and enhance data management

processes, thereby increasing productivity.

2. More Accurate Data: Modern technology provides universities with better tools and

mechanisms to collect, store, and analyse data. The accuracy of a university’s data

depends on the technology in use, and that is why modern technology is essential for

data accuracy.

3. Enhanced Data Security: Universities often have confidential data that must be

protected to comply with data protection regulations. Modern technology provides

robust security features that include data encryption and firewall mechanisms that

protect the data from breaches and unauthorized access.

4. Better Collaboration: University departments across different campuses and

geographies are constantly sharing data. Collaborative platforms provided by modern

technology enable easy sharing of data, even across multiple locations.

14
5. Improved Decision-Making: With modern data management technology, data can be

analysed and made available to decision-makers much faster. This allows for quicker

decision-making which can greatly benefit the university’s future success.

6. Simplified Data Recovery: When a university’s data system goes down, it can cause

significant damage to its operations. With modern data storage systems, data recovery

is now much simpler and quicker.

7. Cost savings: By adopting modern technology, universities save significant amounts

of money that would have otherwise been spent on manual paper-based data

management systems. Automated data management systems reduce operational costs

and facilitate efficient utilization of resources.

8. Accessibility: Modern technology provides easy access to data, which is crucial for

faster decision-making processes in universities. By using cloud-based systems and

web-based applications, university staff and students can access data from anywhere,

anytime, and on any device with internet connectivity.

9. Improved student satisfaction: Modern technology enables universities to provide

more personalized learning experiences for their students. With digital assessment

tools, online learning platforms, and virtual classrooms, students can access

coursework and support materials at their convenience, leading to greater satisfaction

and academic success.

10. Improved staff level of technological proficiency: Employing modern technology

for data management in universities improves the level of technical proficiency

among staff. By developing skills in software programs and data analysis software,

staff members become more technologically proficient and better equipped to

undertake their roles.

15
 11. Enhanced feedback system: Modern technology provides an efficient feedback

system for universities. Feedback from students and tutors can be gathered through

online surveys and evaluation programs, leading to improved communication and

response times.

12. Improved data transmission: Modern technology allows universities to efficiently

transmit and store data. This leads to faster and streamlined data processing, leading

to better management of academic records, student data, and improved decision-

making. Additionally, with improved data storage and retrieval, university staff can

track trends in academic performance easily, empowering them to make decisions that

enhance the quality of education delivered to students.

Problem Associated with Using Modern Technology for University Data Management

In recent years, many universities have adopted modern technology to manage their

data. While technological advancements have made data management easier and more

efficient, there are still several problems that universities face when implementing these

systems. Here are some of the challenges universities faces when using modern technology

for data management.

1. Security concerns: One of the main concerns when using modern technology is the

security of data. Universities store sensitive information like student records, financial

data, and research data. Cybersecurity breaches and hacking attacks have become

increasingly common, and universities must ensure that their data management

systems are secure.

2. Data fragmentation: Different departments within a university often use different

systems for data management. This can lead to data fragmentation, where data is

16
 stored in multiple locations and in different formats. This makes data integration and

analysis difficult, and may result in errors and inefficiencies.

3. Training and support: Implementing modern technology solutions may require

specialized knowledge and expertise. Universities must invest in training and support

to ensure that staff knows how to use these systems effectively. Inadequate training

can lead to errors, inefficiencies, and reduced productivity.

4. Cost: Implementing modern technology solutions can be expensive, especially for

universities with limited budgets. The cost of hardware, software, and ongoing

maintenance can be significant. It can also be difficult to justify these costs when the

benefits are not immediately apparent.

Strategies for Improving the Use of Modern Technology for Efficient University Data

Management

While there are several challenges associated with using modern technology for data

management, these systems bring many benefits as well. To ensure that universities can

maximize the efficiency and usefulness of their data management systems, they should

consider implementing the following strategies:

1. Develop a comprehensive data management strategy: Universities should have a

clear and comprehensive data management strategy that outlines their goals and

objectives. This strategy should be developed in consultation with key stakeholders

and should address the current and future needs of the university.

2. Invest in cybersecurity: Cybersecurity is an essential component of modern

technology solutions. Universities should invest in robust security measures to protect

their data from breaches, hacking attacks, and other cyber threats.

17
 3. Encourage data integration: Universities should encourage the integration of data

across different departments and systems. This can be achieved through data

standardization, the use of common data platforms, and the development of policies

and procedures to facilitate data integration.

4. Implement adequate training and support: Adequate training and support are

crucial when implementing modern technology solutions. Universities must invest in

training for staff and provide ongoing support to ensure that staff can use these

systems effectively.

5. Develop a cost-effective approach: Implementing modern technology solutions can

be expensive, but there are ways to reduce costs. Universities should explore options

like cloud-based solutions, open-source software, and partnerships with other

universities and organizations to reduce costs.

Summary of Reviewed Literature

The reviewed literature critically examined the concept of modern technology. Form

the reviewed literature, Modern technology refers to advancements and innovations made in

various fields such as computing, telecommunications, transportation, medicine, energy, and

many others. This was followed by discuss on the concept of data and university data. From

the reviewed literature, data refers to the pieces of information that are collected, processed,

and analyzed in order to inform decision making, research, or other activities. University data

was referred to as any information related to the activities and operations of a university,

including its students, faculty, staff, courses, finances, and facilities. The reviewed literature

also examined the concept of management where management was referred to as, the

planning, organizing, controlling, coordinating, directing and utilizing the human, material,

18
information, and fiscal resources efficiently, for the effective accomplishment of

predetermined goals.

The literature reviewed further examined the concept of data management and

university data management. It was discovered that data management refers to the process of

collecting, storing, organizing, maintaining, and utilizing data in a way that promotes

efficient and effective access, analysis, and use. While university data management refers to

the process of organizing, categorizing, maintaining, protecting, and archiving data related to

the institution’s academic, operational, and administrative activities.

The literature reviewed also examined the concept of modern technology for efficient

University Data Management. It was discovered that modern technology has impacted

university data management systems in diverse aspects such as the aspect of data collection,

analysis, storage, decision making and so on. The literature reviewed as so unveiled the

benefits of using modern technology in managing university data.

The reviewed literature examined the Problems Associated with Using Modern

Technology for University Data Management. these problems include: Security concerns;

Data fragmentation; Training and support; and Cost. Finally, the reviewed literature

examined the Strategies that can be employed to tackle the problems that are encountered

when modern technology is used in managing university data. The strategies that where

mentioned includes development of a comprehensive data management strategy, investment

in cybersecurity, implement adequate training and support, develop a cost-effective approach.

19