1.

INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF

LANGUAGE
1.1 What is the Philosophy of Language Concerned
with?
What is Language?
One of the most important movements in modern
philosophy is the philosophy of language. It's a big
movement, not totally united, but linked by a way of
thinking that focuses on how language shapes our
thoughts and our understanding of reality. Throughout
history, thinkers have looked at how language works,
but it was in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that
this approach became widespread. This change is often
called the "linguistic turn." This new focus on
language also brought the belief that studying language
can help solve traditional philosophical problems by
either finding solutions or showing that some problems
are misunderstandings of how language works.
Science became another important topic for
philosophy, besides the focus on language. Some
philosophers wanted philosophy to be as exact and
scientific as science. Others warned that being too
scientific could make philosophy miss the full
complexity of reality.
The movement that tried to make philosophy more
scientific is called analytical philosophy. It is closely
related to the philosophy of language.
The same thinkers are seen as inspirations for both
analytical philosophy and philosophy of language:
Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein,
G. E. Moore, and the logical positivists of the Vienna
Circle. These thinkers also helped develop modern
logic. That's why philosophy of language is sometimes
taught together with logic.
In English-speaking countries, philosophy of language
usually focuses on a specific set of topics and authors.
But the topic of language is much broader. We'll look
at the broader understanding of philosophy of language
here.
The main topics of philosophy of language are: the
nature of meaning, how language is used, our
knowledge of language, and the relationship between
language and reality. In the broader view, it also
includes: how language is made and learned,
translation, understanding, the metaphorical nature of
language, the role of language in social reality, its
impact on relationships, and even on self-identity.
Language is a complex system of symbols used for
communication. The most common examples are
human languages, which started as spoken words and
later developed written forms. In a general sense, other
systems like road signs, gestures, math and logic, and
computer languages can also be considered languages.
Language is connected to the human ability to learn
and use symbol systems for sharing information.

1.2 Why Get Interested in the Philosophy of

Language?
When humans started using language to communicate,
it was only a matter of time before language itself
became a subject of interest. We use language to
describe the world and ask questions, so it's natural to
wonder about the nature of language. What makes it
special? How does it help us communicate and
understand each other? And how does it influence our
perception of reality?
Animals also have ways of communicating, but their
communication is different from ours. For example, a
cat doesn't think about milk in the same way we do. It
just knows that milk is important for its survival. But
humans have much more complex needs and ways of
communicating. We have phones, airplanes, and
healthcare systems, and we use language to talk about
these things.
Language is important because it helps us
communicate and understand each other. It also helps
us think about the world and our place in it. We can use
language to describe our experiences and share our
knowledge with others. But language can also be used
to manipulate and control others.
The origin of language is thought to be connected with
basic needs, such as warning about danger or finding
food. When language was created, it doubled our
reality. We now have thoughts and concepts about the
world, which can influence us just as much as the real
world.
The study of philosophy began when humans started
using complex language. People started asking
questions like, "How can we put our experiences and
knowledge into words?" and "How can we use
language to our benefit or to manipulate others?" This
led to the need to understand and control language.
Aristotle believed that understanding the meaning of a
word involves classifying it correctly within a
structured system of language.
To really know ourselves, we need to understand
language. Language is what makes us different from
other living things. The most important questions about
language are not just about facts we can see or hear.
They are deeper questions that try to understand the
meaning behind language. These are philosophical
questions. So, to truly gain knowledge, we also need to
study the philosophy of language.

1.3 Who and How Studies the Language?

Language has been a topic of interest for thinkers and
scholars throughout history. Here's a brief overview of
how language is studied today:
Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of language as a
system. It was founded by Ferdinand de Saussure, who
analyzed language as a formal system of symbols
where the meaning of a symbol is defined by its
relationship to other symbols.
Cognitive Linguistics
Cognitive linguistics is a field within cognitive science
that focuses on explaining the mental structures and
processes involved in language acquisition,
understanding, and production. It aims to create a
comprehensive theory on the connection between the
structural and procedural aspects of linguistic
knowledge.
Other Specialized Areas
There are several other specialized areas of language
research, including:
Neurolinguistics - studies the neural mechanisms
underlying language
Psycholinguistics - examines the psychological
processes involved in language
Evolutionary Linguistics - investigates the origins and
evolution of language
Comparative Linguistics - compares different
languages to understand their similarities and
differences
Sociolinguistics - studies the relationship between
language and society
Computational Linguistics - applies computational
methods to the study of language
Philosophy of Language
The philosophy of language is an attempt to address
traditional philosophical issues using the
"mathematical" mindset of the 20th century. It includes
features like analysis, anti-psychologism in logic,
logical analysis, and the primacy of the philosophy of
language over metaphysics. However, the boundaries
of this approach are not always clearly defined.
Overall, the study of language involves a diverse range
of disciplines and approaches, each with its own focus
and methods. While these approaches may overlap in
some areas, they collectively contribute to our
understanding of this complex and fascinating aspect
of human cognition and communication.
1.4 The Role of Philosophy and Cognitive Sciences
in Studying Language
Understanding language deeply and creating practical
tools for it come largely from cognitive science fields.
For example, as I write this, a computer program is
checking my spelling. If I make a mistake and use a
word that doesn't exist in Slovak, the program will
underline it. This is simple: the program just checks if
the word is in its list of correct words.
However, making programs that read text like humans
do is much harder, but such programs do exist. Even
more difficult is creating programs that can listen to
speech, analyze it, and turn it into written text.
These tasks are mainly technical challenges. But when
we try to create machine translation between
languages, the problem of understanding meaning
becomes very important, which is a deeply
philosophical issue. There are different theories about
what meaning is. Some focus on experience, others on
innate ideas, the relationship between concepts, the
conditions under which a word is valid, how words are
used, and their practical implications. Each theory
highlights different aspects of meaning.
We've made initial progress in machine translation and
programs that can hold conversations. However,
mistakes show that our understanding of meaning is
still limited.
These problems inspire modern thinkers to explore
language and meaning. To understand why different
thinkers have their views on language and meaning, we
need to consider their work and the times they lived in.
For instance, Frege, who influenced many with his
ideas about meaning, was focused on precision in
mathematical proofs. He sought new foundations
because he found existing arguments for thoroughness
unsatisfactory. His approach to meaning reflects this
focus. Frege knew he was dealing with just a small part
of knowledge and did not aim to create a universal
theory of meaning for all areas of life. His pursuit of
precision helps science improve, but broader questions
about the nature and direction of science open up a
wider understanding of meaning.
2. INSIGHT TO THE HISTORY
2.1 Master Chuang
From the early days of thinking about philosophy,
many thinkers realized that language is a powerful tool
for communication, but it also has its limitations.
Words and sentences can't fully capture the meaning
behind them; meaning goes beyond what can be
spoken or written. One of the earliest thinkers to grasp
this idea was Master Chuang (around the 4th–3rd
century BC), an early Daoist philosopher.
Master Chuang believed that while language is
important, it can also be an obstacle to understanding
the Dao, or the "way." He thought that names and
words are just artificial ways of looking at reality and
don't fully capture it. He often made fun of logical,
rational thinking and used humor to explore ideas,
including making fun of himself.
For Master Chuang, words are like tools: they are
useful for expressing ideas, but once the idea is
understood, the words themselves become less
important. He illustrated this with an analogy: a net is
used to catch fish, but once the fish is caught, we no
longer need the net. Similarly, a trap is used to catch a
rabbit, but once the rabbit is caught, we don't need the
trap anymore. Words are used to express meaning, but
once the meaning is understood, the words themselves
can be forgotten.
Master Chuang's point is that while words are
necessary for communication, they can also limit our
understanding if we focus too much on them. To truly
understand someone, we need to go beyond their words
and understand the meaning behind them.
He also believed that arguing about opinions is
pointless because there's no single perspective that can
capture how things "really" are. True understanding
comes from seeing reality directly, not from getting
caught up in language or the pride of thinking we can
explain everything with words.
In summary, Master Chuang reflected deeply on the
role of language. He believed that while language is
necessary, it should ultimately lead us to a deeper
understanding that goes beyond words, showing us the
fullness of life. This pragmatic approach to language
makes him an early advocate of looking at the practical
aspects of life.
2.2 Nagarjuna: Borders of Rationality
Nagarjuna, a Buddhist philosopher from ancient India
(around the 2nd - 3rd century), believed that even the
most logical theories are actually confusing and
irrational. He thought that our thinking relies on the
ideas of identity (being the same) and difference (being
different), but these ideas don't really make sense and
don't refer to anything real. Absolute difference would
mean complete separation, which makes things
irrelevant. Therefore, language doesn't describe things
accurately; it only refers to itself. Our deepest problems
come from sticking to certain ways of thinking and
assumptions.
To explain the illusions created by language,
Nagarjuna gave an example: the sentence "Milan is
walking" makes it seem like Milan and the walking are
separate. However, without Milan, there wouldn't be
any walking, and without walking, it wouldn't be the
same Milan. "Milan" and "is walking" cannot be
separated, but language makes us think they can be.
Language hides the true inseparability of events.
Language also creates the illusion that Milan is
unchanged. Even when Milan is not walking, we still
think of him as the same Milan, unchanged by his
actions. In reality, our actions change us. The idea that
Milan's identity doesn't change leads to the belief in an
unchanging "self" (atman), a concept criticized by
Buddhists. This belief in an unchanging self comes
from the way language is constructed. "Milan" and "the
walking" are neither completely separate nor identical;
we should find a middle way.
This understanding leads to the idea that contrasts are
always connected. For example, black and white are
different but also dependent on each other. This
relationship between identity and difference is later
called non-duality by another Indian thinker, Shankara.
Language cannot fully overcome duality, just like a
picture cannot go beyond its two dimensions.
However, understanding non-duality gives us a new
way to see reality.
2.3 John Locke
M. Morris begins their book on the philosophy of
language by summarizing John Locke's key ideas
about language. John Locke (1632–1704) explored the
content of the human mind, focusing on ideas, which
led him to certain views on language. Some aspects of
his ideas were later accepted and expanded upon by
thinkers like the mathematician and logician Gottlob
Frege (1848–1925), while others were rejected.
Here are Locke's key ideas about language:
Nature of Language (L1): The nature of language is
determined by its function.
Function of Language (L2): The function of language
is to enable communication.
Thinking and Language (L3): Thinking is considered
to be what is communicated through language.
Words and Communication (L4): Words represent
component of what is communicated through
language.
Ideas and Thinking (L5): The components of thinking
are ideas.
Perception of Ideas (L6): One person's ideas cannot be
directly perceived by another person.
Words and Meaning (L7): The relationship between
words and what they represent is arbitrary.
Essence of Words (L8): Words do not inherently carry
meaning.
According to M. Morris, the analytical tradition
adopted ideas (L1), (L2), (L7), and (L8), but not the
others.
Gottlob Frege was concerned that basing mathematical
proofs on something as subjective as thoughts in people's
minds was problematic. This led him to significantly revise
some of Locke's long-accepted ideas about language.