ACTIVE FILTER

DESIGN AND SIMULATION

EI -37511
What are the Filters?
Filters are electronic circuits, which have the capability of
selecting specific frequencies to pass to the output and
blocking other frequencies.
In other words, filters can be used to pass or amplify
certain frequencies and block or attenuate other
frequencies.
filters have many applications
in signal processing such as noise removal from a signal or
selecting desired information from some specific
frequency band.
Filters can be classified into many categories
depending upon their circuit, hardware, processing, etc.
Few of those categories are active filters, passive filters,
analog filters, digital filters, and discrete filters.
MEANING OF NOMENCULTURE ACTIVE
FILTER DESIGN AND SIMULATION
1. ACTIVE
2. FILTER
3.DESIGN
4.SIMULATION
 BASIC DESIGN STEPS OF ACTIVE
FILTER
1.SELECTING THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE WITH DESIGN PARAMETER
2.CONSIDER ASYMPTOTES AND CREATE BODE PLOT AND APPROXIMATION
3.WRITING TRANSFER FUNCTION
4.SYNTHESIZE TRANSFER FUNCTION
5.WITH THE HELP OF IAM OR KCL/KVL EQ WRITING TRANSFER FUNCTION OF
SELECTED CIRCUIT
6 IF BOTH TRANSFER FUNCTION IS SAME THEN SCALE THE CIRCUIT
7SIMULATE IT IN ANY DESIGN AND SIMULATOR SOFTWARE
8.EXPERIMENT ON PCB FEBRICATED DESIGN
9 IF FREQUENCY RESPONSE IS SAME AS WAS IN STEP FIRST THEN GO FOR
HARDWARE /PACKAGE
1O IF FREQUENCY RESPONSE DOESNOT MATCH GO FOR RESCALE THE
NETWORK
11. IF EXPERIMENTAL FREQUENCY RESPONSE STILL DOES NOT MATCH
ACCORDING ASYMPTOTES THEN GO FOR RESYNTHESIS.
12 REPEAT THE WHOLE PROCEDURE.
13.IN LAST DO TRIAL AND ERROR FOR LITTLE BIT CHANGE.
SIMULATOR SOFTWARE
.PROTEUS
LTSpice (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LTspice)
FilterLab. ...
WEBENCH® Filter Designer.
Filter Wizard.
AADE Filter Design V4.5 - KE5FX
.Elsie - electrical filter design program from Tonne Software
.Filter Wiz Lite is design software for windows
.Filter Free is another free filter designer software for Windows
. Coilcraft Filter Designer is a free and dedicated LPF designer
for Windows.
.AktivFilter is a free filter designer software for Windows.
.Speaker Box Filter Designer is another free and portable filter
designer software for Windows.
.TinyCad is yet another free filter designer for Windows.
Pi Filter Designer is a free and portable filter designer for
Windows.
 ACTIVE
have limited bandwidth, so they are often impractical at high frequencies. Amplifiers consume
power and inject noise into a system. Certain circuit topologies may be impractical if no DC path
is provided for bias current to the amplifier elements. Power handling capability is limited by the
amplifier stages.[3]
Sallen-Key, and VCVS filters (low sensitivity to component tolerance)
State variable filters and biquadratic or biquad filters
Dual Amplifier Band pass (DABP)
SAB single amplifier Biquad circuits
Wien bridge notch
Multiple Feedback Filters
Fliege NOTCH(lowest component count for 2 opamp but with good controllability over frequency
and type)
Akerberg Mossberg (one of the topologies that offer complete and independent control over
gain, frequency,
Active filters can implement the same transfer functions as passive filters.
Common transfer functions are:
High-pass filter – attenuation of frequencies below their cut-off points.
Low-pass filter – attenuation of frequencies above their cut-off points.
Band-pass filter – attenuation of frequencies both above and below those they allow to pass.
Band-stop filter (Notch filter) – attenuation of certain frequencies while allowing all others to
pass.[4]
Combinations are possible, such as notch and high-pass (in a rumble filter (rumble filter is a type
of high pass filter) where most of the offending rumble comes from a particular frequency).
Another example is an elliptic filter.
 HISTORY
INITIALLY DURING 1980’S THIS SUBJECT WAS
NAMMED ACTIVE AND PASSIVE CIRCUITS IN THIS
INSTITUTE .
AFTER DESIGN IMPROVEMENT OF OP-AMP ACTIVE
FILTER DESIGNE IMPROVED .WITH THE HELP OF
VARIOUS MODE OF OPAMP AND DIFFERENT
OP-AMP IC, OTHER ACTIVE FILTER CIRCUIT
DESIGNED IN DIFFERENT TOPOLOGIES .
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE FILTER
TECHNICAL DIFFERENCE
Types of filter
• According to
frequency respose
• Acooring to
approximation
• According to order of
the filter
 a Decade is a tenfold increase For example, 2 to 20Hz represents one decade, or (500 to 5000Hz).
An Octave is a doubling . For example, 10 to 20Hz represents one octave, while 2 to 16Hz is three octaves
doubling the frequency each time.
According to frequency response
approximation
Elliptical, Butterworth, Chebyshev, Bessel, Cauer as well as many others. Of these five
“classic” linear analogue filter approximation functions only the Butterworth Filter and
especially the low pass Butterworth filter design will be considered here as its the most
commonly used function. The frequency response of the Butterworth Filter approximation
function is also often referred to as “maximally flat” (no ripples) response because the pass
band is designed to have a frequency response which is as flat as mathematically possible
from 0Hz (DC) until the cut-off frequency at -3dB with no ripples. Higher frequencies beyond
the cut-off point rolls-off down to zero in the stop band at 20dB/decade or 6dB/octave. This
is because it has a “quality factor”, “Q” of just 0.707. However, one main disadvantage of the
Butterworth filter is that it achieves this pass band flatness at the expense of a wide
transition band as the filter changes from the pass band to the stop band. It also has poor
phase characteristics as well. The ideal frequency response, referred to as a “brick wall” filter,
and the standard Butterworth approximations, for different filter orders are given below.
Note that the higher the Butterworth filter order, the higher the number of cascaded stages
there are within the filter design, and the closer the filter becomes to the ideal “brick wall”
response.
In practice however, Butterworth’s ideal frequency response is unattainable as it produces
excessive passband ripple.

Where the generalised equation representing a “nth” Order Butterworth filter, the frequency
response is given as:
Digital filter design problems consist of
two parts, approximation and
realization. ... Digital filter
approximation problems consist of
selecting the coefficients of the rational
transfer function H(z): in order to
achieve some desired result when
the filter is applied to a signal.
According to order of the filter
Where are Butterworth filter used?
The Butterworth filter is typically used in data
converter applications as
.an anti-aliasing filter because of its maximum
flat pass band nature.
.The radar target track display can be designed
using Butterworth filter.
.The Butterworth filters are
frequently used in
high quality audio applications.
What is the application of low pass filter?
Low pass filters are-
-used to filter noise from a circuit.
'Noise' is a high frequency signal. When
passed through a low pass filter most of
the noise is removed and a clear sound is
produced.
Why ideal filter is not realizable?
The magnitude function ) may be zero at some
discrete frequencies, but it cannot be zero over
a finite band of frequencies since this will
cause the integral in the equation of paley-
wiener creation to become infinite. That
means ideal ilters are not physically realizable.
 VARIOUS FILTER TOPOLOGY
LPF –I ORDER BUTTERWORTH II ORDER HPF BUTTERWORTH
Operational amplifiers are linear devices that have all the properties required for nearly ideal
DC amplification and are therefore used extensively in signal conditioning, filtering or to
perform mathematical operations such as add, subtract, integration and differentiation.
An Operational Amplifier, is fundamentally a voltage amplifying device
An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device which consists of two high
impedance inputs. Inverting Input, & Non-inverting Input,
A third terminal represents the operational amplifiers output port which can both sink and
source either a voltage or a current.
Voltage – Voltage “in” and Voltage “out”
Current – Current “in” and Current “out”
Trans- conductance – Voltage “in” and Current “out”
Trans- resistance – Current “in” and Voltage “out”
Since most of the circuits dealing with operational amplifiers are voltagedifferential amplifiers,
Passive VS Active Elements

Passive elements are those elements, which do not need any

outside source for their operation, and they consume power and
cannot provide any power gain. Examples of passive elements are
inductors, capacitors, and resistors. As they do not need any
outside source for their operation and do not have the capability to
deliver any power gain.

On the other hand, active elements are those elements, which

requires an external source for their working, and have the
capability to deliver power gain. Examples of active devices are
transistors and operational amplifiers, as they need external power
for their working and can provide output power gain.
 ADVANTAGE & DIS ADVANTAGE OF
PASSIVE FILTER

In passive filters, change in load resistance will also affect

the performance of the filter, because the passive filter
does not have any isolation of load resistance .from the
rest of the circuit.
.Passive filters do not have any bandwidth restrictions,
.However, at low frequencies, passive filters require the
use of inductor with large value.
.Passive filters also have an inherent problem of noise
due to thermal noise in the elements used for filter
design.
.Usually, the output of the passive filter requires
Difference between active filters and passive filters
.Active filters need outside sources for their operation,
.Active filters have the capability of amplifying filter output,
. In small scale production. Active filters are costlier than passive
filters due to extra added active elements and external power
required to operate an active element.

. However, passive filters can also be costlier if high accuracy and

compactness are required.
.Active filters have bandwidth limitations due to active elements.
resulting in an unreliable response at higher frequencies.
.However, passive filters have no such limitations and output is
reliable at even very high frequencies.
.Due to the involvement of fewer elements, passive filters are less
complex and easy to design as compared to the equivalent active
filters.
Conclusion about active filters and passive filters
the selection of active or passive filters depends
upon the application.
.If high-frequency processing is involved, then
passive is preferable
.if compactness and less cost are desirable, then
active will be preferable.
.if less circuit complexity is required then the
passive filter will be given preference.
.In short, active and passive both have their roles
to play in different applications.
CONSTANT –K BAND PASS
 A capacitor is a linear component
because voltage and current as
functions of time depend in a
linear way on each other.J
A load is considered non-linear if its
impedance changes with the applied
voltage. The changing impedance Examples of linear loads would include
means that the current drawn by transformers, motors and capacitors. ...
the non-linear load will not be Common examples of non-linear loads include
sinusoidal even when it is connected rectifiers, variable-speed drives and electronic
to a sinusoidal voltage. ... The SMPS devices such as computers, printers, TVs,
is an excellent power supply, but it is servers and telecoms systems that use
also a highly non-linear load. switched-mode power supply (SMPS) power
conversion technologies.
LED lamps are non-linear loads which
generate harmonics in low voltage networks.
Inrush current will have the biggest impact on
the power factor of electrical networks, so
manufacturer derating recommendations
should be respected to avoid nuisance tripping
of the circuit-breaker.Aug 27, 2018
Nonlinear loads are the primary causes of
harmonics in an electrical system. Non-linear
loads draw short bursts of current, which
creates a situation where current is not
proportional to the voltage. These loads create
harmonic distortion that can have adverse
effects on your equipment.Apr 13, 2018
 Harmonics are voltages or currents that
operate at a frequency that is an integer
(whole-number) multiple of the fundamental
frequency. So given a 50Hz fundamental
waveform, this means a 2nd harmonic
frequency would be 100Hz (2 x 50Hz), a 3rd
harmonic would be 150Hz (3 x 50Hz), a 5th at
250Hz, a 7th at 350Hz and so on.

The lowest possible frequency at which a

string could vibrate to form a standing wave
pattern is known as the fundamental
frequency or the first harmonic.
The third harmonic causes a sharp increase in
the current in the neutral conductor.
Harmonics cause malfunctioning of electronic What problems can harmonics cause?
parts, transformer heating, and malfunctioning They stress the electrical network and
of power factor correction capacitors. potentially damage equipment. They
may disrupt normal operation of
devices and increase operating costs.
Symptoms of problematic harmonic
Harmonics of the Zero Order sequence, i.e,
levels include overheating of
n=3,6,9... etc are most harmful to distribution
transformers, motors and cables,
systems. This is because as opposed to the
thermal tripping of protective devices
positive and negative sequence systems, the
and logic faults of digital devices.
zero sequence currents of the three phases do
not cancel one another, thereby leading to a
high amount of neutral current.
Answers. LEDs are a nonlinear load and
probably these lamps will not have a power
factor correction converter. This means that
the current will not be sinusoidal therefore you
will have some reactive power flowing. There
may be a PFC choke before the rectifier bridge.
Why 3rd harmonic is most considerable?
One of the major effects of power system
harmonics is to increase the current in the
system. This is particularly the case for the
third harmonic, which causes a sharp increase
in the zero sequence current, and therefore
increases the current in the neutral conductor.
Why neutral current is high?
High neutral currents can be caused by
unbalanced and/or non-linear loads with high
harmonics. K-rated transformers have a 200%
rated neutral. Amperage should be measured
with a meter capable of measuring true RMS
currents.
LOADING
What is loading effect in op amp?
Loading effect can be defined as the effect on the source by the load impedance.
Usually loading effect reduces the voltage level of a voltage source. Amplifier input impedance
are calculate taking both the bias resistances (R1, R2) and the transistor input (i.e. base input
resistance), βr'e.
How do you remove the loading effect?
using two resistance to vary the gain. however, the input resistance should less than 1k due to
the limitation of the input noise.In my design another resistance should larger than 1000k due
to the loading effect. Any buffer should be use between output and the resistance to
reduce loading effect
Why does high voltage mean low current?
The primary reason that power is transmitted
at high voltages is to increase efficiency. ...
The lower current that accompanies high
voltage transmission reduces resistance in the
conductors as electricity flows along the
cables. This means that thin, light-weight wires
can be used in long-distance transmission.
BRIDGE OP-AMP
While the passive tuned filter circuit shown below .will work as a band pass filter, the pass band
(bandwidth) can be quite wide and this may be a problem if we want to isolate a small band of
frequencies. Active band

• pass filter can also be made using inverting operational

amplifier. This type of band pass filter is designed to have a
much narrower pass band.
• Lower right side figinfinite-gain multiple-feedback (Igiving it
a high “Q-factor” (up to 25)
• . frequency response of the circuit is similar to a resonance
circuit, this center frequency is referred to as the resonant
frequency, ( ƒr ). R1 and R2 determines the band pass “Q-
factor” and the frequency at which the maximum amplitude
occurs, the gain of the circuit will be equal to -2Q2. Then as
the gain increases so to does the selectivity. In other words,
high gain – high selectivity. An active band pass filter is a 2nd
Order type filter because it has “two” reactive components
(two capacitors) within its circuit design.
Q = 0.7071 gives a relationship , R2 being twice the value of resistor R1. Then
resistor R1 = 10kΩ and R2 = 20kΩ.
The center or resonant frequency is given as 1kHz. Using the new resistor
values obtained, determine value of the capacitors assuming C = C1 = C2.
The cut-off or corner frequency of the low pass
filter (LPF) is higher than the cut-off frequency
of the high pass filter (HPF) and the difference
between the frequencies at the -3dB point will
determine the “bandwidth” of the band pass
filter while attenuating any signals outside of
these points.
This cascading together of the individual low
and high pass passive filters produces a low
“Q-factor” type filter circuit which has a wide
pass band.
The first stage of the filter will be the high pass
stage that uses the capacitor to block any DC
biasing from the source.
This design has the advantage of producing a
relatively flat asymmetrical pass band
frequency response with one half representing
the low pass response and the other half
representing high pass response as shown.
The amplifier also provides isolation between
the two stages and defines the overall voltage
gain of the circuit.
BAND PASS FILTER
ACTIVE LOW PASS WITH FOLLOWER
ACTIVE BAND PASS FILTER
BAND PASS
 So this is basically a closed loop system. G is the feedforward gain and H is the feedback. The +/- sign
determines whether it’s a positive feedback or a negative one. We’ll delve into this concept in a while. The
closed loop gain is a pretty simple calculation and is given by
CLTF=G1±GH

• Suppose you want a system that

doesn’t need accurate positioning
or precision control, but is self
reliant and stable then an open
loop system will do. For example,
a normal bulb. You switch it ON
or OFF based on your needs, but
you’re not concerned about it’s
intensity. On the other hand, a
closed loop system works on
feedback. For example, the
display brightness of your mobile
handset. You can control it based
on your needs, which is the
feedback here.
• OLTF=GHOLTF=GH
• Now, we try to figure our how this
whole concept applies to OPAMPs.
An OPAMP works as a differential
amplifier i.e if either of the two
inputs are greater than the other, the
device amplifies that input. But how
much does it amplify?? Theoretically
this is defined as the open loop gain
of the OPAMP, written as AOLAOL,
and this tends to infinity. However
practically the OPAMP works
between two
supplies L+L+ and L−L− and thus the
output will be limited by these.
Furthermore the OPAMP shouldn’t
have any feedback network, so
basically it would look like this
NON INVERTING AND INV OPAMP
OUT-PUT OF DIFFERENTIATOR CIRCUIT
LOWPASS –HIGHPASS TRANSFORMATION
 APPROXIMATIONS
IN ACTIVE FILTER –
-DESIGN
approximation
 TRANSCONDUCTANCE AMP FILTER
Design of Two-Stage Operational Amplifier using Indirect Feedback Frequency
Co
 Bode plot

Contents
What is a Bode Plot
Gain Margin
Gain Margin Formula
Phase Margin
Phase Margin Formula
Bode Plot Stability
How to Draw Bode Plot
Bode Stability Criterion
Advantages of a Bode Plot
What is a Bode Plot
A Bode plot is a graph commonly used in
control system engineering to determine the
stability of a control system. A Bode plot maps
the frequency response of the system through
two graphs – the Bode magnitude plot
(expressing the magnitude in decibels) and the
Bode phase plot (expressing the phase shift in
degrees).
Bode plots were first introduced in the 1930s
by Hendrik Wade Bode while he was working
at Bell Labs in the United States. Although
Bode plots offer a relatively simple method to
calculate system stability, they can not handle
transfer functions with right half plane
Gain Margin
The greater the Gain Margin (GM), the greater
the stability of the system. The gain margin
refers to the amount of gain, which can be
increased or decreased without making the
system unstable. It is usually expressed as a
magnitude in dB.
We can usually read the gain margin directly
from the Bode plot (as shown in the diagram
above). This is done by calculating the vertical
distance between the magnitude curve (on the
Bode magnitude plot) and the x-axis at the
frequency where the Bode phase plot = 180°.
This point is known as the phase crossover
frequencyIt is important to realize that the
Gain and the Gain Margin are not the same
things. In fact, the Gain Margin is the negative
of the gain (in decibels, dB). This will make
sense when we look at the Gain margin
formula.
Gain Margin Formula
The formula for Gain Margin (GM) can be expressed as:

Where G is the gain. This is the magnitude (in dB) as read from the vertical axis of the
magnitude plot at the phase crossover frequency.
In our example shown in the graph above, the Gain (G) is 20. Hence using our
formula for gain margin, the gain margin is equal to 0 – 20 dB = -20 dB (unstable).
The greater the Phase Margin (PM), the greater will be the stability of the system. The phase
margin refers to the amount of phase, which can be increased or decreased without making
the system unstable. It is usually expressed as a phase in degrees.
We can usually read the phase margin directly from the Bode plot (as shown in the diagram
above). This is done by calculating the vertical distance between the phase curve (on the
Bode phase plot) and the x-axis at the frequency where the Bode magnitude plot = 0 dB. This
point is known as the gain crossover frequency.
It is important to realize that the phase lag and the Phase Margin are not the same things.
This will make sense when we look at the phase margin formula. Where is the phase lag (a
number less than 0). This is the phase as read from the vertical axis of the phase plot at the
gain crossover frequency.
In our example shown in the graph above, the phase lag is -189°. Hence using our formula for
phase margin, the phase margin is equal to -189° – (-180°) = -9° (unstable).
As another example, if an amplifier’s open-loop gain crosses 0 dB at a frequency where the
phase lag is -120°, then the phase lag -120°. Hence the phase margin of this feedback system
is -120° – (-180°) = 60° (stable).
bode Stability Criterion
Stability conditions are given below:
For a Stable System: Both the margins should
be positive or phase margin should be greater
than the gain margin.
For Marginal Stable System: Both the margins
should be zero or phase margin should be
equal to the gain margin.
For Unstable System: If any of them is
negative or phase margin should be less than
the gain margin.
For drawing the Bode magnitude plot:
•Mark the corner frequency on the semi-log graph paper.
•Tabulate these factors moving from top to bottom in the given sequence.
1.Constant term K.
2.Integral factor

3.First order factor

4.First order factor (1+jωT).

5.Second order or quadratic factor:
•Now sketch the line with the help of the corresponding slope of the given factor. Change the
slope at every corner frequency by adding the slope of the next factor. You will get the
magnitude plot.
•Calculate the gain margin.
For drawing the Bode phase plot:
1.Calculate the phase function adding all the phases of factors.
2.Substitute various values to the above function in order to find out the phase at different
points and plot a curve. You will get a phase curve.
3.Calculate the phase margin.
Bode Stability Criterion
Advantages of a Bode Plot
It is based on the asymptotic approximation, which provides a simple
method to plot the logarithmic magnitude curve.
The multiplication of various magnitude appears in the transfer
function can be treated as an addition, while division can be treated
as subtraction as we are using a logarithmic scale.
With the help of this plot only we can directly comment on the
stability of the system without doing any calculations.
Bode plots provide relative stability in terms of gain
margin and phase margin.
It also covers from low frequency to high frequency range.
ACTUAL TRACE
ACTUAL TRACE
 INDEFINITE
ADMITTANCE MATRIX
The diagonal elements of the Bus
Admittance matrix are known as
self-admittances and the off-
diagonal elements are known as
mutual admittances.
ANY ELECTRICAL NETWORK CAN BE
WRITTEN IN FORM OF IAM WIH THE
HELP OF KCL AND KVL
e.g. IAM for nTh order network
 V=IR OHM’S LAW GIVES
ADMITTANCE FORM I=VY
FOR A GIVEN NETWORK
WRITING IAM
STEP 1 -NODE LEBELING
i.e. 1 2 3 4
 STEP- 2 ADMITTANCE INCOMING OR
OUTGOING FROM ONE NODE TO ANOTHER
ADJECENT NODE IS TAKEN AS NEGATIVE
i.e. Y12 =-Y6
Y34 =-Y2
STEP-3 JUNCTION POINT FOR ITH NODE
IS SUMMATION OF ALL ADMITTANCE
COMING TO SAME NODE I.E.
Y33 =Y2+Y4+Y5
 JUNCTION
Y11=YT =Y1 +Y4 +Y6
Y22=YP =Y3+Y5 +Y6
Y33=YM =Y2 +Y4 +Y5
Y44 = YN =Y1 +Y2 +Y3
 1 2 3 4
1 Y1+Y4+Y6 - Y6 -Y4 -Y1

2 –Y6 Y3 +Y5 +Y6 -Y5 -Y3

3 -Y4 -Y5 Y2+Y4+Y5 -Y2

4 –Y1 -Y3 -Y2 Y1+Y2+Y3

ZERO SUM PROPERTY OF IAM :1. SUMMATION OF
EACH ROW ELEMENTS EQUALS ZERO
2.SUMMATION OF EACH COLOUMN ENTRY EQUALS
ZERO
3.DETERMINANT VALUE OF MATRIX EQUALS ZERO

1 2 3 4
1 Y1+Y4+Y6 - Y6 -Y4 -Y1

2 –Y6 Y3 +Y5 +Y6 -Y5 -Y3

3 -Y4 -Y5 Y2+Y4+Y5 -Y2

4 –Y1 -Y3 -Y2 Y1+Y2+Y3

REDUCTION OF
MULTIPOLE
 IAM APPLICABLE FOR THREE
DIFFERENT OP-AMP CONFIGURATION

1. INVERTING MODE OP-

AMP
2.NON INVERTING MODE
OP-AMP
3.DIFFERENTIAL MODE
OPAMP
• RULE
• 1.DELETE ROW CORRESPONDING TO DRIVEN
NODE AFTER NODE LEBELING
• 2. DELETE ROW AND COLOUMN
CORRESPONDING TO DATUM NODE i.e. 5th
row/column
• 3.ADD COLUMN 2 TO COLUMN 3 OR
• ADD COLUMN 3 TO COLUMN 2
• 4. HERE WE ADD COLUMN 3 TO COLUMN 2
THEN DELETE COLUMN BEING ADDED i.e.
COLUMN 3
 1 2 3 4 5
1 Ya+Yc -Ya -Yc 0 0
2 -Ya Ya+Yb 0 0 -Yb
3 -Yc 0 Yc+Yd -Yd 0
4 0 0 -Yd Yd 0
5 0 -Yb 0 0 Yb
 .
CHECK FOR ZERO -SUM PROPERTY
i.e. each row has zero sum element value
and each column has zero sum value
1 2 3 4 5
1 Ya+Yc -Ya -Yc 0 0
2 -Ya Ya+Yb 0 0 -Yb
3 -Yc 0 Yc+Yd -Yd 0
4 0 0 -Yd Yd 0
5 0 -Yb 0 0 Yb
1 2 3 4 5
1 Ya+Yc -Ya -Yc 0 0
2 -Ya Ya+Yb 0 0 -Yb
3 -Yc 0 Yc+Yd -Yd 0
4 0 0 -Yd Yd 0
5 0 -Yb 0 0 Yb
1 2 3 4 5
1 Ya+Yc -Ya -Yc 0 0
2 -Ya Ya+Yb 0 0 -Yb
3 -Yc 0 Yc+Yd -Yd 0
4 0 0 -Yd Yd 0
5 0 -Yb 0 0 Yb
 RULE FOR REDUCTION OF MULTIPOLE
1.DO NODE LEBELING
2.DELETE ROW CORRESPONDING TO DRIVEN NODE
3. DELETE ROW AND COLOUMN CORRESPONDING TO DATUM NODE i.e. 5th
row/column
4.ADD COLUMN 2 TO COLUMN 3
OR
4.ADD COLUMN 3 TO COLUMN 2
5. HERE WE ADD COLUMN 3 TO COLUMN 2 THEN DELETE COLUMN BEING
ADDED i.e. COLUMN 3
 RULES FOR CONSTRAINED MATRIX
1.DELETE ROW CORRESPONDING TO DRIVEN NODE AFTER NODE LEBELING
2. DELETE ROW AND COLOUMN CORRESPONDING TO DATUM NODE i.e. 5th
row/column
3.ADD COLUMN 2 TO COLUMN 3 OR
ADD COLUMN 3 TO COLUMN 2
4. HERE WE ADD COLUMN 3 TO COLUMN 2 THEN DELETE COLUMN BEING
ADDED i.e. COLUMN 3
 • LET OUTPUT VOLAGE IS AT NODE 4
• LET INPUT VOLTAGE IS AT NODE 1
• LET TRANSFER FUNCTION IS OUTPUT VOLTAGE TO THE INPUT VOLTAGE
• i.e. V45 TO THE V15
• LET 5TH ROW COLUMN IS ALREADY BEING DELETED HENCE GAIN CAN BE
WRITTEN AS V4 / V1
• HENCE COFACTOR IS BEING CALCULATED AS ABOVE
CALCULATION OF COFACTORS
CALCULATION OF COFACTORS
 FIRST ORDER ALL PAS FILTER
The type of filter which does not change amplitude of the input signal and introduces phase shift is referred
as All pass filter. It is also known by name 'APF' filter.
II ORDER POLES AND ZEROS
FIRST ORDER ALL PASS
SSS
Voltage-mode all-pass filter passive scheme based on floating
negative resistor and grounded capacitorN. Herencsar, J.
Koton, K. Vrba, S. Minaei, I. C. Göknar
CNIC -VNIC
 TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF ALL–PASS FILTER
fig-1(a) phase shift from -180 degree at D.C.to 0 degree (at
higher frequency). At w = 1/RC, the value of phase shift is -90
degree.

fig-1(b) has phase shift variation from 0 degree (at DC frequency)

to -180 degree (at higher frequency).
DESIGN EQUATIONS
APF
SIGNUM FUNCTION
SIGNUM FUNCTION
 IAM FORMULA FOR
TRANSFER IMPEDANCE
INPUT IMPEDANCE
TRANSFER FUNCTION
INVERTING MODE CONFIGURATION (MFB)MULTIPLE FEED BACK
.NODE LABELING
.4TH NODE IS DRIVEN NODE
.NODE 3RD IS DRIVING NODE
. YT = YA +YB+YC+YD
CALCULATE TRANSFER FUNCTION
 TO GET IAM DLETE
.ROW4TH CORRESPONDING DRIVEN NODE
.COLOUMN 3RD CORRESPOMDING DRIVING NODE
.5THROW AND COLUMN COREESPONDING
REFRENCE NODE
 LET WE CAN DELETE 5TH ROW /COLUMN
WE CAN DELETE 4TH ROW
WE CAN DELETE 3RD COLUMN
HENCE REDUCTION OF TWO ROW 4 TH AND 5TH
REDUCTION OF TWO COLUMN 3RD AND 5TH
HENCE 3x3 MATRIX
 AFTER DELETING 5TH ROW /COLUMN
DELETING 4TH ROW
DELETING 3RD COLUMN
HENCE REDUCTION OF TWO ROW i.e. 4 TH AND 5TH
REDUCTION OF TWO COLUMN i.e. 3RD AND 5TH
HENCE 3x3 MATRIX

• In calculation column
no 4th is column no 3rd
• 3x3 matrix
• In calculation of sign
• it is taken 3 in place of 4
• YT = Ya+Yb+Yc+Yd
In calculation column no 4th is column no 3rd
3x3 matrix
In calculation of sign
it is taken 3 in place of 4
YT = Ya+Yb+Yc+Yd
- (MINUS) STAND FOR INVERTING MODE OPAMP
NON INVERTING OP-AMP GAIN
FILTER CIRCUITS
DELETE ROW AND COLOUMN
CORRESPONDING TO DATUM NODE ‘5’
ROW CORROSPONDING DRIVEN NODE ‘4’ IS TO BE DELETED
DLETE FIRST ‘1’ ROW & 3RD COLUMN
DLETE 1ST ROW AND 1ST COLUMN
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF IIND ORDER
LPF
IIND ORDER LPF
ACTIVE ELEMENTS
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES IF BIASED
 .TRANSISTORS
.OP-AMP
.VOLTAGE AND CURRENT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER FILTER
.MOSFET
.LOGIC GATES
.OP-AMP FLOATING CC
.OPAMP TRANSCONDUCTANCE CC
.VARIOUS GENERATION OF
.CC-I
.CC-II
CC-III
The Operational Floating Current
Conveyor
ACTIVE ELEMENTS
ACTIVE ELEMENTS
 ACTIVE ELEMENTS

Active RC filters using the Operational

Transresistance Amplifier
• TRANSRESISTANCE AMP.
ACTIVE ELEMENTS
Transimpedance Amplifier with
Butterworth PostAmp Filter
 ACTIVE ELEMENTS
Operational transresistance amplifier based current-mode all-pass filter
topologies
 A new generalized universal filter configuration using the Operational Transresistance
Twelve different filter circuits are derived from the general configuration. The circuits are
designed to provide Low-pass, Band-pass, High-pass, All-pass and Notch responses
through appropriate choice of admittances. The feasibility of this configuration in
operating at high frequencies is presented. A detailed analysis taking the effect of the
finite trans-resistance gain into consideration is presented. Self-compensation that
requires no additional elements of some of the proposed filters is presented. The
effectiveness of the proposed configuration is demonstrated by H-Spice simulations.
ACTIVE ELEMENTS
HISTORY OF CURRENT CONYEYOS
ACTIVE ELEMENTS
ACTIVE ELEMENTS
ACTIVE ELEMENTS