Thermodynamics

The word Thermodynamics is derived from two Greek words:

thermos = temperature and dynamos = force ( think of the word dynamite )

It is not a surprise that Thermodynamics plays an important role in automotive engineering

because of the impact of combustion engines.
Three important thermodynamical quantities are pressure p, temperature T and volume V
Often processes are draw in a pV-chart where V is de x-coordinate and p the y-coordinate
In thermodynamics, units that do not originate from SI are still often used.

1 bar = 1000 mbar = 105 N/m2

1 atm = 76 cm pressure of mercury = 1013 mbar
T (in K) = 273.15 + t (in C ); usually the rounded-off value 273 is used, so that:
0 C = 273 K

Ideal Gas Law

The most simple way to describe a gas is to interpret it as a large set of very small particles.
Particles that are point masses without any interaction between each other ( no potential
energy) only collisions between the particles (exchange of kinetic energy )

Kinetic energy of the particles is the microscopic quantity which has to do with the
macroscopic quantity temperature.
As the particles go faster, the temperature increases (increase of kinetic energy) and as the
particles move slower, the temperature decreases. It is shown that the following equation
applies:

p V = mRT

Whit pressure p, volume V, mass m, gas constant R and temperature T

This law is called the ideal gas law.
Ideal gases do not exist because each gas (when cold enough) finally condenses at a certain
pressure and temperature. But if a gas, at some temperature, is far from its condensation point,
this comparison is good. Air at 1 atm and room temperature behaves well as an ideal gas
because the main constituents of oxygen and nitrogen condense at very low temperatures
(-183 °C and -196 °C, respectively)
In many calculations, this law can only be used. If one considers a closed system, the mass
remains constant and, of course, the gas constant. If you go from a starting situation 1 to a
second thermodynamic situation 2 and then 3 etc. then one can write:

p1 V1 p V p V
= 2 2 = 3 3 = .........
T1 T2 T3
Gas constant

The quantity R is the so-called specific gas constant which is different for each gas.
The unit is [J/kgK] This can be seen as follows because the product pV has the unit of energy

unit p   unit V   N
 
=  2   m 3 = =  N  m =  Joule  =  J 
m 
pV  J 
R=   unit R = 
mT  kg K 

Specific heat
c is the specific heat of a substance in J/kgK. It applies in most cases that the specific heat is
(near enough) independent of the temperature. In many calculations, use is made of cp and cv,
the specific heats at constant pressure and volume.

(For solids and liquids it applies that c is dependent on temperature.)

Frequently this is a near-linear relationship e.g. c(T ) = a0 + a1T
(with a0 and a1 coefficients to be defined), but it may also be approximated by a quadratic
equation. This depends on what accuracy is aimed at.)

Note the different notations in the formulae with which c is defined.

Q dQ
Q12 = m c ( T2 − T1 ) (if c is constant ) c= c=
mT mdT

Conservation of Energy – First Law of Thermodynamics

Just as in other physical subjects, the Law of Conservation of Energy plays an important role
in Thermodynamics. This law is therefore titled the First Law of Thermodynamics.
(The Second and Third Laws also exist, but these are not covered in this series of lessons.)
Many kinds of energy may be defined, such as nuclear, chemical, mechanical (work), heat
and electrical energy.
All types of energy may be traced finally to the kinetic and potential energy of the
microscopic structure of the material and the interaction among elementary particles (but we
will not go that far in this course).
We will restrict ourselves in this series of lessons to three types of energy, namely
Q = heat, W = work (mechanical energy) and U = internal energy.
Internal energy is the total amount of kinetic and potential energy of the molecules. For an
ideal gas, this is only the amount of kinetic energy, and it may be derived that U is a function
of the temperature: U 12 = m cV ( T2 − T1 ) or expressed as U = m cV T .
Application of the Law of Conservation of Energy to Q, W and U yields the equation:

Q12 = W12 + U 12 or expressed as Q = W + U

Special processes
In thermodynamical technology there are often processes where one of the quantities of
pressure, volume or temperature remains the same. These processes have the following
names. ( the prefix iso is derived from the Greek word isos which means equal )

Isobar process at equal pressure p = constant

Isotherm process at equal temperature T = constant
Isochore process at equal volume V = constant

Heat energy and work

Heat energy is represented by the letter Q and mechanical energy (= work) with the letter W.
If there is a process of a thermodynamic situation 1 to another situation 2 (for example,
because the pressure or temperature changes) then the heat energy that is applied or
discharged is noted as Q12 and the work performed as W12 (the same for situation 2 to 3,
3 to 4 Q23, Q34, Q45 ....... etc.) The following is defined for positive or negative energy

Q12 > 0 positive heat-energy at heat supply

Q12 < 0 negative heat-energy at heat dissipation (emission)

W12 > 0 positive work on expansion (volume increase)

Work is being done by the system

W12 < 0 negative work on compression (volume increase)

Work is being done on the system

U12 > 0 increase in internal energy

Temperature rises (particles move faster)

U12 < 0 decrease in internal energy

Temperature drops (particles move slower)

Normal volume
An important thermodynamic reference point (p0 , V0, T0 ) of a gas is the situation under what
are known as normal conditions, namely p0 = 1 atm and t0 = 0 °C .
The volume that the gas occupies in this situation is called the normal volume V0.
These normal conditions are easy to achieve in a laboratory (why?).
Different thermodynamic situations may easily be compared together with respect to this
reference point.
Adiabatic process

In nature and technology, there are often thermodynamic processes that take place so quickly
that there is no time to exchange heat with the environment. These processes are called
adiabatic processes.

Q = 0

The thermodynamic environment in which this happens is considered a ‘closed system‘.

(there is no matter and no energy exchange)
Filled in the First Law of Thermodynamics, this provides:

Q = W + U  0 = W + U  W = − U

Work and internal energy are opposite to each other. (the minus sign is important! !)
This means the following:

Adiabatic expansion  provides work W12 > 0  temperature drops U12 < 0

Adiabatic compression  negative work W12 < 0  temperature increases U12 > 0

If an adiabatic process is thermodynamically reversible between two situations, that process is

called isentropic. In this lesson series we will not go into the concept of reversibility, but it is
important to know the two concepts.

The following statements can be made:

All isentropes are adiabatic processes but not all adiabatic processes are isentropes.
(compare that to the statement: all squares are rectangles but not all rectangles are squares)
(An isentrope is a process of constant entropy. The term 'entropy' is not treated in this first-
year lesson series but is covered in the second year)
Polytropic process

A polytropic process is a thermodynamical process of an ideal gas that obeys the relation:
pVn = C Where n is the polytropic index and C is a constant. By making use of the ideal
gas law, this equation can be transformed to an equation with T, V or p, T

Tn
pVn = C T V n−1 = C =C
p n −1

Another definition can be given as follows:

A polytrope is a process where the specific heat capacity remains constant.
Every polytropic process can be characterized by its index and specific heat capacity.
The following processes are of special interest in Thermodynamics:

isobar n=0 c = cp

isotherm n=1 c=∞

isentrope (adiabatic) n = k = cp/cv c=0

isochore n=∞ c = cv

(Source is from the book: Warmteleer voorTechnici page 60

Author: Ir. AJM van Kimmenaede, ISBN 90 401 04492)
Cyclical processes

Cyclical processes occur in combustion engines. If, from a thermodynamic starting situation,
this same situation is returned to after a number of sub-processes, then a cyclical process has
taken place. In calculations, what is known as an energy balance is often prepared.
In this, what happens with the work, heat added or emitted and the internal energy is
calculated for each sub-process (usually expressed as amount of energy per unit mass, J/kg).

Important here is the Law of Conservation of Energy, the First Law of Thermodynamics.
Because internal energy is a situation-dependent quantity, this energy is unaltered after a
cyclical process, and so the total work done is equal to the algebraic sum of the supplied and
emitted heat (follows from the Law of Conservation of Energy). So

 W =  Q = ( Q )supplied − ( Q )emitted .

If the total work is positive then this is called a positive cyclical process, and for negative
work, a negative cyclical process.
The ratio between the total W and the Q supplied finally yields the thermal efficiency.

W Q ( Q )sup − ( Q )emitted ( Q )emitted

th = = = =1−
( Q )sup ( Q )sup ( Q )sup ( Q )sup

A thermodynamic cycle consists of a collection of thermodynamic processes transferring heat

and work, while varying pressure, temperature, and other state variables, eventually returning
a system to its initial state. In the process of going through this cycle, the system may perform
work on its surroundings, therefore acting as a heat engine.
State quantities depend only on the thermodynamic state, and cumulative variation of such
properties adds up to zero during a cycle. Process quantities (or path quantities), such as heat
and work are process dependent, and cumulative heat and work are non-zero. The First Law
of Thermodynamics dictates that the net heat input is equal to the net work output over any
cycle. The repeating nature of the process path allows for continuous operation, making the
cycle an important concept in Thermodynamics

Q1 =  Q+ (addition of all supplied heat energy)

Q 2 =  Q− (addition of all emitted heat energy)

Example: A cyclic process consist of 8 subprocesses:

Q12 = 100 kJ , Q23 = 150 kJ , Q34 = -75 kJ , Q45 = 125 kJ , Q56 = -125 kJ

Q67 = 180 kJ , Q78 = -100 kJ , Q89 = 275 kJ

Q1 = Q12 + Q23 + Q45 + Q67 + Q89 = 100 + 150 + 125 + 180 + 275 = 830 kJ

Q2 = │Q34 │ + │ Q56 │ + │ Q78│ = 75 + 125 + 100 = 300 kJ

An important theorem states that for a system exchanging heat with external reservoirs and
undergoing a cyclic process, one that ultimately returns a system to its original state,

𝑑𝑄
∮ ≤0
𝑇

where dQ is the infinitesimal amount of heat absorbed by the system from the reservoir and T
is the temperature of the external reservoir at a particular instant in time. In the special case of
a reversible process, the equality holds.
The reversible case is used to introduce the entropy state function. (see next page)
This is because in a cyclic process the variation of a state function is zero. In words, the
theorem states that it is impossible to construct a device whose sole effect is the transfer of
heat from a cool reservoir to a hot reservoir. Equivalently, heat spontaneously flows from a
hot body to a cooler one, not the other way around.

Some cyclic processes are given special names and are theoretically composed using the
poltropic processes. Especially in the automotive construction of combustion engines they
play an important role.

Process Polytropes

Carnot 2 isotherms
Tmin
2 isentropes  th = 1 −
Tmax

Stirling 2 isotherms if an ideal heat exchanger is used then

2 isochores  Stirling →  Carnot

Joule 2 isobares
2 isentropes

Otto 2 isentropes
2 isochores

Diesel-Seiliger 2 isentropes
2 isochores
1 isobar
State variable

Important in Thermodynamics is the role of so-called state variables.

A function of state is defined for a system relating several state variables or state quantities
that depends only on the current equilibrium situation of the system, for example a gas, a
liquid, a solid, crystal, or emulsion.
State functions do not depend on the path by which the system arrived at its present state.
It describes the equilibrium state of a system and thus also describes the type of system.
For example, a state function could describe an atom or molecule in a gaseous, liquid, or solid
form; a heterogeneous or homogeneous mixture; and the amounts of energy required to create
such systems or change them into a different equilibrium state.

For example, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy (see below) are state quantities because
they describe quantitatively an equilibrium state of a thermodynamic system, irrespective of
how the system arrived in that state.

In contrast, mechanical work and heat are process quantities or path functions, because their
values depend on the specific transition (or path) between two equilibrium states. Heat in
certain discrete amounts can describe a certain state function, such as enthalpy, but in general,
does not truly describe the system unless it is defined as the state function of a certain system,
and thus enthalpy is described by an amount heat. This can also apply to entropy when heat is
compared to temperature.

Enthalpy
If a combination is formed from state quantities then a new state quantity can be defined.
This is the case with Enthalpy. Enthalpy is defined as a state function that depends only on
the prevailing equilibrium state identified by the system's internal energy, pressure, and
volume.

𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑝𝑉

Enthalpy is the preferred expression of system energy changes in many chemical, biological,
and physical measurements at constant pressure, because it simplifies the description of
energy transfer. The following formulas can be derived:
∆𝐻 𝑐𝑝
∆𝐻 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇 , ∆𝑈 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑉 ∆𝑇 ⇒ = =𝑘
∆𝑈 𝑐𝑉

Entropy
Entropy is a state variable and defined as:
2
𝑑𝑄
∆𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆2 = ∫
𝑇
1

More information about interpreting this integral will be given in the lesson.
The upper and lower limits represent ‘situation 1’ and ‘situation 2’ (initial and final situation).
If these situations are known then it is possible to calculate the integral.
Important to know is if one has to deal with so-called phase transitions.
The calculations depend on the phase in which the matter is situated.
For solids and fluids the specific heat must be known as a function of the temperature.
If this function is known then the integral can be calculated.
Explanation will be given in the lessons. (see the PowerPoint presentations)

Polytropic processes can be plotted in a pV – diagram but also in a TS-diagram. Especially for
calculations that concern heat energy instead of mechanical energy (work).
The relationship between pressure p and volume V has to be transformed into a a function of
temperature T and entropy S.
Source is from the book: Warmteleer voorTechnici
Author: Ir. AJM van Kimmenaede
Educaboek BV Culemborg
ISBN 90 11 008219 page 122 and 259
ISBN 90 401 04492 page 60
Second Law of Thermodynamics

Descriptions & Statements

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that the total energy inside a system is conserved.
However, the concept of energy in the first law does not account for the observation that
natural processes have a preferred direction of progress. For example, heat always flows
spontaneously from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature, and never
the reverse, unless external work is performed on the system.

The first law is completely symmetrical with respect to the initial and final states of an
evolving system. The key concept for the explanation of this phenomenon through the second
law of thermodynamics is the definition of a new physical property entropy.

The second law is of immense importance from many points of view. From it we can compute
the maximum possible efficiency of an engine which transforms heat into work.

There are several ways in which the second law can be formulated.
It is possible with the aid of the concepts of heat transfer, the perpetual motion of the second
kind, and a description with the quantity entropy around the concept of statistical probability.

The latter comes from the Statistical Thermodynamics which looks at the processes of atoms
and molecules on a microscopic scale. (for example, the macroscopic quantity temperature for
an ideal gas is regarded as the average kinetic energy of the molecules, a statistical quantity)

On the next page you’ll find different descriptions and statements on how the second law can
be expressed. Actually all the statements can be considered as being equivalent.
Second Law of Thermodynamics

Heat Transfer

Heat always flows spontaneously from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower
temperature.

No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a body of lower
temperature to a body of higher temperature.

Perpetual motion of the second kind

A perpetual motion machine of the second kind does not exist.

No process is possible in which the sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and
its complete conversion into work.

A cyclic process with a thermal efficiency of 100% is impossible.

Entropy

The entropy change of any system and its surroundings, considered together, is positive and
approaches zero for any process which approaches reversibility.

S 0

Statistical equilibrium

When a closed system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium , it will evolve into the state of
maximum probability or statistical equilibrium and hence in the direction of increasing
entropy.

Conclusion:
The entropy gives us a measure of the degree of disorder in a system, a means for determining
the stability of equilibrium states and, in general, forms an important link between reversible
and irreversible processes.
Tweede Hoofwet der Thermodynamica

Formuleringen
Er bestaan verschillende manieren waarop de Tweede Hoofdwet geformuleerd kan worden.
Het kan met behulp van de begrippen warmtetransport, het perpetuum mobilé van de tweede
soort, entropie en een formulering rondom het begrip statistische waarschijnlijkheid.
Dat laatste komt uit de Statistische Thermodynamica waar gekeken wordt naar de processen
van atomen en moleculen op microscopische schaal. (bijvoorbeeld de macroscopische
grootheid temperatuur voor een ideaal gas wordt gezien als de gemiddelde kinetische energie
van de moleculen, een statistische grootheid)

Warmtetransport

Warmtetransport van een kouder naar een warmer lichaam is niet mogelijk zonder de toevoer
van mechanische energie.(arbeid)

( Warmte-energie 'stroomt vanzelf' van hoge naar lage temperaturen )

Perpetuum mobilé van de tweede soort

Het is onmogelijk om een periodiek werkende machine te ontwerpen die aan één warmte-
reservoir warmte ontrekt en dit volledig omzet in arbeid.

( Een 'perpetuum mobilé' van de tweede soort bestaat niet. )

( Een kringproces met een thermisch rendement van 100 % is onmogelijk.)

Entropie

In een afgesloten systeem treden alleen zodanige processen op dat de totale entropieveran-
dering positief of nul is:  S  0

Statistisch evenwicht

Wanneer een afgesloten systeem niet in evenwicht is, zal het zich ontwikkelen naar de
toestand van maximale waarschijnlijkheid of statistisch evenwicht en daardoor in de richting
van een toenemende entropie.
Subjects Thermodynamics

It is useful to look on sites about the subjects of Thermodynamics and use the details and
notes that were given in the lessons. Sometimes on the sites of Wikipedia there can be found
more details than that were given in the lessons. Make your choice for the right things
according to your notes.

Specific heat:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_heat

Ideal Gas law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_gas_law

Van der Waals equation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_equation

Polytrope
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytropic_process

Isentrope, isobar, isochore, isotherm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_process
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isobaric_process
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochoric_process
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isothermal_process

Cyclic process:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_process

First Law of Thermodynamics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_law_of_thermodynamics

Entropy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy

Clausius Theorem
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clausius_theorem

Second Law of Thermodynamics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics

Carnot’s Theorem
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_theorem_(thermodynamics)

Enthalpy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy
Perpetual Motion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual_motion

Internal Energy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_energy
Exercise

Determine if the following propositions are true or false.

1. Temperature decreases during an isentropic expansion.

2. The specific heat is always a positive quantity.

3. An adiabatic reversible process is an isentrope.

4. Temperature rises at an isobaric expansion.

5. The internal energy increases during an isothermal compression.

6. A gas of 1 liter with a pressure of 9250 mbar, a temperature of 20 ºC and a gas constant
of 287 J/kgK has a mass of 11 gram (Within a margin of uncertainty of 1% due to the
rounding of numbers).

7. The First Law of Thermodynamics can be given by the equation p V = m R T

8. Theoretical calculations are carried out about a certain cyclical process.

It is determined that 600 kJ of heat energy would be supplied to the working medium
at a temperature of 1200 K and heat dissipation of 140 kJ would be carried out at a
temperature of 300 K. This specified process can practically be performed.

9. The specific heat is infinitely large in a polytropic process if there is no change

in internal energy.

10. One of the descriptions of the second Law of Thermodynamics is:

The entropy change of any system and its surroundings, considered together,
is positive and approaches zero for any process which approaches reversibility.

11. The specific heat per unit of volume has the same unit as entropy.

12. Heat will not be transported out of the system if there is an isentropic compression.

13. Entropy, internal energy and work are state variables.

14. The specific gas constant has the same unit as the specific heat at constant pressure.

15. Entropy decreases during an isobaric expansion.

16. An isochoric process in an TS-chart is steeper than an isobaric process.

17. If the entropy remains the same during a polytropic process then the polytropic
index is equal zero.
18. A polytropic process takes place starting in the initial situation 1 up to situation 2.
The following quantities and parameters are measured.
p1 = 105 N/m , p2 = 2.105 N/m2 , T1 = 300 K, T2 = 350 K
m = 250 gram, cp = 1005 J/kgK, R = 287 J/kgK
The polytropic index is 1.29 (Within a margin of uncertainty of 1% due to the rounding
of numbers)

19. The polytropic index of an isotherm is equal to zero.

20. A thermodynamical process where there is no work done by the system is an

adiabatic process.

Anwers

1. true 6. true 11. false 16. true

2. false 7. false 12. true 17. false

3. true 8. false 13. false 18. true

4. true 9. true 14. true 19. false

5. false 10. true 15. false 20. false

This type of exercise may be expected in the test.

What would be a reasonable score schedule for this exercise if it is valid 100 points ?
If you just give answers randomly then it is not reasonable that with 10 correct answers you
will gain 50 points out of 100 because there is a high probability that you have 50% correct.
A possible schedule is:

Score: 1 error = 95 pnt 7 errors = 35 pnt

2 errors = 90 pnt 8 errors = 25 pnt
3 errors = 80 pnt 9 errors = 15 pnt
4 errors = 70 pnt 10 errors = 5 pnt
5 errors = 60 pnt 11 or more = 0 pnt
6 errors = 50 pnt
 APPENDIX

Differential Forms

Differential forms play an important role in thermodynamics.

In this document a short explanation is given. More extensive and detailed information can be
found in many math books.

Finite Difference
The concept of differentials means that there is a small difference between two numerical
values of a quantity. In thermodynamics it is usually the difference between final and initial
situation of a state variable. (eg final temperature minus initial temperature)
If one expands variables in a chart, it also means the distance between two points in a graph in
the direction of that quantity.
This is denoted by the letter d (distance) but for the finite difference one uses the Greek
capital letter delta: 
If no state variables are concerned such as Q and W then a small supply of these variables is
also marked by a difference (the notion of distance here has not much sense)

Examples

T = ( T2 − T1 ) , p = ( p 2 − p1 ) , Q = m c T , W = p V ,
U = ( U 2 − U 1 )

The First Law of Thermodynamics can be written as: Q = U + W

By making use of U 12 = m cV ( T2 − T1 ) in differential form: Q = m cV T + pV
A ratio of two finite differences is called a difference quotient.
y
The gradient of a straight line is a difference quotient:
x
Q
If the heat energy is made mass independent using q = with unit J/kg one obtains a
m
q
difference quotient for the specific heat c =
T

Differential

If the finite differences are getting smaller then the so-called differentials are used. They are
written with the letter "d" . If the differentials are individual elements in an equation then
they are called differential forms.
If there are ratios (differential quotients) then it will become a differential equation.
That is the field of the mathematics of integral and differential calculus.
In the limit transition from x to dx difference quotients become differential quotients

y dy
For a function y = f(x) follows: f’(x) = y’(x) = lim =
x →0 x dx
From the differential calculus we come to the integral calculus if inverse operations are
performed. A summation of the function values f (x) times a small distance x gives an area
which implies an integral.

x → dx  →   f ( x) x →  f ( x)dx
Greek letters are switched into the Latin alphabet remembering that the 'old' letter 's' from the
script of the seventeenth century was the symbol  (from the time when the integral calculus
was developed)

The following properties handling with differentials are valid (where C is a constant)

dC =0 d (Cx ) = C dx

d ( x + y ) = dx + dy d ( f ( x) ) = f ' ( x) dx

 x  y dx − x dy
d ( xy ) = y dx + x dy d   =
 y y2

Examples

Integration by substitution

 2 x cos( x
2
The integral )dx can be solved as follows:

Since d ( f ( x) ) = f ' ( x) dx then 2 x dx can be recognized as d (x 2 ) and there follows

 2 x cos( x
2
)dx =  cos( x 2 )d (x 2 ) = sin (x 2 ) + C

( x)= ( x ) = d (x ) =
x
5e − 12 − 12 1
6 dx =  35 e x d +C dx =
5 x 1
3 e because d 2 x dx
x 2 x

ln ( x + 1)
Try out yourself  2x + 2
dx
Preparation of a differential equation

Linear spring behaviour is given by the equation F= -Cu with F the springforce in [N], C the
spring constant in [N/m] and displacement u in [m]
The work in [Nm]=[ J] done by the spring is force times displacement: W = F u
The force is a function of the displacement F(u) = -Cu
Substitution yields the differential forms dW = -Cudu and the differential equation
dW
= − Cu
du
The potential energy is the negative work that is done in order to get the spring into a certain
position starting from the beginning state of equilibrium (minus sign is omitted).
The solution of this differential equation is Ep = ½ Cu2 Check this.

du dv d 2 u
According to Newton’s Law F = ma and substitution of v = and a = = 2 we
dt dt dt
2
d u
obtain the famous differential equation for an undamped spring vibration m 2 + C u = 0
dt
Thermodynamical examples will be given in the lessons.

Solving differential equations

A differential equation can be solved by the so-called separation of variables. The x- and the
y- dependency are taken to each side of the equation including their differentials. (the
variables are separated.) Then the differential form is integrated. Taking into account the
integration constant, the y is solved out of the equation. Then a function y(x) is obtained
Example:
dy 5 y 2 1 1 1 1
dx
=
x

5y 2
dy =
x
dx   5y 2
dy = 
x
dx

− 12 1
y dy =  x  − 15 y −1 = 2 x + C  = C ' − 10 x
−2
 1
5 dx
y

1
 y( x) =
C − 10 x
If an initial condition is given for instance y (0) = 1
2 then the constant will be calculated and
there will be an unique solution:

1
y( x) =
2 − 10 x

Examples of differential equations out of the field of Thermodynamics will be given in the
lessons.
FORMULAE
cp
Q12 = W12 + U 12 R = c p − cV k=
cV

Tn
pV n = C T V n−1 = C = C
p n−1

k −n c − cp
W12 =
1
( p1V1 − p2V2 ) Q12 = W12 n=
n −1 k −1 c − cV

V  A ( T1 − T2 )
W12 = Q12 = m R T ln  2   = p V = mRT
1 1 
 V1  + +
1 2 

Q
Q12 = m c (T2 − T1 ) U 12 = m cV ( T2 − T1 ) c=
mT

W n cV − c p  n −k 
 th = c= c = cV  
 Qtoe n −1  n −1 

2
dT dQ V2 p
 = - A S 2 − S1 =  S 2 - S 1 = m c p ln + m cv ln 2
dx 1
T V1 p1

T 2 + mR ln V 2 T 2 + mR ln p1
S 2 - S 1 = m cv ln S 2 - S 1 = m c p ln
T1 V1 T1 p2

Use of the formula sheet in the exam:

Consider that you must know what each symbol represents and how exactly to use the formulae.
Combinations of formulae of course yield other formulae.
The number of physical quantities is greater than the number of letters in the alphabet, so that there are
sometimes letters that have multiple meanings (such as the letter k which is used for two different
quantities in the Course 3 Thermodynamics lessons (which?) and in Fluid Mechanics represents the
contraction factor).
A number of fundamental matters are not mentioned given that they concern theoretical knowledge.
Such as the Law of Conservation of Energy (First Law of Thermodynamics) Q12 = W12 + U 12 or in
the notation Q = W +  U
From this it follows for a cyclical process that  Q =  W etc.
A product p1 V1 or p 2 V2 may always be replaced with m R T so that the formula for W12 can

also be written as W12 =

1
( p1V1 − p2V2 ) = m R ( T1 − T2 )
n −1 n −1