UNNATHI – 2023

(Short Notes for Plus Two Students)

PATHANAMTHITTA
 CHAPTER 1: ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
Quantisation of charge: Charge of any body is an integral multiple of an electronic charge.
i.e., q=±ne where n=1,2,3,.... & e=1.6 x 10−19 C
Coulomb’s Law: The electrostatic force between two stationary point charges is directly
proportional to the product of magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
1 q 1 q2
i.e., F= . 2 where ‘ε0’ is the ‘permittivity of free space’, ε0=8.85 x 10−12 C 2 N −1 m−2
4 π ε0 r
Unit of Electric Field: NC – 1 or Vm – 1
Properties of lines of force
1) They start from positive charge and end at negative charge.
2) Never intersect each other.
3) They are continuous.
4) They do not form closed loops.

+ -

Electric Dipole

Electric Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance.
Electric Dipole Moment ( ⃗p ): It is the product of one of the charges and length of the dipole.
i.e., p=q x 2 a=2 aq
It is a vector directed from ‘-q’ to ‘+q’ & unit: Cm (coulomb metre).
Electric Field due to an electric dipole
1) Field along the axial line:
1 q
E+q = ..... (1)
4 π ε0 (r−a)2
1 q 1 2p
E−q = ..... (2) E=
∴ Total electric field, E=E +q−E−q or ⃗ ..... (3)
4 πε0 (r +a)2 4 π ε0 r 3
The field is in the direction of the dipole moment.

2) Field along the equatorial line:

1 q 1 q
E+q = ..... (1) E−q = ..... (2)
4 π ε0 (r + a )
2 2
4 πε0 (r +a2 )
2

1 p
∴ Total electric field, E= ..... (4)
4 π ε0 r 3
The field is opposite and parallel to the direction of the
dipole moment.
* Eaxial = 2×Eequatorial

Torque on an Electric Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field

Torque , ⃗τ =Force x Perpendicular distance
i.e., τ =qE x BC =qE x 2 a sin θ =pE sin θ
In vector form, ⃗τ =⃗p x ⃗
E
In a uniform electric field, the net
force on the dipole is ZERO but there is
Torque.
In a non-uniform electric field, the
net force is NOT zero; there is translatory
motion in addition to torque

Gauss’s Theorem: The total electric flux through a closed surface is 1/ ε0 times the net charge
enclosed by the closed surface.
1
i.e., Φ= ε x q
0

Proof:
1 q
E=
Electric field at any point on the surface is ⃗
4 π ε0 r 2
q
Total flux through the entire surface, Φ=∫s E dS= ε
0
Applications of Gauss’s Law
1) Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire
Total flux, Φ=E x 2 π rl ....... (1)
1
Gauss’s theorem, Φ= ε x q ...... (2)
0

Total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q=λ l ...... (3)

1 λ
E= ..... (4)
2 π ε0 r
2) Field due to an infinite plane sheet of charge

1
Total flux, Φ=E x 2 A ....... (1) Gauss’s theorem, Φ= ε x q .... (2)
0

Total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q=σ A ...... (3) E= σ ..... (3)
2 ε0
3) Field due to a spherical shell of charge
I. Outside the shell:
Flux through Gaussian surface,
Φ=E x 4 π r 2 ....... (1)
1
Gauss’s theorem, Φ= ε x q ...... (2)
0

Total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,

q=4 π R2 σ ...... (3)
R2
E= εσ0 ( ) ..... (4)
r2
II. On the surface of the shell: r=R ∴ E= εσ
0

III. Inside the shell: Since total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is zero, E=0
Electrostatic shielding: The vanishing of electric field inside a charged conducting cavity.
Eg. Faraday cage, charged spherical shell, etc.
You are safe in a car during lightning because the car acts like a faraday cage (shield you
from the external field due to lightning).
 CHAPTER 2: ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
W
Electric Potential: V = W – work done, q0 – test charge (unit +ive charge).
q0
scalar & Unit is J/C (J C – 1) or volt (V).
Electron Volt (eV): 1 eV =1.6 x 10−19 J
1 qq 0 −1 qq 0
Electric potential due to a point charge: F= ..... (1) dW = dx ..... (2)
4 π ε0 x 2 4 π ε0 x 2
1 q
or W =V = ..... (3)
4 πε0 r
Electric potential due to an electric dipole
1 q −1 q
V +¿ = .... (1) V −¿ = ..... (2)
4 π ε0 r 1 4 πε0 r 2 r2

1 p cos θ r1
V= ....... (3)
4 π ε0 r 2
1) on the axial line: θ = 0° & cos 0=1
1 p
V= ....... (2)
4 π ε0 r 2
2) on the equatorial line: θ = 90° & cos 90=0
V =0 ....... (3)
Equipotential Surface: Potential is same on the surface.
Properties: 1. They never intersect. 2. Work done is zero.
3. Equipotential surface and lines of force are mutually perpendicular.
Q
Capacitance: C= unit: coulomb per volt (C/V or CV –1) or farad (F) 1CV −1=1 F
V
Parallel Plate Capacitor
Principle: When potential decreases capacitance increases.
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
Charge on a plate, Q=σ A & Potential difference, V =E d = εσ d
0

Q ε A
Capacitance, C= or C= 0
V d
If a dielectric is introduced between the plates of the capacitor, the capacitance becomes
ε0 εr A
C=
d
Methods to increase the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor:
1) Increase the area of the plates. 2) Decrease the distance between the plates.
Introduce: 3) a dielectric medium between the plates 4) a conducting slab between the plates.
Combination of Capacitors
1) Series Combination: V =V 1 +V 2 +V 3 ......... (1)
Q Q Q Q 1 1 1 1
or = + + or = + + ....... (2)
C C 1 C2 C 3 C C1 C 2 C3
The equivalent capacitance is always smaller than the
smallest individual capacitance in the combination.

2) Parallel Combination: Q=Q1 +Q 2 +Q3 ...... (1)

or CV =C 1 V +C 2 V +C 3 V or C=C1 +C 2+ C3 ....... (2)
The equivalent capacitance in a parallel connection is always larger than the largest
individual capacitance.

Energy stored in a Capacitor

1 Q2 1 2 1
U= ..... (1) U= C V ..... (2) & U= QV ..... (3)
2 C 2 2
Energy density (u): Eectrostatic potential energy stored per unit volume.
ε0 A 1 2 1 2
Substituting C= & V =Ed in U= C V , u= ε0 E
d 2 2
 Chapter 3
Current Electricity
Electric Current
I=q/t
Unit of electric current =coulomb/second=C/s =ampere (A)
Ohm’s Law
At constant temperature ,the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference between the ends of the conductor.
V∝I
V/I=R
R is called the resistance
The SI units of resistance is ohm ( Ω)
Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance.
C = 1/R
Unit of conductance is ohm-1 (Ω- 1or mho)

Which material has more resistance ?

Slope of V-I graph gives Resistance.
Slope of A is greater than B.
So material A has more resistance than B.

What are the factors on which resistance depend ?

R α l/A
l- length, A- area of cross-section
R=ρl/A
ρ-- resistivity
Unit of resistivity = Ωm
ρ=R A/ l
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity Ω-1m-1

Current density j=I/A, Unit- ampere/metre2

The average velocity attained by electrons in a conductor due to an external
electricfield is called Drift velocity. (vd )
The average time interval between two successive collisions is called relaxation
time(τ) vd ∝ τ, Relation connecting Drift Velocity and Current I= neAvd
Limitations of Ohm’s Law
Non - Ohmic Conductors
The materials and devices which do not obey Ohm’s law are called Non – Ohmic
conductors. Eg:- Semi conductors, Diodes , Transistors.
Temperature Dependence Of Resistivity
The dimension of (α ) temperature co efficient of resistivity is [Temperature] −1
and unit is K −1 . For metals α is positive. When temperature increases resistivity
increase. For semiconductors α is negative. When temperature increases resistivity
decrease. For Nichrome, Manganin and Constantan α is almost zero. When
temperature increases there is no change in resistivity. Used to make standard wire
bound resistors
Electrical Energy
H=I2RT( Joules law)
Power. Unit watt P=VI
E.M.F -Electro Motive Force (ε)
The emf ε is the potential difference between the positive and negative electrodes of
a cell in an open circuit, i.e., when no current is flowing through the cell.
Voltage (V) or p.d
The Voltage (V) is the potential difference between the positive and negative
electrodes of a cell in a closed circuit, when current is flowing through the cell.
Relation connecting emf and Voltage
Current I = EMF/ Total Resistance , I= ε / R+r ,V = ε – Ir
Internal resistance of a cell (r)
Resistance offered by the electrolytes to the flow of current through it is called
internal resistance of the cell

Kirchhoff’s Rules
(a)Kirchhoff’s First Rule - Junction Rule:
At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of
currents leaving the junction . ∑I = 0 .
Kirchhoff’s junction rule is in accordance with law of conservation of charge.
(b)Kirchhoff’s Second Rule –Loop Rule
The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop is zero. ∑ ΔV = 0
Kirchhoff’s Loop rule is in accordance with Law of conservation of energy.
Wheatstone Bridge
The balanced condition for a Wheatstone’s bridge
is at Ig=0, R1/R3= R2/R4
Apply Kirchhoff’s rule at Ig = 0.
I 2 = I 4 -------------(1)
I 1 = I 3 -------------(2)
I 1 R 1 = I 2 R 2 ----------------(3)
I 3 R 3 = I 4 R 4 ---------------(4) R1/R3 = R2/R4
 CHAPTER 4
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

Magnetic Lorentz force

Force on charge moving in a magnetic field.
F = qvB sin, q –charge, v- velocity, B – magnetic field, θ- angle between v and B.

Lorentz force
Force on charge moving in combined electric and magnetic field.
F = qE + qvB sin = qE + (v  B)

SI unit of magnetic field is tesla (T)

Force on a current carrying wire in a magneticfield

F = IlB sin
Where n - number of charges per unit volume, A- area of cross section, l – length of
the conductor and I = veNA

Motion of a charge particle in a magnetic field

Charge particle entering perpendicular to a magnetic field undergoes circular

motion.
Charge particle entering at any angle to a magnetic field undergoes helical path.

Biot-Savart law

The magnetic field at a point due to the small element of a current carrying conductor is

Magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop

The magnetic field at P due to the current element dl, at A is

Thus the total magnetic field at P due to the circular coil is

B = ∫dB cos θ
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝑹𝟐
𝐵= 𝟑
𝟐(𝒙𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 ) ⁄𝟐

𝟎𝝁 𝑰
Magnetic field at the centre of the loop 𝑩 = 𝟐𝑹
 Ampere's Circuital Law

Applications of Ampere’s circuital Law

1. Magnetic field due to a straight wire

From Ampere’s circuital law

Therefore, B  2r = 0I

0I
B=
2r

2. Magnetic field due to a solenoid

Using Ampere’s circuital law

 B.dl = Bl = 0 NI
𝑁
𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒏𝑰 Where , 𝑛 = 𝑙

Force between two parallel wires

Magnetic Field on RS due to current in PQ is

𝜇0 𝐼1
𝐵1 =
2𝜋𝑟

Force on RS due to current I2 = force on PQ due to current I1

𝝁 𝟎 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒍
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝑭 =
𝟐𝝅𝒓

Parallel currents attracts and anti-parallel currents repels.

Torque on a current Loop in a magnetic field

Moving coil galvanometer (MCG)

The torque on a coil of N turns is given by
 = NIAB

A spring Sp provides a counter torque kφ.

Thus in equilibrium k = NIAB

𝑵𝑨𝑩
𝝓= 𝒌
𝑰
 𝑁𝐴𝐵
𝜙 = 𝐺𝐼 where 𝐺 =
𝑘

𝝓 𝑵𝑨𝑩
Current Sensitivity of MCG is,
𝑰
= 𝒌

Conversion of galvanometer to ammeter

By connecting small resistance parallel

Conversion of galvanometer to voltmeter

By connecting high resistance in series

𝑉
Resistance 𝑅ℎ = 𝐼𝑔
−𝐺

CHAPTER 5
MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

Two magnetic field lines never intersect.

The tangent drawn to the field line at any point gives the direction of the field at that
point.
Gauss’s Law in magnetism

The law states that the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero ∫ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝟎
Relation connecting B , M and H
Meissner Effect: The phenomenon of perfect
diamagnetism in superconductors.
The total magnetic field B is 𝐵 = 𝜇 0 (𝐻 + 𝑀) For a superconductor, χ =−1 and μ r =0
Classification of Magnetic materials
 Chapter 6
Electromagnetic Induction
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux through a plane of area A placed in a
uniform magnetic field B can be written as ,
ф = BA cos θ
where θ is the angle between B and A.
SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb)

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of

change of magnetic flux through the circuit.

The negative sign indicates the direction of ε and hence the direction of
current in a closed loop.
Lenz’s Law
The statement of the law is: The induced emf is such that it produce a current
which opposes the change in magnetic flux
Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
Motional Electromotive Force
When a conducting rod is moved through a constant magnetic field, an emf
is developed between the ends of the rod. This emf is known as Motional
Emf.

Inductance

An electric current can be induced in a coil by flux change produced by the

same coil or a flux change produced by a neighbouring coil .These phenomena
are respectively called self induction and mutual induction. In both the cases,
the flux through a coil is proportional to the current.
фαI,
ф =L I ,The constant of proportionality, in this relation, is called inductance.
The SI unit of inductance is Henry(H)

When the current is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes
and an emf is induced in the coil.The emf induced, ε is

Self-Inductance of a Long Solenoid : solenoid of cross sectional area A

and length l, having n turns per unit length,self inductance of the

solenoid L is

Energy stored in an inductor

Current in an inductor causes magnetic field to form.Energy stored in

this field is

Mutual inductance :The phenomenon of production of induced emf

in a coil by varying the current through a neighbouring coil is called
mutual-induction.
ϕαI
ϕ=MI
Mutual inductance of two coaxial solenoids
Mutual inductance between the two coils ,
AC Generator

Chapter 7
Alternating Current
Voltage in circuit,V=Vm sin ωt
Current in circuit,𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 - 𝛑/ 𝟐 )
Voltage is ahead of current by π/2 angle.The
resistance offered by an inductor to a.c flow is
called inductive reactance.XL =ωL
Phasor diagram

AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor

Voltage in circuit,V=Vm sin ωt
Current in circuit,𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 + 𝛑/ 𝟐 )
Current is ahead of voltage by π/2 angle.
Capacitive Reactance,Xc= 𝟏 /𝛚𝐂

Phasor diagram for capacitor

 AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit

Let the current be 𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + ɸ)

Further, let VR , VL , VC , and V represent the voltage
across the resistor, inductor , capacitor and the source,
respectively.
For resistor , 𝐕𝐑 and 𝐈 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞. For inductor , 𝐕𝐋
𝐥𝐞𝐚ⅆ𝐬 𝐈 𝐛𝐲 π/2. For capacitor , 𝐕𝐂 𝐥𝐚𝐠𝐬 𝐈 𝐛𝐲 π/2.
phasor diagram forVL>Vc

Impedance,

Resonance
When 𝐗𝐂 = 𝐗𝐋 , impedance is minimum,

ωL=𝟏 /𝛚𝐂 , , ,

Transformer

P-primary
S-secondary

Energy Losses in a Transformer:

(i)Flux Leakage
(ii) joule heating
(iii)Eddy currents loss (iv)Hysteresis loss
 Chapter Eight
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Displacement Current
The current due to changing electric field or electric flux is called
called displacement current.

Displacement current,id=
фE is Electric flux

Nature of Electromagnetic Waves

1.In an e.m waves are transverse waves in which the electric and
magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other, and also to the
direction of propagation.

2.The speed of e.m.wave in vacuum is

Expression of Electric and magnetic field
 Chapter 9: RAY O PTICS AND O PTICAL I NSTRUMENTS

The mirror formula

From ΔPAB & ΔPIM and From ΔPFD & ΔFIM

u f 1 1 1
= or = +
v v−f f v u
hi v
Magnification (m): m= or m=−( ) for mirror.
ho u
Relation between focal length and radius of curvature of a spherical mirror
From right-angled triangles MCP and MFP,
h h h
If PM =h , 2i= or 2 =
f R f
R
∴ R=2 f or f =
2
sin i n 2
Snell’s law: =
sinr n 1
Real depth
Apparent Depth: Refractiveindex (n)=
Apparent depth
Total Internal Reflection (TIR): When light travels from denser to rarer medium at i > c, it is
reflected back.
Critical angle (c): Angle of incidence (i) for which the angle of refraction is 900.
1
Equation of TIR: n= Applications of TIR: 1) Optical fibre
sin c
2) Total Reflecting Prisms (used in signal transmission & medical field)

Refraction at a spherical surface

n1 i=n2 r
h h h h
i.e., n1 ( + )=n2 ( − ) where PM =h
−u R R v
n2 n1 n2−n1
or − = ….(2)
v u R
Lens maker’s formula
n2 n 1 n2−n1
i) For first surface ABC: − = ….(1)
v1 u R1
n1 n 2 n1−n2
ii) For second surface ADC: − = ….(2)
v v1 R2
(1) + (2) and dividing throughout by ‘n1’,
1 1 n2 1 1
− =( −1)( − ) ….(3)
v u n1 R1 R 2
1 n2 1 1
or =( −1)( − ) ….(4)
f n1 R1 R 2
1 1 1
If the first medium is air, then =( n−1)( − ) ….(5)
f R1 R 2
1 1 1
Thin lens formula: Write steps up to Eqn (4). Comparing (3) & (4), we get − = …..(5)
v u f
v
Magnification (m): m= -ive for real images and +ive for virtual images.
u
1
Power of a lens: reciprocal of focal length expressed in metre. i.e., P= Unit: dioptre (D).
f
Combination of thin lenses in contact
1 1 1
For the first lens, − = … (1)
v1 u f 1
1 1 1
For the second lens, − = … (2)
v v1 f 2
1 1 1
(1)+(2) => = + ..(3) or power, P=P1 + P2 …(4) & magnification, m=m1 x m2 ...(5)
f f1 f2
Refraction Through a Prism
In the quadrilateral AQNR, A + N=1800 ....(1)
From the triangle QNR, r 1 +r 2 + N=180 0 ....(2)
(1) & (2) => r 1 +r 2= A ....(3) Also, d=i+e− A ....(4)
At minimum deviation, d=D , i=e & r 1=r 2=r
A A+ D
then, r = ....(5) & i= ....(6)
2 2

A+ D
sin( )
sin i 2
using Snell’s law, refractive index of prism n= = ....(7)
sin r A
sin( )
2
*At minimum deviation refracted ray is parallel to the base.
Optical Instruments
Least distance of distinct vision (near point): The closest distance for which the eye lens can focus
light on the retina. (D ≅ 25 cm)
1) Simple microscope: A convex lens of small focal length.
D
Magnification: a) Image at near point, m=1+
f F
.
D
b) Image at infinity, m=
f

2) Compound microscope
Magnification: a) Image at near point, m=m o m e
vo D
where mo= and me =1+ Fe
uo fe .
A”
L
If v o =L (tube length) & uo =f o , then m o=
fo
b) image at infinity, m=mo me
L D
where mo= and me =
fo fe
B”

3) Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Type)

(Normal Adjustment)
For final image at infinity,
fo
Magnification, m=
fe
Length of telescope tube is L=f o + f e

................................................................................................................................................................
Chapter 10: WAVE OPTICS
................................................................................................................................................................
Wavefront: is locus of all points in a medium which are at the same phase of vibration.
Light Ray: An arrow drawn perpendicular to the wave front.
Huygens Principle: Each point of the wavefront is the source of secondary wavelets and the
forward envelope these give the new wavefront.
Coherent sources: Sources which emit light waves of same frequency and constant phase
difference. Eg: Two laser sources.
 Shape of Wavefront
Source Point Linear Source at infinity
Shape Spherical Cylindrical Plane

Figure

Law of Refraction (Snell’s law) Using Huygens Principle

v1 t
From ΔABC, sin i= ...(1)
AC
v2t
& from ΔAEC, sin r= ..(2)
AC
sin i v 1 n2
(1) ÷ (2) => = = ....(3)
sinr v 2 n1
This is the Snell’s law of refraction.
When a wave gets refracted, the wavelength and the speed of propagation changes, but the
frequency remains the same.
Law of Reflection (i = r) Using Huygens Principle
vt
From ΔABC, sin i= ...(1)
AC
vt
& from ΔAEC, sin r= ..(2)
AC
∴ sin i=sinr or i=r ....(3) This is the law of reflection.
Intensity during Interference: Intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude. i.e., I ∝ a 2
If two waves having equal amplitudes interfere constructively, then resultant intensity I ∝4 a2
i.e., the intensity during constructive interference is four times the intensity of a single wave.
For destructive interference, the resultant intensity is zero.
Condition for sustained Interference: 1) The two sources should be coherent.
2) The two sources must be narrow. 3) The two sources must be close to each other.
4) The screen must be placed at a large distance from the sources.
In interference and diffraction, conservation of energy is obeyed.
Interference of light: Distance of the nth band from the centre of the screen
D
i) bright band, x n=n λ ....(1) where D –Distance between screen and slit &
d
d –Distance between slits
 1 D
ii) dark band, x n=( n+ ) λ ....(2) where n=0,±1 ,±2 ,±3 ,... .
2 d
The dark and bright fringes are equally spaced & the distance between two consecutive

D
bright and dark bands (fringe width or band width) is given by β=x n+1−x n =λ .....(3)
d
Conditions for interference bands: 1) bright band, Path difference , Δ x=n λ ....(1)
1
& 2) dark band, Path difference , Δ x=(n+ ) λ .....(2)
2

Diffraction: The bending and spreading of light waves around the corners of small obstacles.
Condition: Size of the obstacle must be comparable with the
wavelength of light.
Diffraction at a single slit: Central band: bright band of
maximum intensity.
Secondary bands: alternate dark and bright bands of
decreasing intensity.
Angular Positions of:
1
1) Secondary Maxima: θ =(n+ ) λ ....(1)
2 a
2) Secondary Minima: θ =n λ ....(2) where n=1, 2 ,3 ,... .
a
D
Width of central bright band: 2 λ where D –Distance between screen and slit & a –Slit width
a

Polarisation: The phenomenon of restricting light vibrations to a single plane.

➢ Polarization shows that light is a transverse wave.
Plane of vibration and plane of polarisation
The plane containing the vibrations of the electric
field vector is known as the ‘plane of vibration’ (ABCD). A B
E F
The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is
known as the ‘plane of polarisation’ (EFGH).
No vibrations occur in the plane of polarisation.
H G
Polariser: The crystal which produces polarized light. D C
Analyser: The crystal which is used to check whether the
light is polarized or not.
Polaroid: A polarising material that produce intense beam
of polarised light. Used in sunglasses, windowpanes, etc.
Malus’s law: I =I 0 cos2 θ where ‘I’-Intensity of emergent
light, ‘I0’- Intensity of light incident on the analyser &
‘θ’- the angle between the axes of polariser and analyser.
................................................................................................................................................................
Chapter 11: DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
................................................................................................................................................................
Work function (Φ0): Minimum energy of an electron to just escape from the metal surface.
Stopping potential (V0): Retarding potential when photoelectric current becomes zero.
Threshold frequency (ν0): Minimum frequency below which photoelectric emission stops.

Laws of photoelectric emission

1. Photo current is proportional to intensity of
incident radiation.
2. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a
threshold frequency (ν0).
3. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping
potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity.
4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.
Einstein’s photoelectric equations
1 1 1 1
KE Max =h ν −ϕ 0 ..... (1) or m v 2Max =h( ν − ν 0) ..... (2) or m v 2Max =hc ( − ) ..... (3)
2 2 λ λ0
From the Frequency – Stopping potential graph we can calculate:
i) the Planck’s constant: Planck ' s constant , h=Slope x e and
ii) work function of the metal: Work function of the metal , ϕ 0=−( y intercept x e)
The important properties of photons are:
1. All photons travel through free space with the speed of light (c = 3 x 108 m/s).
2. Has definite energy, E = hυ.
3. Has definite momentum, p = mv.
4. Rest mass is zero.

Dual Nature of Radiation: Radiation has

wave nature as well as particle nature.
The wave associated with matter is called ‘matter wave’ (de Broglie wave).
h
The de Broglie wavelength, λ =
p
where ‘h’ is Planck’s constant & ‘p’ is the momentum of the particle.
................................................................................................................................................................
Chapter 12: ATOMS
................................................................................................................................................................
Alpha-particle Scattering and Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom
(Geiger-Marsden experiment or Gold foil experiment)
Alpha-particles are nuclei of helium atoms
(carry 2 positive charge)
Observations & Reasons:
1) Many passed through the foil
– An atom has a lot of empty space.
2) Few deflected by more than 90° & Very few deflected backwards – The entire positive charge
and most of the mass of the atom are concentrated at its centre (the nucleus).
Impact Parameter (b): Perpendicular distance of initial velocity vector of the α-particle from the
centre of the nucleus.
Distance of closest approach: The distance of the alpha particle from the centre of the nucleus, at
which its KE gets converted into PE.
1 2 Z e2
r 0=
4 π ε0 K
Limitations of Rutherford’s model: failed to explain the stability of the atom & didn’t explain the
line spectra of atoms.
Orbital radius of the electron in the nth orbit of Hydrogen atom
ε0 h 2
=0.53 x 10 m In general, r n=a0 n2 or r n α n2
st −10
For the 1 orbit (Bohr radius), a0 = 2
π me
The radii of the stationary orbits are in the ratio, 12 :22 :32 :..... . or 1: 4 :9 :..... .
−13.6
Total Energy in the nth orbit is: En= eV
n2
Different Energy Levels of Hydrogen Atom are: 1) For ground state (n = 1) & E0=−13.6 eV
−13.6 −13.6
2) For 1st excited state (n = 2) & E1 = = =−3.4 eV
22 4
−13.6 −13.6
3) For 2nd excited state (n = 3) & E2 = = =– 1.51 eV
32 9
−13.6 −13.6
4) For 3rd excited state (n = 4) & E3= = =– 0.85 eV and For n=∞ , E=0
42 16
Ionization energy: It is the minimum energy required to free the electron from the ground state of
an atom. (i.e., From n = 1 to n = ∞). The ionization energy of Hydrogen atom is:
Δ E=E∞ −E0 =0−(−13.6)=0+13.6=13.6 eV

The Line Spectra of the Hydrogen Atom:

de Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s 2nd postulate

nh h
2 π r=n λ & mvr= or λ =
2π p (in IR region)

(in Visible region)

(in UV region)
 Chapter 13: NUCLEI
................................................................................................................................................................
Atomic mass unit (u): 1/12th the mass of carbon (12C) atom. 1u=1.660539 ×10− 27 kg
Isotopes - same Atomic number (Z) & different Neutron number (N). Eg:
Isobars - same mass number (A). Eg:
Isotones - same neutron number (N) & different atomic number (Z). Eg:
Size of the Nucleus: The radius of a nucleus of mass number ‘A’ is R=R 0 A1 /3
where R0=1.2 x 10−15 m The volume of a nucleus is proportional to the mass number ‘A’.
Einstein’s Mass-Energy Relation: E=mc2 where c=3 x 10 8 m s−1 the velocity of light.
NCERT Example 13.2: Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.
Solution: Energy , E=mc 2=1 x 10−3 x (3 x 108 )2=1 x 10−3 x 9 x 10 16=9 x 1013 kg m2 s−2=9 x 1013 J
Mass Defect & Nuclear binding energy: The difference in mass of the nucleons and the nucleus.
Δ M =M −m=[ Z mP +( A−Z )mn ]−m
where Δ M =Mass defect , M =Mass of nucleons , m=Mass of nucleus , Z =Atomic no . ,
mP =Mass of a proton , A=Mass number & mn−Mass of a neutron
The energy equivalent of mass defect is ‘binding energy’. BE =Δ Mc 2
BE BE
Binding Energy per Nucleon: =
Nucleon A

Binding Energy Curve

Nuclear Force: It is the strong attractive force that binds a nucleus. Its properties are:
1) It is the strongest force. & 2) It is charge independent.
Nuclear Energy is released in ‘nuclear reactions’. Major nuclear reactions are: fission and fusion.
I. Nuclear Fission: Breaking up of the of a heavier nucleus into two smaller nuclei with the release
of a large amount of energy. Eg;
Chain Reaction: uncontrolled nuclear fission. Eg. atom bomb.
II. Nuclear Fusion: Two or more light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus with the release of
a large amount of energy. Eg. Hydrogen bomb, Energy source of stars.
 The sun is powered by proton-proton cycle of fusion reaction which consists of three steps
and the first two steps are as follows:

+Q

+Q

A number of reactions are possible in the third step. But the most dominant one is:

+Q

The overall energy produced in the above reactions is about 27 MeV.

................................................................................................................................................................

Eg >3 eV
Eg < 3 eV
junction.

The holes diffuse from p-side to n-side and electron diffuses from n side to p side to create a
charge free region called the depletion region
A layer of positive charge is developed on n-side of the junction and a layer of negative
charge on the p side creating a potential barrier.
The potential difference between the depletion layer is called the barrier potential

Semiconductor Diode (pn junction diode)

A PN junction diode consists of a p-region and n-region separated by a depletion region
where charge is stored

Symbol :

p-n junction diode under forward bias

In forward biasing the p-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and n-side
to the negative terminal

In forward bias
• Barrier potential reduces
• Junction offers very low resistance
• Current Increases sharply at a voltage called knee voltage
• Width of the depletion layer decreases

Forward Biasing of PN junction diode Forward characteristics

p-n junction diode under reverse bias

In reverse biasing n-side is connected to positive of the battery and p-side to negative of
the battery.
In reverse bias
• Barrier potential increases
• Junction resistance is very high
• Width of depletion layer increases
• Reverse current is very low and is due to minority carriers
• At a critical reverse voltage called breakdown voltage the current sharply increases and
the junction breaks.

Reverse Biasing of PN junction diode Reverse characteristics

Application of junction diode - rectifier

The process of conversion of ac current to dc current is called rectification.

1. Half Wave Rectifier

A half wave rectifier rectifies only positive half cycles of AC input using a single diode.
2. Full wave rectifier

A full wave rectifier rectifies both the half cycles of the AC input using two diodes.

Study well and score maximum....Best Wishes...

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