Intro to Developmental Psychology

Task 1 (500 words)

According to Freud's psychosexual theory, personality development is shaped by
early life experiences and the way conflicts involving libidinal energy directed
towards erogenous zones are resolved. These conflicts arise in various stages,
including oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital, each of which is linked to a particular
developmental task and possible fixations. It is oversimplified to say that “adult
personality is set by age six”, as suggested by the description of Freud's hypothesis.
Although Freud emphasised the significance of early events in forming personality
since it is thought that personality formation is significantly and permanently
impacted by the resolution of conflicts during the early stages of psychosexual
development, he also recognised that psychological development and change can
occur continuously throughout life. Age is not a fixed component in personality
development; rather, it is impacted by a complex interplay of biological,
psychological, and social factors.

It is not entirely accurate to say that behaviourist views originated from Freud's work
in the description. The evolution of psychology was influenced by Freud's
psychoanalytic theory, but behaviourism also arose as a separate theoretical
framework with its own guiding principles. Unlike Freud, who concentrated on
unconscious processes and psychosexual development, behaviourism—especially
the work of psychologists like Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner—
emphasised visible behaviour and the function of conditioning in learning. Even
though behaviourism and psychoanalysis may have occasionally interacted and
shared ideas, they nevertheless constitute two separate and autonomous
psychological schools of thought. Behaviourists went as far as to criticise
psychoanalysts for their inability to demonstrate empirical evidence. According to the
behaviourist school of thought, behaviour can be scientifically explained without
reference to hypothetical constructs like thoughts and beliefs or to internal
physiological events. Generally, this makes behaviour a more fruitful area of study
for comprehending the psychology of humans or animals.

Lastly, the description states that “the only notable criticism of Freud is that his
stages did not progress further into adulthood” which lacks nuance. The Oedipus
and Electra complexes are mentioned in the description as a component of Freud's
theory, but it is not made clear that these ideas are predicated on heterosexual
stereotypes. A girl's unconscious longing for her father and rivalry with her mother
are the components of the Electra complex, whereas a boy's unconscious desire for
his mother and rivalry with his father are the components of the Oedipus complex.
Due to its heteronormativity and inability to take into consideration differences in
family structures and sexual orientation, Freud's theory has drawn criticism.
Additionally, many have accused Freud's theory of simplicity and reductionism, as it
ignores crucial elements that contribute to personality formation in favour of
emphasising the role of sexuality and innate drives in development. Although Freud's
contributions to psychology were clearly influential, the description implies that his
theory is still widely applied in 21st-century therapeutic procedures. In actuality,
Freud's theories have undergone significant scrutiny and modification, and modern
psychotherapy techniques frequently depart from strict adherence to Freudian
principles by incorporating a range of theoretical viewpoints, such as cognitive-
behavioural, humanistic, and interpersonal theories.

Task 2 (500 words)

According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, children go through a number
of stages where they create their understanding of the world as they grow. These
stages are the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), the pre-operational stage (2-7 years),
the concrete operational stage (7-11 years), and the formal operational stage (11+
years). Assimilation (relating new knowledge to pre-existing schemas) and
accommodation (modifying pre-existing schemas to fit new information) are the
processes by which growth proceeds, with each stage distinguished by unique
cognitive capacities and limitations.

Piaget placed emphasis on how infants are proactive in their own cognitive
development, creating their conception of the world by exploring surroundings and
engaging with people contrary to previous perspectives that saw kids as passive
consumers of knowledge such as the notion of the tabula rasa (Locke, 1689). Piaget
characterised this process "constructivism," encouraging students to investigate, try
new things, and interpret their experiences in order to have a deeper comprehension
and retain knowledge. Comparing inquiry-based learning activities to traditional
instruction, Minner et al. (2010) revealed that students' conceptual knowledge and
scientific inquiry skills improved significantly. Students that participated posed
questions and evaluated evidence to gain a deeper comprehension of scientific
ideas/procedures.

Piaget's critics contend that he underestimated children's cognitive capacities.

According to more recent studies, newborns/infants may already display abilities
such as object permanence and social cue understanding that are more
sophisticated than those suggested by Piaget. He claims infants begin to understand
object permanence between 8-12 months. Nonetheless, studies employing
habituation paradigms and eye-tracking technology revealed that as early as 3–4
months old a basic comprehension of object permanence presides. Babies appear to
have some anticipation of object continuity, as evidenced by studies that show them
to stare longer at unexpected events that defy concepts of object permanence
(Baillargeon, 2004). Technology and methodological advancements, such as better
experimental strategies for examining baby cognition have allowed researchers to
more precisely gauge infants' cognitive capacities, corroborate these findings.

Piaget's theory can be seen as proficient as it emphasises how children's thinking

develops qualitatively as they move through various developmental stages. For
example, in the sensorimotor stage, children learn mostly through motor activities
and sensory experiences; in the pre-operational stage, toddlers start to utilise words
and symbols but have difficulty with logical reasoning. Teachers and other carers
can modify their interactions and instructional strategies to assist children's cognitive
growth at every level by being aware of these qualitative shifts.Furthermore, his idea
of conservation shows how children's comprehension of particular ideas changes
with time. Conservation tasks are an effective way to show children the limitations in
their cognitive abilities that come with different stages of development. Young
children, for instance, might concentrate more on perceptual details than on
underlying amounts, which could cause mistakes in conservation tasks, emphasising
the necessity for instructional practices that scaffold children's cognitive growth and
foster more complex reasoning skills by pointing out these constraints.

Piaget's theory was created mainly through observations of children from middle-
class, Western families. Therefore, the theory might not adequately take into
consideration the effects of society and culture on cognitive development. Studies
have demonstrated how cultural variations in parental approaches, educational
methods, and societal conventions influence how children develop cognitively.
Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978) places a strong emphasis on the role that
language, cultural background, and social interactions play in cognitive development.
These theories supplement Piaget's individual-centred approach by offering different
viewpoints that emphasise the impact of sociocultural factors on children's thinking
and learning.

Task 3 (1000 words)

Fundamental ideas in developmental psychology provide useful frameworks for
comprehending children's growth and guiding instructional strategies that promote
learning and growth in every aspect. Practitioners can foster environments that
enhance children's cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development by
implementing ideas from developmental psychology in the classroom. This will
ultimately generate favourable outcomes for all students and there are a multitude of
ways this can be seen in the case study.

Firstly, behaviourist ideals are reflected in Miss Dunn's use of consequences, which
include reminding kids of the school's behaviour code, warnings and threatening to
take away playtime for persistent misbehaviour. Behaviourism asserts that
interactions with the environment teach behaviour, and that a behaviour's outcomes
decide whether or not it is repeated. This idea, sometimes known as the law of
effect, states that actions that result in favourable outcomes are more likely to be
repeated, whereas actions that result in unfavourable outcomes are less likely to be
repeated. A key component of behaviour modification strategies that try to alter
behaviour in ways that are desired is the application of consequences. Miss Dunn
promotes pupils' adherence to classroom rules and sense of accountability by
outlining clear expectations and consequences for behaviour.

Bandura’s social learning theory is reflected in Miss Dunn's use of positive

reinforcement, which includes verbal praise and house points for on-task behaviour.
Social Learning Theory places a strong emphasis on the value of observational
learning and the social forces that shape behaviour. Although the main focus of
social learning theory is on how people pick up new behaviours through modelling,
imitation, and observation, it also recognises the importance of reinforcement in the
learning process. Miss Dunn encourages pupils to emulate her behaviour and
internalise societal norms for appropriate classroom conduct by rewarding desired
behaviours, such as staying on task and participating in class activities.
Building upon his earlier work on social learning theory, Bandura developed Social
Cognitive Theory which highlights the dynamic interaction between cognitive,
environmental , and behavioural factors in shaping human behaviour. The
relationship between cognitive processes - such as judgement, attention, and
memory - and conduct is mediated by environmental signals, according to social
cognitive theory. Adolescents actively absorb information from their environment,
evaluate it in the context of their own beliefs and experiences, and use that
evaluation to guide their actions. Children can effectively develop their judgement by
comparing Miss Dunn's usage of a previous example of what is considered "good"
and prospective improvements to their own preconceived beliefs of what is
acceptable. This also puts their memory and attention to test, since people who
score highly in these cognitive domains will create work that is most similar to the
example.
In addition, self-efficacy, or a person's confidence in their capacity to carry out a
certain activity or behaviour, is a key idea in social cognitive theory. According to
Bandura, self-efficacy affects motivation, effort, perseverance, and ultimately
behaviour While low self-efficacy might result in avoidance or disengagement, high
self-efficacy is linked to increased motivation and performance. Self-efficacy can be
promoted by encouraging pupils to establish personal objectives that are both
attainable and reasonable. Dividing more ambitious objectives into more doable
tasks and offering step-by-step instructions on how to achieve them makes students
feel more successful and encourages them to recognise and enjoy their little
successes along the way. Moreover, self-determination theory, proposed by
psychologists Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan in the 1980s, highlights
the role that competence, autonomy, and intrinsic motivation play in promoting the
best possible growth and well-being. In the case study, Miss Dunn's assistance with
the students' poster projects demonstrates her support of their independence and
competence. Miss Dunn develops students' sense of autonomy and competence by
giving them choice in selecting topics, letting them come up with ideas for layouts,
and providing guidance when needed. This can improve students' motivation and
involvement in the learning process.
The teaching style of Miss Dunn is in line with constructivist ideas from Piaget’s
cognitive development theory, which place an emphasis on student-centred learning,
active learning, and inquiry. Miss Dunn helps children build knowledge about living
organisms and their ecosystems by involving them in practical discovery,
conversation, and contemplation. Deeper learning is encouraged by the emphasis on
poster-making, which gives pupils the opportunity to actively organise and represent
what they know about the subject in a fun and creative way to further promote self-
efficacy. Students can take an active role in their education by doing practical tasks
like creating posters. When students actively participate in creating something
concrete, as opposed to passively absorbing information, their comprehension and
recollection of the subject matter can be improved.
The interconnection and connectivity of different components within a system, such
as families, schools, and communities, are highlighted by Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological systems theory. In the case study, Miss Dunn recognises the need of
coordinating efforts across different systems to fulfil kids' needs and works with the
after school club personnel to provide Alfie and Bianca extra support due to the
influence of their personal lives on their educational abilities. Miss Dunn improves
the chances for learning and growth for pupils by utilising connections and resources
within the larger system.The sociocultural theory of cognitive development
(Vygotsky, 1978), highlights the impact of sociocultural factors on cognitive
development. Miss Dunn demonstrates her awareness of the sociocultural context in
which learning takes place by analysing the special circumstances of Alfie and
Bianca in the case study. Miss Dunn recognises and meets each child's unique
requirements, demonstrating her awareness of the cultural and familial factors that
may influence these children's learning experiences and results. This highlights the
cultural context of development as well as providing scaffolding which is a
procedure for giving students short-term help and direction while they participate in
tasks that are above their present competency level. By encouraging skill
development and autonomy, scaffolding assists students in bridging the gap
between what they can accomplish on their own and what they can accomplish with
support.

Reference lists
Task 1
 Keenan, T., Evans, S., & Crowley, K (2016). An Introduction to Child
Development (3rd ed.) Sage, UK.
 Downey, J. I., & Friedman, R. C. (1995). Biology and the oedipus complex.
Psychoanal. Q, 64,
234-264.
 Fisher, S. & Greenberg, R. P. (1996). Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing
the theories
 and therapy. New York: Wiley.
 Kohlberg, L., & Ullian, D. Z. (1974). Stages in the development of
psychosexual concepts and attitudes.
 Kupfersmid, J. (2019). Freud's clinical theories then and now. Psychodunamic
 psychiatry, 47(1), 81-97.
 Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Standard Edition
 Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: an experimental analysis.
Oxford, England: Appleton-Century.
 Skinner, B.F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York, NY: Random House.
 Thorndike, Edward Lee. (1898). Animal intelligence. Princeton, NJ: MacMillan.
 Thorndike, Edward (1932). The fundamentals of learning. New York, NY:
AMS Press Inc.
  Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological
Review, 20, 158-177.
 Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal
of Experimental Psychology,3, 1-14.
 Braat, M., Engelen, J., van Gemert, T., & Verhaegh, S. (2020). The rise and
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 Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis.
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 Skinner, B. F. (1948). Walden two. New York: Macmillan.
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 Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological
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 Watson, J. B. (1930). Behaviorism (revised edition). University of Chicago
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Task 2
 Keenan, T., Evans, S., & Crowley, K (2016). An Introduction to Child
Development (3rd ed.) Sage, UK
 Bruner (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge.: Belkapp Press.

 (1994). Culture and cognitive development from a Piagetian perspective.

Psychology and culture (pp. 145–149). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

 Greenfield, P. M., & Cole, M. (2019). C. Cross-cultural research and Piagetian

theory: Paradox and progress. In The developing individual in a changing
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 Hughes , M. (1975). Egocentrism in preschool children. Unpublished doctoral

dissertation. Edinburgh University.

 Meadows, S. (2019). Cognitive development. In Companion encyclopedia of

psychology (pp. 699-715). Routledge.

 Miller, P. H. (2011). Piaget's theory: Past, present, and future.

  Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul.

 Piaget, J., & Cook, M. T. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New
York, NY: International University Press.

 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher

psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

 Wellman, H. M. (2011). Reinvigorating explanations for the study of early

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 Piaget, J. (1957). Construction of reality in the child. London: Routledge &

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 Blakeley, S., 2022. Tabula Rasa Definition & Origin [online] study.com.
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Task 3
 Keenan, T., Evans, S., & Crowley, K (2016). An Introduction to Child
Development (3rd ed.) Sage, UK.
 Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: an experimental analysis.
Oxford, England: Appleton-Century.
 Skinner, B.F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York, NY: Random House.
 Thorndike, Edward Lee. (1898). Animal intelligence. Princeton, NJ: MacMillan.
 Thorndike, Edward (1932). The fundamentals of learning. New York, NY:
AMS Press Inc.
 Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological
Review, 20, 158-177.
 Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal
of Experimental Psychology,
 3, 1-14.
 Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality
development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
 Bruner (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge.: Belkapp Press.

 (1994). Culture and cognitive development from a Piagetian perspective.

Psychology and culture (pp. 145–149). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

 Meadows, S. (2019). Cognitive development. In Companion encyclopedia of

psychology (pp. 699-715). Routledge.

 Miller, P. H. (2011). Piaget's theory: Past, present, and future.

 Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul.

 Piaget, J., & Cook, M. T. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New
York, NY: International University Press.

 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher

psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

 Piaget, J. (1957). Construction of reality in the child. London: Routledge &

Kegan Paul.
 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human
development. American psychologist, 32 (7), 513.
 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1995). Developmental ecology through space and time: A
future perspective.
 Bronfenbrenner, U., & Evans, G. W. (2000). Developmental science in the
21st century: Emerging questions, theoretical models, research designs and
empirical findings . Social development, 9 (1), 115-125.