Satellite Communications

Unit-1
Introduction: origin of satellite communications, Historical Back-ground, Basic
Concepts of Satellite Communications, Frequency allocations for satellite services,
Applications, Future Trends of Satellite Communications.
Orbital Mechanics & Launchers:
Orbital Mechanics, Look Angle determination, Orbital perturbations, Orbit
determination, launches and launch vehicles, Orbital effects in communication
systems performance.

Definition of Satellite:-
A smaller object which revolves (or) rotates around a longer object is referred as a
satellite.
(or)
It’s a machine, placed in the space which rotates around an earth (or) other objects.

Classification of Satellites:-
Satellites are classified as two types: Natural satellites & Artificial satellites

Natural satellites:- These type of satellites are existed naturally in the universe
Example: Moon, which revolves around the earth.

Artificial satellites:- These type of satellites are man made and launched into space
Example:- Sputnik, SCORE.

Artificial satellites are classified as two types: a) Active satellites & b) Passive
satellites

Active satellites:- The satellite which receives the power of transmitted signal from
the ground station, amplifies it and retransmit it by frequency shifting the modulated
signal is called as active satellite.

Passive satellites:- The satellite which receives the signals from earth station and
reflects it back to another earth station or same earth station without modifying and
amplifying is referred as passive satellite.

Origin of satellite communication:-

The origin of a satellite was first proposed by Arthur C Clarke, in the year 1945 in
science fiction magzine.He was interested in long distance radio communication. He
assumed that, a transponder is placed in a space it acts as a repeater which can
retransmit the signals over a long distance. Further he stated that to establish the
global communication three satellites have to place 120 degrees apart from each other.

Historical-Background of satellites:-

The first satellite was launched by USSR in 1957 named as a Sputnik I, It carried only
a beacon transmitter and did not have communications capability. The next satellite
was launched by U.S. in 1958, named as Score had a storage capacity that allowed a 4
min message received from an earth station to be retransmitted. The batteries on Score
failed after 35 days in orbit. Echo I & II (Earth Change Hazard Observatory) are
launched (LEO) and act as passive reflectors for communication signals. The first
true communication satellites, Telstar I & II Active satellites were launched (MEO)
in 1962 and 1963. These are launched from Bell laboratories and used C-band
transponders adapted from terrestrial microwave link equipment. The satellites carried
solar cells and batteries that allowed continuous use of the single transponder ,and
demonstrations of live television links and multiplexed telephone circuits were made
across the atlantic oceans. International Telecommunications Union (ITU) should
examine the aspects of space communications for which international cooperation
would be necessary. The INTELSAT-I was launched (GEO) in 1965, by Europe &
USA. It is incorporated two 6/4 GHz transponders, each with 25MHz bandwidth.
Intelsat was highly successful and grew rapidly as many countries saw the value of
improved telecommunications, It provides high quality satellite communications with
in the borders of large countries. In 1963 USA launched the satellite
SYNCOM(Synchronous Communication Satellite) this is the first geo stationary
satellite.

Year Country Satellite Name

1957 USSR Sputnik-I
1958 USA Score
1960 USA(AT&T) Echo-I
1965 USA(AT&T) Echo-II
1962 USA(Bell lab) TELSTAR
1963 USA(NASA) SYNCOM
1965 Europe & USA INTELSAT-I

Satellites in Indian scenario:-

Year Satellite Name

1975 ARYABATTA
 1979 ROHINI
1979 BHASKARA
1981 APPLE(Arian Passenger Payload
Experiment)
1982 INSAT
1990- INSAT Series
2000
2001 GSAT(Geo synchronous satellite)
2002 INSAT IIIc
2004 GSLV(Geo synchronous satellite
launch vehicle)
2005 PSLV(Polar satellite launch vehicle)
2008 CHANDRAYAN-1
2013 MOM(Mass Orbitals)
2019 CHANDRAYAN-2
2020 PSLVC50
2023 CHANDRAYAN-3

Satellite Orbits:-

An orbit is the gravitationally curved path of an object around a point in space. For
example the orbit of a plane around the sun.

Low Earth Orbit(LEO):-

LEO orbit satellites are much closer to the earth than GEO satellites. The distance of
LEO is 500Km to 1500Km from the earth surface. LEO satellites don’t stay in a fixed
position relative to the surface and are visible to 15 to 20 min for each round.
Advantages:-
Better signal strength and point to point communication.
Mostly suitable for mobile applications.
Disadvantages:-
Network of LEO satellites is very costly
LEO satellites have to compensate for doppler shift cause by their relative moments
Atmospheric drag effects are more

Medium Earth Orbit(MEO):-

The distance of MEO satellites from the earth surface is 8000Km to 18000Km.
For each revolution it takes 2-8hrs of time.
MEO satellites have large coverage area than LEO satellites.
Used in global communication like Email, Fax..etc.
Weaker signal strength than LEO
Geostationary Earth Orbit(GEO):-
The distance of the orbit above the earth surface is 35,786Km. A GEO satellite can
complete it’s orbit by 24hrs. That means speed of the GEO satellite is equals to
rotation speed of the earth.
Advantages:-
It has larger coverage area.
Used in global communication like TV and Radio
Doppler shift is negligible.
Communication satellites are placed in GEO

Polar Orbit:-
These orbits have an inclination of 90degrees with respect to equator.
For each revolution it takes 12hrs of time.
These polar orbits revolve around the earth by covering the north and south poles.

Inclined Orbit:-
The orbit exhibits the angle other than zero degrees with respect to equator.

Fig:- Satellite orbits

Frequency Allocation
Satellite communication employee with the microwave frequencies from 0.3GHz to
300GHz. There are different organizations to regulate the operation and launching of
the satellites.
ITU:- International Telecommunication Union

It is responsible for allocation of frequency to satellite services

IFRB:- International Frequency Regulation Board
It is responsible for advising the member countries on operation of maximum
practical no.of radio channels in a portion of spectrum.

CCIR:- International Radio Consultative Committee

It is responsible for studying the technical & operational questions related to radio
communication.

CCITT:- International Telegraphy & Telephony Consultative Committee

It is responsible for studying the technical & operational questions related to the
telegraphy & telephony.

C band is widely used in satellite communication for several reasons

C band signals are less affected by atmospheric interference's, such as rain and water
vapor, compared to higher frequency bands like Ku and Ka.
C band has a longer wavelength , which makes it easier to transmit and receive signals
through smaller antennas
C band signals can penetrate through obstacles like tress and buildings, making them
more suitable for broadcasting and telecommunications
C band signals require less power to transmit, which reduces the need for large and
powerful amplifiers.
C band equipment and satellites are generally less expensive than those operating at
higher frequency bands.
The c band has an established infrastructure, with many existing satellite systems and
ground stations already in place.
These advantages make c-band a popular choice for various satellite applications,
including
C band is applicable for Telecommunications, Broadcasting, Data services, Internet
connectivity and Remote sensing areas.
However it’s worth nothing that c-band is becoming increasingly congested, and
higher frequency bands like Ku and Ka are being used more frequently to meet the
growing demand for satellite services.

Satellite Services:-
Fixed Satellite Service(FSS):-
FSS relies on stationary ground equipment at predefined locations for both
transmitting and receiving satellite signals. It uses geosationary satellites to provide
fixed coverage over a specific region or area. It encompasses a wide range of services,
from international internet connectivity to private business networks. Frequency range
allocated for satellite communications is c-band (4-8GHz) uplink 5.925-6.425 GHz,
downlink 3.7 - 4.2 Ghz, Ku-band (12-18GHz) uplink13.75-14.5GHz, downlink 10.95-
12.75GHz and Ka-band (26-40GHz) uplink(27.5-31GHz), downlink(18.3-22.1GHz)
High reliability & availability
Stable & fixed coverage areas
High speed data transfer rates
uses
Point to point communication, Network infrastructure, Data services(Internet, VPNs),
telecommunications, government & military communications.

Broadcast Satellite Service(BSS):-

BSS stands out for its high transmission power, making it suitable for reception using
compact ground equipment. It uses a higher power signal than FSS and has a wider
beam coverage. Its most well-known applications include direct-to-consumer
television and broadband services.
High power transmission
Wide beam coverage
Satellite TV dishes, Radio antennas, set-top boxes, direct broadcast to home service.
Ku band, K band and Ka band.

Mobile Satellite Service(MSS):-

It employs transportable receiver and transmitter equipment, serving land mobile,

maritime, and aeronautical customers. It ensures communication connectivity while
on the move. To provide the coverage over a wide area, including remote and rural
regions where traditional cellular networks may not be available.
Global coverage
Mobility(Users can move freely while maintaining connectivity)
Low power transmission
Small, portable devices
L,S and C band
Navigational Satellite Service(NSS):-

NSS is capable of providing geospecific positioning everywhere in the world. It

provides location information and timing signals to GPS receivers on the ground,
allowing them to determine their position, velocity and time.
Accuracy & reliability is more
Timing synchronization
Multipath resistance
Signal redundancy
Real time positioning
Navigation, Tracking, Mapping, Maritime, precision agriculture.
S band

Meterological Satellite Service(MSS):-

It collects the data and imagery related to the weather and climate.
Weather forecasting: To predict weather patterns, storms, and other meteorological
events.
Accurate weather forecasting
Effective disaster management
C,Ku and Ka band.

Satellite Communication System Block Diagram:-

Block diagram of satellite communications

The term Satellite communication is very frequently used, It is simply the
communication of the satellite in space with large number of earth stations on the
ground.

The communication going from a satellite to ground is called downlink, and when it is
going from ground to a satellite it is called uplink.

Users are the ones who generate baseband signals, which is processed at the earth
station and then transmitted to the satellite through dish antennas. Now the user is
connected to the earth station via some telephone switch or some dedicated link.

The satellite receives the uplink frequency and the transponder present inside the
satellite does the processing function and frequency down conversion in order to
transmit the downlink signal at different frequency. The earth station then receives
the signal from the satellite through parabolic dish antenna and processes it to get
back the baseband signal.

This baseband signal is then transmitted to the respective user via dedicated link
or other terrestrial system. Previously satellite communication system used large
sized parabolic antennas with diameters around 30 meters because of the very faint
and weak signals received.

But nowadays satellites have become much stronger, bigger and powerful due to
which antennas used have become automatically smaller in size. Thus the earth
station antennas are now not large in size as the antennas used in olden days.

Why the uplink and downlink frequencies are different and downlink frequency
is lower than uplink frequency?

Interference reduction: By using separate frequencies for uplink and downlink,

interference between the two signals is minimized. To ensure clear more reliable
communication.
System design: Different frequencies allow for optimized system design, enable
better performance and efficiency in both uplink and downlink directions.
The uplink signal has to travel farther to reach the satellite, and the higher frequency
helps to reduce atmospheric losses. The downlink frequency is lower, as the signal
has already been amplified by the satellite and needs to travel a shorter distance to
reach the receiver.
Atmospheric losses: The atmosphere absorbs or scatters higher frequency signals
more significantly, leading to greater attenuation. By using a lower frequency for the
downlink , the signal suffers less from atmospheric losses, ensuring better reception.

Satellite amplifier limitations: Satellites have limited power resources, and

amplifying high frequency signals require more power. Using a lower frequency for
the downlink reduces the amplification requirements, conserving satellite power.

Noise considerations: lower frequencies are less susceptible to noise and interference,
which is essential for the downlink signal, as it carries the actual information that
needs to be received reliably.

Advantages of satellite communication

1. Global coverage: Satellites can transmit signals to and from any location on the
earth’s surface, making them ideal for global communication networks.
2. Wide area coverage: Satellites can cover large geographic areas, such as entire
continents or oceans, making them suitable for applications like maritime and aviation
communication.
3. Reliability, flexibility, security and mobility.
4. Rural connectivity: Satellites can reach remote and undeserved areas where
traditional infrastructure is lacking.
5. Point to multipoint communication is possible.

Disadvantages of satellite communication

1. Satellite launch, maintenance, and operation are expensive, making satellite

communication is a costly option.
2. Increasing satellite launches lead to orbit congestion, posing risks of collision and
interference.
3. There is a long propagation delay, satellite signals take longer to transmit due to the
distance between the earth and the satellite.
4. Detecting the problems after launching the satellite into the space is very difficult.

Future trends of satellite communication

In the initial years satellite launching has several risk factors because of limited
technology.
Power generation capabilities of satellite have increased significantly.
Satellite life time was increased from few years to long life time.
The improvement in solid state technology is improved the size and cost of the ground
station.
Launch and space craft re-liabilities are increased.
In future mobile communication, internet services by using satellites will reach new
heights. By using interlink satellites coverage area is extended.
DTH is the trade mark of modern communication system.
Very High Throughput Satellites(VHTS) are a new generation of communication
satellites designed to offer significantly higher data throughput and capacity compared
to traditional satellites. It enables higher data rates(up to 100Gbps or more), increased
capacity, improved spectral efficiency, better support for high- demand applications
like: broadband internet, video streaming, 5G/6G networks, IoT.

Applications of satellite communication

Satellite communication has numerous applications in various fields, including:

1. Telecommunications: Satellite phones and networks provide connectivity in remote
areas, disaster zones, and at sea.
2. Navigation: GPS (Global Positioning System) relies on satellites for location and
timing information.
3. Weather Forecasting: Satellites monitor weather patterns, track storms, and provide
critical data for climate modeling.
4. Remote Sensing: Satellites capture images and data on the environment, agriculture,
and natural resources.
5. Broadcasting: Satellites transmit TV and radio signals, enabling global coverage.
6. Scientific Research: Satellites study the Earth, Sun, and universe, advancing our
understanding of the cosmos.
7. Military Communications: Satellites secure communication networks for military
operations.
8. Emergency Response: Satellites enable communication during natural disasters and
search and rescue operations.
9. Maritime and Aviation: Satellites provide communication and navigation services
for ships and aircraft.
10. Internet Connectivity: Satellites offer internet access in areas with limited or no
terrestrial connectivity.
These applications demonstrate the significance of satellite communication in our
daily lives, from telecommunications to space exploration.

Orbital Mechanics

The satellite can be stable in it’s orbit, if the two forces i.e; centripetal force and
centrifugal force acting on the satellite is equal and opposite direction.
A centrifugal force due to the kinetic energy of the satellite, which attempts to fling
the satellite into a higher orbit.
A centripetal force due to the gravitational attraction of the planet about which the
satellite is orbiting, which attempts to pull the satellite down toward the planet.

In centripetal force:
The acceleration ‘a’ , due to gravity at a distance ‘r’ from the center of the earth is
μ Km
a=
r 2 s2
The centripetal force acting on the satellite (force= mass x acceleration).
Fin = GMem/r2
Where the constant μ is the product of the universal gravitational constant G and mass
of the earth Me, The product GMe is called kepler’s constant.