MODULE 3

• ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING

• ULTRASONIC MACHINING
• ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
(EDM)

Its a manufacturing process whereby a desired shape

is obtained using electrical discharges (sparks).
EDM spark erosion is the same
as having an electrical short that
burns a small hole in a piece of
metal it contacts.
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) is an electro-thermal non-
traditional machining process, where electrical energy is used to
generate electrical spark and material removal mainly occurs due to
thermal energy of the spark.

 EDM is mainly used to machine difficult-to-machine materials and

high strength temperature resistant alloys.
 EDM can be used to machine difficult geometries in small batches
or even on job-shop basis.
 Work material to be machined by EDM has to be electrically
conductive.
The EDM process can be used in two different ways:

1. A preshaped or formed electrode (tool),usually made from

graphite or copper, is shaped to the form of the cavity it is to
reproduce. The formed electrode is fed vertically down and
the reverse shape of the electrode is eroded (burned) into the
solid workpiece.

2. A continuous-travelling vertical-wire electrode, the diameter

of a small needle or less, is controlled by the computer to follow
a programmed path to erode or cut a narrow slot through the
workpiece to produce the required shape.
EDM - Process

Schematic representation of the basic working principle of EDM process

In EDM,
 A potential difference is applied between the tool and workpiece.
 Both the tool and the work material are to be conductors of
electricity. The tool and the work material are immersed in a
dielectric medium.
 A gap is maintained between the tool and the workpiece.
 Depending upon the applied potential difference and the gap between
the tool and workpiece, an electric field would be established.
 Generally the tool is connected to the negative terminal of the
generator and the workpiece is connected to positive terminal.

 As the electric field is established between the tool and the job, the
free electrons on the tool are subjected to electrostatic forces.

 If the work function or the bonding energy of the electrons is less,

electrons would be emitted from the tool (assuming it to be
connected to the negative terminal).

 Such emission of electrons are called or termed as cold emission.

 “Cold emitted” electrons are then accelerated towards the job
through the dielectric medium.

 As they gain velocity and energy, and start moving towards the job,
there would be collisions between the electrons and dielectric
molecules.

 Such collision may result in ionisation of the dielectric molecule

depending upon the work function or ionisation energy of the
dielectric molecule and the energy of the electron.

 Thus, as the electrons get accelerated, more positive ions and

electrons would get generated due to collisions.
 This cyclic process would increase the concentration of electrons and
ions in the dielectric medium between the tool and the job at the
spark gap.

 Concentration would be so high that the matter existing in that

channel could be characterised as “plasma”.

 Electrical resistance of such plasma channel would be very less.

 Thus all of a sudden, a large number of electrons will flow from the
tool to the job and ions from the job to the tool.

 This is called avalanche motion of electrons.

EDM – Working Principle
 Such movement of electrons and ions can be visually seen as a spark.

 Thus the electrical energy is dissipated as the thermal energy of the

spark.

 High speed electrons then impinge on the job and ions on the tool.

 Kinetic energy of the electrons and ions on impact with the surface of
the job and tool respectively would be converted into thermal energy or
heat flux.

 Such intense localised heat flux leads to extreme instantaneous confined

rise in temperature which would be in excess of 10,000°C.
 Such localised extreme rise in temperature leads to material removal.

 Material removal occurs due to instant vapourisation of the material as

well as due to melting.

 The molten metal is not removed completely but only partially.

 As the potential difference is withdrawn, the plasma channel is no

longer sustained.

 As the plasma channel collapse, it generates pressure or shock waves,

which evacuates the molten material forming a crater of removed
material around the site of the spark.
Material removal in EDM mainly occurs
due to formation of shock waves as the
plasma channel collapse owing to
discontinuation of applied potential
difference.
EDM Schematic
Process Parameters The waveform is characterised
by the
• The open circuit voltage - Vo
• The working voltage - Vw
• The maximum current - Io
• The pulse on time – the
duration for which the voltage
pulse is applied - ton
• The pulse off time - toff
• The gap between the
workpiece and the tool – spark
gap - δ
• The polarity – straight
polarity – tool (-ve)
• The dielectric medium
• External flushing through the
spark gap.
 Characteristics of EDM
(a) The process can be used to machine any work material if it is
electrically conductive

(b) Material removal depends on mainly thermal properties of the work

material rather than its strength, hardness etc

(c) In EDM there is a physical tool and geometry of the tool is the
positive impression of the hole or geometric feature machined

(d) The tool has to be electrically conductive as well. The tool wear once
again depends on the thermal properties of the tool material
(e) Though the local temperature rise is rather high, still due to very
small pulse on time, there is not enough time for the heat to diffuse
and thus almost no increase in bulk temperature takes place.

Thus the heat affected zone is limited to 2 – 4 μm of the spark crater

(f) However rapid heating and cooling and local high temperature
leads to surface hardening which may be desirable in some
applications

(g) Though there is a possibility of taper cut and overcut in EDM, they
can be controlled and compensated.
Schematic depiction of taper cut and over cut and control of taper cut
 Dielectric – low viscosity hydrocarbon oil
 Dielectric fluid should provide an oxygen free machining
environment.

 It should have enough strong dielectric resistance so that it does not

breakdown electrically too easily but at the same time ionise when
electrons collide with its molecule.

 During sparking it should be thermally resistant as well.

 Dielectric
Generally kerosene and deionised water is used as dielectric fluid in
EDM.

Tap water cannot be used as it ionises too early and thus breakdown
due to presence of salts as impurities occur.

Dielectric medium is generally flushed around the spark zone. It is also

applied through the tool to achieve efficient removal of molten material.
FLUSHING OF DIELECTRIC

Flushing refers to proper circulation of dielectric fluid at the gap

between the work and electrode tool in EDM
TYPES OF FLUSHING
EDM Tool Material
TOOL MATERIAL USED IN EDM AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
 EDM Equipment
EDM machine has the following major modules

• Dielectric reservoir, pump and circulation system

• Power generator and control unit
• Working tank with work holding device
• X-y table accommodating the working table
• Tool holder
• Servo system to feed the tool
EDM - APPLICATIONS
Wire Cut Electric Discharge Machining (WEDM)
 A thin metallic wire is fed on-to the workpiece, which is submerged
in a tank of dielectric fluid such as deionized water.

 This process can also cut plates as thick as 300mm and is used for
making punches, tools and dies from hard metals that are difficult to
machine with other methods.

 The wire, which is constantly fed from a spool, is held between

upper and lower diamond guides.
 Guides are usually CNC-controlled and move in the x–y plane.

 On most machines, the upper guide can move independently in the

z–u–v axis, giving it a flexibility to cut tapered and transitioning shapes
 Wires made of brass are generally preferred, (also uses copper or
tungsten or brass coated and multi coated wires).

 Water helps in flushing away the debris from the cutting zone.

 Flushing also helps to determine the feed rates to be given for

different thickness of the materials
Wire-cut EDM Process - SCHEMATIC
PROCESS OF MATERIAL REMOVAL IN WIRE CUT EDM

 In the WEDM process, the motion of wire is slow.

 Wire is fed in the programmed path and material is cut/

removed from the workpiece accordingly.

 Material removal takes place by a series of discrete discharges

between the wire electrode and workpiece in the presence of a
di-electric fluid.
• Di-electric fluid gets ionized in between the tool-electrode gap
thereby creating a path for each discharge.

• Area wherein discharge takes place gets heated to very high

temperatures such that the surface gets melted and removed.

• Cut particles (debris) get flushed away by the continuously flowing

dielectric fluid.
STEP BY STEP
PROCEDURE
 WEDM - APPLICATIONS
Wire EDM is used for cutting aluminium, brass, copper, carbides,
graphite, steels and titanium
 Aerospace, Medical, Electronics and Semiconductor applications
 Tool & Die making industries.
 For cutting the hard Extrusion Dies
 In making Fixtures, Gauges & Cams
 Cutting of Gears, Strippers, Punches and Dies
 Manufacturing hard Electrodes.
 Manufacturing micro-tooling for Micro-EDM, Micro-USM and
such other micromachining applications
 MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF EDMed COMPONENTS
REVEALS THE PRESENCE OF 3 KINDS OF LAYERS

 RECAST Layer
 HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ)
 CONVERTED Layer
RECAST LAYER

If molten material from the workpiece is not flushed

out quickly, it will resolidify and harden due to the
cooling effect of the dielectric and gets adhered to the
machined surface. This thin layer of about 2.5-50 µm is
formed and is called re-cast layer.
 HAZ
 Beneath the recast layer, a HAZ is formed due to rapid
heating and quenching cycles during EDM.
 Layer is approximately 25 µm thick.
 Heating-cooling cycle and diffused material during machining
are the responsible reasons for the presence of this zone.
 Thermal residual stresses, grain boundary weaknesses, and
grain boundary cracks are some of the characteristics of this
zone.
Conversion zone (or converted layer) is identified below
the HAZ and is characterized by a change in grain
structure from the original structure
 ULTRASONIC
MACHINING (USM)
USM PROCESS
 ULTRASONIC MACHINING

 In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an

ultrasonic frequency (19~25 kHz) with an amplitude of around 15 –
50 μm over the workpiece.

 Generally the tool is pressed downward with a feed force, F.

 Between the tool and workpiece, the machining zone is flooded with
hard abrasive particles generally in the form of a water based slurry.

 As the tool vibrates over the workpiece, the abrasive particles act as
the indenters and indent both the work material and the tool.
Abrasive particles, as they indent, the work material,
would remove the same, particularly if the work material
is brittle, due to crack initiation, propagation and brittle
fracture of the material.

Hence, USM is mainly used for machining brittle

materials {which are poor conductors of electricity and
thus cannot be processed by Electrochemical and Electro-
discharge machining (ECM and ED)}.
Mechanisms of Material Removal in USM
 Material removal primarily occurs due to the indentation of
the hard abrasive grits on the brittle work material. As the
tool vibrates, it leads to indentation of the abrasive grits.

 During indentation, due to Hertzian contact stresses, cracks

would develop just below the contact site, then as indentation
progresses the cracks would propagate due to increase in
stress and ultimately lead to brittle fracture of the work
material under each individual interaction site between the
abrasive grits and the workpiece.
 Tool material should be such that indentation by the
abrasive grits does not lead to brittle failure.

 Thus the tools are made of tough, strong and ductile

materials like steel, stainless steel and other ductile
metallic alloys.
 Other than this brittle failure of the work material due to
indentation some material removal may occur due to free
flowing impact of the abrasives against the work material and
related solid-solid impact erosion, but it is estimated to be
rather insignificant.
Process Parameters and their Effects
 Amplitude of vibration (ao) – 15 – 50 μm
 Frequency of vibration (f) – 19 – 25 kHz
 Feed force (F) – related to tool dimensions
 Feed pressure (p)
 Abrasive size – 15 μm – 150 μm
 Abrasive material – Al2O3 - SiC - B4C - Boronsilicarbide -
Diamond
 Flow strength of work material
 Flow strength of the tool material
 Contact area of the tool – A
 Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry – C
Effect of machining parameters on MRR
Effect of machining parameters on MRR
Effect of machining parameters on MRR
 USM Machine
 The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar to
a drill press.

 However, it has additional features to carry out USM of

brittle work material.

 Workpiece is mounted on a vice, which can be located at

the desired position under the tool using a 2 axis table.

 Table can further be lowered or raised to accommodate

work of different thickness.
The typical elements of an USM are

• Slurry delivery and return system

• Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed
force on the tool during machining
• Transducer, which generates the ultrasonic
vibration
• Horn or concentrator, which mechanically
amplifies the vibration to the required amplitude
of 15 – 50 μm and accommodates the tool at its
tip
Schematic view of an
Ultrasonic Machine
 The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the
transducer.
 The transducer is driven by suitable signal
generator followed by power amplifier.
 The transducer for USM works on the following
principle
Piezoelectric effect
Magnetostrictive effect
Electrostrictive effect
 Working of horn as mechanical amplifier of amplitude of vibration

The horn or concentrator is a wave-guide, which amplifies and

concentrates the vibration to the tool from the transducer.
The horn or concentrator can be of different shape like
• Tapered or conical
• Exponential
• Stepped
Applications of USM
 Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys,
semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.
 Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped
holes and surface impressions.
 Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking
dies.
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING
 In the actual process of ECM, the cathode is tool
shaped(mirror image of work-piece) and anode is the work-
piece.
 A gap(0.05 to 0.7 mm) is provided between the tool and work-
piece and electrolyte flows through the gap at a velocity of 30 to
60 m/s and it completes the electrical circuit.
 Electrolyte is pumped at high pressure of 20 kgf/cm2(1.96 MPa)
through the gap.
 Electrolyte must be circulated at a rate sufficiently high to
conduct current between them and to carry heat.
 Metal is removed from the work-piece by dissolution
The electric current is of the order of 50 to 40,000 A at 5
to 35 V D.C for current density of 20 to 300 A/cm2.
Power of 3 KWh is needed to remove 16 cm3 of metal
which is almost 30 times the energy required in the
conventional process(when the material is readily
machinable).
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a metal-removal process
based on the principle of reverse electroplating (means it
removes metal instead of adding it)

 In this process, particles travel from the anodic material

(workpiece) toward the cathodic material (machining tool).
 A current of electrolyte fluid carries away the deplated
material before it has a chance to reach the machining tool.
 The cavity produced is the female mating image of the tool
shape.
 Similar to EDM, the workpiece hardness is not a
factor, making ECM suitable for machining difficult-to
–machine materials.

 Difficult shapes can be made by this process on

materials regardless of their hardness.

 The ECM tool is positioned very close to the

workpiece and a low voltage, high amperage DC
current is passed between the workpiece and
electrode.
 Principle
Faraday’s law of electrolysis :
Weight of the substance produced during
electrolysis process is directly proportional to
1.the current which passes
2.the length of time of process
3.The equivalent weight of the material
 Two dissimilar metals are in contact with an electrolyte
and anode loses metal to cathode
•Anode : Workpiece
•Cathode : Tool
•Electrolyte : An electrically conductive fluid

Schematic principle of ECM

PROCESS
PARAMETERS
ECM
PROCESS
Main sub sytem
 Power Supply
Power Supply
 Electrolyte  Available in sizes upto 10,000
 Tool amp (some circuits are
 The Control system available upto 40,000amp)
 The machine  Range of voltage – 2 to 30 volts
d.c.
 A constant voltage has to
be maintained and high
density is required
Electrolyte
 Essential for electrolytic process
 It cools the cutting zone which becomes hot due to the flow of
high current
 Neutral salts are used as electrolyte in place of highly
corrosive acids and alkalies
 Electrolyte solution is pumped between the tool/workpiece
gap at about 2.5 N/mm2 and 30 m/s
Tool
Requirements of Tool For ECM :
 Good thermal conductivity
 Strong enough to withstand high pressures
 It should be easily machined

 Material for tool : Copper,brass or stainless steel

 Outer insulation material : Vinyl, Teflon, epoxy, enables or

high temperature varnish
The control system
• Control Parameters include
 Voltage
 Inlet and outlet pressure of electrolyte
 Temperature of electrolyte

• The current is dependent on above parameters

and feed rate
Parts made by ECM
Advantages of ECM
 The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical stress.
 No tool wear during ECM process.
 Fragile parts can be machined easily as there is no stress involved.
 ECM deburring can debur difficult to access areas of parts.
 High surface finish (up to 25 μm in) can be achieved by ECM process.
 Complex geometrical shapes in high-strength materials particularly in
the aerospace industry for the mass production of turbine blades, jet-
engine parts and nozzles can be machined repeatedly and accurately.
 Deep holes can be made by this process.
Limitations of ECM

 ECM is not suitable to produce sharp square corners

or flat bottoms because of the tendency for the
electrolyte to erode away sharp profiles.

 ECM can be applied to most metals but, due to the

high equipment costs, is usually used primarily for
highly specialised applications.
Material removal rate, MRR, in electrochemical
machining:

MRR = C .I. h (cm3/min)

C: specific (material) removal rate (e.g., 0.2052
cm3/amp-min for nickel);
I: current (amp);
h: current efficiency (90–100%).
 The rates at which metal can electrochemically remove
are in proportion to the current passed through the
electrolyte and the elapsed time for that operation.

 Many factors other than current influence the rate of

machining.
These involve electrolyte type, rate of
electrolyte flow, and some other process conditions.