UNIT 3

MOTION AND FORCE

9.3.1. MOTION
9.3.1.1. The Motion of an Object According to Different Reference Points
9.3.1.2. Types of Motion in Daily Life
9.3.1.3. Position, Displacement, Distance, Speed and Velocity
9.3.1.4. Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity
9.3.1.5. Uniform Motion (Motion with Constant Velocity)
9.3.1.6. The Motion of Accelerating and Decelerating Objects
9.3.2. FORCE
9.3.2.1. Force Concept
9.3.3. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
9.3.3.1. The First Law of Motion: Inertia
9.3.3.2. Relationship between Force, Acceleration and Mass-The Second Law of Motion
9.3.3.3. The Third Law of Motion: Action and Reaction
9.3.4.FRICTION FORCE
9.3.4.1. Variables Where the Friction Force Depends
 9.3 MOTION AND FORCE

9.3.1 MOTION
Almost everything in the universe is in ceaseless movement in one way or an-
other. For example, you don’t seem to move at the instant you sit on your desk. But
you are on the earth, and the earth is turning around the sun. An observer in the
sun looking at the earth would see you rotating. So an object may be in a motion
or at rest depending on the place it is observed.

Everything in the physical world is in the motion, from elementary particles

to the largest galaxies of stars. The flying of a plane involves definite ways of mov-
ing. A leaf falling from a tree on a windy day moves in certain ways. When a stone
is dropped, it moves in a quick, downward motion. These are just a few examples
of motion. All these motions can be described as a change in the position of the
object.

9.3.1.1. The Motion of an Object According to Different

Reference Points
The first step to understand if an object moves is to observe the object from
a particular point. This point is called reference point. To define the position of a
moving object we need to define a reference point. This reference point itself could
be attached to a moving object or to a stationary object. By comparing how far the
object is from the reference point at different times, we can understand the motion
of the object.

Simply if an object changes its place with respect to a reference point as time
passes, it is in motion.

school
200 m

400 m 500 m

park
shopping centre 100 m home

bus stop

Park is the reference point. bus stop

103
 Whenever we refer to the motion of a body, we are always referring its loca-
tion to some other body which is regarded as fixed. In many cases, we describe the
motion of objects relative to the earth. When we say an object is at rest, we mean
it is at rest relative to the earth. A passenger seated in a bus travelling 90 km/h is
at rest relative to the bus and the other passengers, but they are moving 90 km/h
relative to a fixed point on the earth. But if he (or she) walks in the bus, he will be in
motion relative to the both other passengers and the bus.

If something is changing its place relative to a definite point, it is in motion.

This definite point is usually called “reference point” or “origin”.

Train passengers, how to detect the movement of Whenever we express the state of a body to be at rest or in motion, we are ex-
people outside? pressing the state with respect to (in relation to) some other body which we iden-
tify as the frame of reference.

Consider two persons seated in a moving train. For each of them the other
is at rest while the train itself is in motion. Therefore, we may say that “A person
seated in a moving train is at rest”.

But would this statement be the same when they are viewed by a person on
the ground. A person on the ground sees the train along with all the passengers
and objects in it to be in motion. For him the two persons are in motion. Therefore,
we need to modify this statement as “A person seated in a moving train is at rest in
relation to any other person (body) in the same train but is in motion in relation to
How do the observers in vehicles detect the move-
any other person (body) outside the train.”
ment of each other?
A person on the platform is at rest with reference to any other person on the
platform and is in motion with reference to a person viewing him from a moving
train.
DID YOU KNOW?
The following are the terms that should be studied before dealing with mo-
A person, sitting inside a moving bus, is tion:
at rest with respect to the person sitting
Rest: When the body does not change its position with respect to the sur-
next to him as he is not changing his po-
roundings, the body is said to be at rest.
sition
Motion: When the body changes its position with respect to the surround-
ings, the body is said to be in motion.

The minimum distance between two points is called displacement while the
DID YOU KNOW? actual path covered is called distance. The displacement is a vector term and dis-
tance is scalar term. Distance and displacement both have SI unit as meter.
Considering Sun as reference point, plan-
ets change their positions, so, planets are 9.3.1.2. Types of Motion in Daily Life
in motion.
When we observe our surroundings, we can see many physical interactions
taking place around us like a book falling, an ear drum vibrating, bus moving, nu-
clear reactions etc.

If an object is moving, we would be curious to know what are the things hap-

104
pening that make a body move, how long will a body move and many other things.

The speed cannot be zero since distance cannot be zero while the velocity
can be zero as displacement can be zero. The types of motion are:

• Uniform motion
• Non uniform motion
a) Uniform motion: When equal distance is covered in equal interval of time,
the motion is said to be in uniform motion.

The bodies moving with constant speed or velocity have uniform motion or
increase at the uniform rate.

b) Non uniform motion: When unequal distances are covered in equal inter-
val of time, the motion is said to be in non uniform motion. The bodies executing
non uniform motion have varying speed or velocity.

We can even classify motion into three types:

Translational motion: In translatory motion the particle moves from one

point in space to another. The motion of an object is said to be translatory if the
position of the object is changing with respect to a fixed point or object. All the
particles of a body executing translatory motion move in the same direction tra-
versing parallel paths.

The path traversed by the body in executing translatory motion may be either
linear, circular, curve or any irregular shape. The motion will result in a change in
location unless in the case where the body returns to its original location.

The mother and baby stroller has displaced in the same direction by translational motion.

105
 Rotational motion: The motion of an object is said to be rotatory if the mo-
DID YOU KNOW? tion of all the particles of body is circular (i.e. along a circular path) with respect to
an imaginary line called the axis of rotation. This happens when an object spins.
The motion of a solid substance around The axis of rotation may be internal or external to the body.
a certain axis is called a rotatory motion
The center of the circular path that each particle traces lies on the “axis of
or a circular motion.
rotation”.

Some of the rotational movement of objects.

Vibrational motion (Oscillatory Motion): In vibratory motion the particles

move to and fro about a fixed point.

Oscillatory motion is repetitive and fluctuates between two locations. The to

and fro motion of an object about a fixed point is called oscillatory motion or vibra-
tory motion.

Swing, massage chair and the phone makes the movement of vibration.

Bodies executing two or more types of motion

Some of the bodies in motion may be executing two or more types of motion
at the same time.

106
 Eg: (1) A running vehicle executes both translatory as well as rotatory motion.
The wheels of the vehicle execute rotatory motion, the axis of rotation being the
axel of the whee. The vehicle itself executes translatory motion in moving from one
place to another.

Eg: (2) A spinning billiards ball executes both translatory as well as rotatory
motion. In spinning it is executing rotatory motion and in moving from its original
location it is executing translatory motion.

9.3.1.3. Position, Displacement, Distance, Speed and Velocity

The path that is followed by an object during its motion is called the orbit of
the motion. If the orbit of the motion is a line, it is a linear motion. When an object
moves along a line, its distance from the starting point (origin) changes as time
progresses. The position of an object is defined as the distance between a chosen RESEARCH
origin and the location of the object with its direction. Since it has a direction, it is a
vector quantity. It is usually measured in terms of meters (m) in SI. Our position on the World is found with
the help of Global Positioning System
The position of a moving object on straight line can be shown by drawing
(GPS).
a line and specifying an origin on the line. The displacements on one side of the
Research how the GPS system works and
origin are called positive displacements and those on the other side negative dis-
share it with your friends in the class-
placements. Or the position of any point on the line can be shown by positive or
room.
negative numbers. Usually the positions on the right hand-side of the origin are
expressed by positive numbers.

In the figure given above; x=0 is chosen as the origin. With respect to this
origin; Nilay is 4 m in front and Ozan is 5 m in behind the origin. So his position is
-5 m to the origin that he is in behind the origin, Merve is 8 m in front the origin.

107
 Displacement is the difference between the final position, xf, and the initial
position, xi of a moving object. In other words displacement is how far the object
is from its starting point. Displacement is also a vector quantity and measured in
terms of meters in SI. The displacement of an object is simply:

→ → →
origin ∆∑ x = xfinal – xinitial

x=0
xi ∆x = xf – xi xf

A displacement to the right will be a positive displacement. That is, x > 0 since
xi < xf .

For example, starting with xi = 60 m and ending at xf = 150 m, the displace-

ment is x = xf – xi = 150 m – 60 m = 90 m

→ → →
origin ∆∑ x = xfinal – xinitial = 150 – 60 = 90 m

x=0
xi = 60 m ∆x = xf – xi = 90 m xf = 150 m

A displacement to the left will be a negative displacement. That is, x < 0

since xi > xf.

For example, starting with xi = 150 m and ending at xf = 60 m, the displace-

ment is x = xf – xi = 60 m – 150 m = –90 m

origin

x=0
xi = 60 m ∆x = xf – xi = 90 m xf = 150 m

108
 Positions to the right of the origin are positive.
Positions to the left of the origin are negative.

origin

x = –20 m x = +80 m x = +150 m

x=0

Distance is the absolute value of the displacement. Distance is always positive DID YOU KNOW?
and tells how far something is from something else but does not tell us whether it
is to the right or to the left. The distance to the starting point of
movement is called the position. The vec-
In the laboratory, we will usually measure distance or displacement in units of
tor plotted from the starting point is also
meters (m). Distance or displacement could also be measured in centimeters (cm)
the position vector.
or kilometers (km).

EXAMPLE

Mustafa begins its motion from point A. The path followed by Mustafa is given in C
the figure. 40 m
15 m
a. What is the distance travelled by Mustafa? A 25 m D
b. What is the displacement of Mustafa? B
12 m H 16 m
c. Draw the displacement vector of Mustafa.
10 m E 10 m
F
G 30 m

Solution C
40 m
15 m
A 25 m D
a. The sum of distances travelled is: 25 + 15 + 40 + 16 + 10 + 30 + 10 = 146 m.
B
12 m H 16 m
b. x = 12 m

c. A vector pointing H from A is the displacement vector. 10 m E 10 m

F
G 30 m

109
 Velocity and Speed
In sports, if runner A covers a certain distance in a shorter time than runner
B, we say that runner A is moving faster than runner B. As happened in sports, we
frequently want to learn the distances covered by moving objects per unit time. In
science, distance travelled by an object per unit time is called speed.

distance
speed =
time

Velocity is the displacement covered by unit time. It is a vector quantity.

displacement
velocity =
time

In everyday life, “velocity” and “speed” mean the same thing. But in physics,
the two have a distinctly different meanings. The basic distinction between the two
is that speed is a scalar quantity whereas velocity is a vector quantity.

For example, if we specify that a car is moving at 20 km/h northward, we have

specified the velocity, which is a vector quantity. On the other hand, if all we tell
you about the car is that it is travelling at 20 km/h, we have specified the speed,
which is the magnitude of the vector without regard to its direction.

→ → →
→ ∆x xfinal – xinitial
v= =
∆t tfinal – tinitial

Velocity has units of distance divided by time. Velocity is measured in terms of

m/s (meters per second) or km/h (kilometers per hour)

20 m

If a motorcycle travels 20 m in 2 s, then its velocity is

UNİTS
Symbol Quantity Unit
∆x displacement meter (m)
∆x 20 m
vavg = = = 10 m/s
∆t 2s ∆t time interval second (s)
v velocity m/s

110
 SPEED OF SOME ANIMALS
Animal Speed (km/h)
Peregrine falcon 322+
Cheetah 113
Sailfish 110
Lion 80
Quarter horse 76
Cape hunting dog 72
If an antique car travels 45 km in 3 h, then its velocity is Rabbit (domestic) 56
Reindeer 52
∆x 45 km
vavg = = = 15 km/h Cat (domestic) 48
∆t 3h
Human 45
Velocity is positive if an object is moving to the right and it is negative if an Great blue shark 43
object is moving to the left.
Elephant 40
Black mamba snake 32
EXAMPLE
Chicken 14
Do the following conversions. House mouse 13
a. 90 km/h = ......................... m/s Spider 1.88
b. 10 m/s = ...................... km/h Giant tortoise 0.27
c. 60 km/min = .................... m/s Garden snail 0.05

Solution

km . 100 m . 1 h
a. 90 km/h = 90 . = 25 m/s
h 1 km 3600 s
m . 1 km . 3600 s
b. 10 m/s = 10 . = 36 km/h
s 1000 m 1h
km . 1000 m . 1 min
b. 60 km/min = 60 . = 1000 m/s
min 1 km 60 s

9.3.1.4. Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity

You want to go İstanbul from İzmir. Because of traffic conditions, sometimes
you will slow down, sometimes speed-up. Suppose that the distance between
İstanbul and İzmir is 650 km, and you finished your trip in 10 hours. During this
trip your average speed is 65 km/h. But it does not mean that during this trip you
always travel at 65 km/h. Your speed can be from 10 km/h to 120 km/h and some-
times you can be in a restaurant for eating and resting.

During your trip from İstanbul to İzmir by car, the values of the readings on the
speedometer of the car always changes. This leads us to define an average value for

111
 the speed of your trip. Basically the average speed of your trip is the sum of your
speeds divided by the number of readings. But this is a hard way to calculate the
average speed since the values shown by the speedometer continuously changes.
LOOK AT LINKS
An easier way to find the average speed of your travel is simply finding the ratio of
You can watch the video at the following ge- the total distance by total time of the trip.
neral network address for the topic explanati- total distance
on and sample solutions about average velo- total time
city.
Likewise the average velocity of your trip is:

https://goo.gl/ddp173 total displacement

average velocity =
total time

Average velocity is the same as the velocity travelled by someone who travels
the entire distance at a constant velocity. The average velocity of an object can be
either positive or negative, depending on the sign of the displacement.

Instantaneous Velocity
Let us consider the a cyclist riding, his velocities varies continuously depend-
ing on time, distance etc. At any particular instant if we want to find his velocity its
nothing but instantaneous velocity.

Suppose the velocity of the car is varying, because for example, you’re in a
Speedometer
traffic jam. You look at the speedometer and it’s varying a lot, all the way from zero
to 60 km/h. What is the instantaneous velocity?It is, more or less, what you read on
the speedometer.

Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a specific instant in time. This can be

different to the average velocity if the velocity isn’t constant.

Look at the photographs of the sprinters in a race. Their velocity is different

as they take off and as they end. Their average velocity for the race doesn’t change
but their instantaneous velocity, as captured in the “snapshots” of an instant in time
Sprinters taking off does change. Their velocity in the photograph would be an instantaneous velocity.

Instantaneous velocity (v) is the change in position over the change in a very
small time interval (∆t=0). It is a vector. Instantaneous speed (v) is the magnitude of
instantaneous velocity. It has the same value but is not a vector so it has no direc-
tion.

Working Principle of Green Wave System in Traffic

If you drive in a major city, you probably experience it every once in a while:
Traffic isn’t too heavy, you’re driving at a comfortable speed, and you just happen
to hit a series of green lights. You blissfully cruise through several intersections
without stopping. It’s a nice feeling when it happens-but it’s also makes for a more
Sprinters finishing race
efficient and cleaner city. Smoothly flowing traffic means less pollution, less con-
gestion, and less time wasted.

112
 Green wave is an intentionally induced phenomenon in which a series of traf-
fic lights (usually three or more) are coordinated to allow continuous traffic flow
over several intersections in one main direction.

Any vehicle travelling along with the green wave (at an approximate speed
decided upon by the traffic engineers) will see a progressive cascade of green
lights, and not have to stop at intersections. This allows higher traffic loads, and
reduces noise and energy use (because less acceleration and braking is needed). In
practical use, only a group of cars can use the green wave before the time band is
interrupted to give way to other traffic flows.
Green wave system
Any large cities around the world, especially in Europe and the USA synchro-
nize traffic lights on the busiest streets to create green waves. When a green wave
works as intended, all vehicles within the wave can drive through a sequence of
green traffic lights at a certain speed without having to stop at the signals. The tim-
DID YOU KNOW?
ing of the lights can be controlled either by sensors or timers, and can be set up for
The green wave system is a system devel-
traffic in one direction or both directions. Green waves have several benefits, such
oped with the aim of avoiding the loss of
as allowing for higher traffic loads, reducing traffic jams, controlling traffic speed,
time and fuel by standing in the red light
reducing fuel consumption and emissions, and facilitating bicycle and pedestrian
continuously at the junctions that follow.
traffic.

The biggest disadvantage of green waves is that, when the wave is disturbed,
the disturbance can cause traffic problems that can be exacerbated by the syn-
chronization.

113
 EXAMPLE

(–x) (x)

xZeynep = –7 m x = 0 (origin) xMehmet = 11 m

Figure I

(–x) (x)

xMehmet = –5 m x = 0 (origin) xZeynep = 9 m

Figure II

The initial and final positions of Mehmet and Zeynep are given above. Mehmet
ecompletes his motion in 0.5 minutes and Zeynep completes her motion in 1.5
V
minutes. Find the ratio of average velocities of Mehmet and Zeynep; Mehmet .
VZeynep

Solution

∆xMehmet = –5 – 11 = –16 m ∆xZeynep = 9 – (–7) = 16

∆tMehmet = 0.5 x 60 = 30 s ∆tZeynep = 1.5 x 60 = 90 s

∆xMehmet 16
∆tMehmet –
VMehmet 30 16 90
= = =– x =–3
VZeynep ∆xZeynep 16 30 16
∆tZeynep 90

Minus sign in the result shows us that the average velocities are in opposite direc-
tions.

114
EXAMPLE

A car travels at 36 km/h for 15 min, at 54 km/h for the next 0.5 h, and at 72 km/h for
the next 0.70 h.

What is the average velocity during this trip?

Solution

x1 + x2 + x3
vave =
t1 + t2 + t3

x1 = v1 . t1 = 36 x 0.25 = 9 km
x2 = v2 . t2 = 54 x 0.50 = 27 km
x3 = v3 . t3 = 72 x 0.70 = 50.4 km

vave = 9 + 27 + 50.4 = 86.4

0.25 + 0.5 + 0.7 1.45
vave = 59.58 km/h

9.3.1.5. Uniform Motion (Motion with Constant Velocity)

Let’s analyze the motor of an object moving along a straight line.

LOOK AT LINKS
A B
You can watch the video of the following ge-
x neral web address for subject uniform motion.

Markers A and B are located a short distance apart, and the distance x https://goo.gl/hQRTVS
between them is measured with a meter stick. The car is started, and as it passes
marker A, the clock is started; as it passes marker B, the clock is stopped. The time t
in s, as read on the clock, is then recorded. This procedure should be repeated with
the markers farther and farther apart and, the data recorded in a table.

Drawing a graph of position versus time is a useful method to analyze the

motion of an object. Let’s use the values of the table given below to draw a position
versus time graph for the motion of the car.

According to the graph given on the next page, as time increases, dis-
placement also increases. The position versus time graph of an object moving with
a constant velocity is a straight line. The slope of this line gives the constant veloc-
ity. The slope of the line has a constant value. This constant value is equal to the
velocity of the car.

∆x
slope = tan a = =v
∆t

115
 position position

Time Position 5x 5x

0 0
4x 4x

t x
3x 3x
2t 2x ∆x = 4x – x = 3x
2x 2x
3t 3x
a
4t 4x x x

5t 5x ∆t = 4t – t = 3t
time time
t 2t 3t 4t 5t t 2t 3t 4t 5t
Position and time table for the car
in figure above. Position versus time graph Slope of a position versus time graph

The velocity versus time graph of an object moving with constant velocity is a
straight line parallel to time axis. Since the slope of a line is a constant value, veloc-
ity is the same for all times.

velocity velocity

v v

AREA = v . ∆t

time time
t 2t 3t 4t 5t t 2t 3t 4t 5t

Velocity versus time graph Area of a velocity versus time graph

The area of under the velocity versus time graph gives the displacement of
the moving object.
RESARCH
Area = v . ∆t = ∆x
Research how the cruise control system
used in cars works. Share the informa-
tion you have learned with your friends EXAMPLE
in class.
The distance between two cars which are moving with constant velocities
decreases by 20 m in each second when the cars are moving in the same direc-
tion. When the cars are moving in opposite direction to each other, the distance
between them increases by 40 m in each second.

Find the velocities of the cars.

116
Solution
DID YOU KNOW?
Lets take ∆t = 1 s. Then for x1 = v1 . 1 = v1 and for x2 = v2 . 1 = v2
same direction ∆x = x1 – x2 = v1 – v2 = 20 The area between the velocity axis and the
opposite direction ∆x = x1 + x2 = v1 + v2 = 40 time axis in the velocity-time graph gives
2v1 = 60 the displacement. Velocity values are found
v1 = 30 m/s using the slope of the position-time graph.
v1 – v2 = 20 then v2 = 30 – 20 = 10 m/s

EXAMPLE

Displacement versus x (m)

time graph of a uniformly mov- 30
ing object is given in the figure.
10 12
0 t (s)
2 4 6
–15

–30

a. What is the direction of motion of the object for each time interval?
b. What is the displacement of the object for each time interval?
c. What is the velocity of the object for each time interval?
d. Find the displacement of the object?
e. What is the average velocity of the object?
f. Draw velocity versus time graph of the object.

Solution

a b c
Time Direction
Displacement (m) Velocity (m/s)
interval (s) of motion
∆x 30
0-2 +x ∆x = 0 – (–30) = 30 m v1 = = = 15 m/s
∆t 2
∆x 30
2-4 +x ∆x = 30 – 0 = 30 m v1 = = = 15 m/s
∆t 2

4-6 No motion 0 0
∆x 30
6 - 10 –x ∆x = 0 – 30 = –30 m v1 = =– = –7.5 m/s
∆t 4
∆x 15
10 - 12 –x ∆x = –15 – 0 = –15 m v1 = =– = –7.5 m/s
∆t 2

117
 d. ∆x = xf – xf = –15 – (–30) = 15 m
Total displacement ∆x 15 5
e. vavr = Total time
=
∆t
=
12
=
4
m/s

v (m/s)
f.

15

6 10 12
0 t (s)
2 4

–7.5

EXAMPLE

A car moves along a straight portion of way according to the

graph shown aside.

a. Find the average velocity for the total trip.

b. Draw a velocity-time graph for the motion of this car.

x (m)

30

20

10
6
0 t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
–10

–20

–30

–40

Solution

a. Total displacement of this car is 10 m

10 m
Velocity = = 1 m/s.
10 s

118
b. To get any velocity - time graph from position - time graph, first, we get slopes in
every time interval. The slope is given as velocity at that time interval

v1 = 30 m = 10 m/s, v2 = 0, v3 = – 70 m = –70 m/s, v4 = 50 m = 10 m/s

3s 1s 5s

v (m/s)

10
0 t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

–70

EXAMPLE

v (m/s)

40

20 A4
A1
A3
0 t (s)
1 2 A 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2
–20 A5

–40

Draw position-time graph from velocity-time graph of a moving object given

above.

Solution

The shaded area under each velocity is given as the displacement of the object ac-
cording to initial position.

A1 = 20 x 2 = 40 m A4 = 40 x 2 = 80 m

A2 = -20 x 1 = -20 m A5 = -40 x 2 = -80 m

A3 = 0

119
 x (m)

100
80

40

20

0 t (s)
2 4 6 8

The displacement between 0 - 2 seconds is 40 m. From the origin. Between 2 - 3

seconds object covers 20 m toward the origin. Because it has negative velocity.
After 3 seconds object is 40 – 20 = 20 m far away from the origin. Between 3 - 4
seconds object has no velocity. There is no displacement. That is, after 4 seconds,
object is again 20 m far away from the origin. Between 4 - 6 seconds, the displace-
ment is 80 m.

The position of the object after 6 s, is 20 + 80 = 100 m from the origin. Between 6 - 8
seconds, object has negative velocity. It is moving toward the origin. Displacement
is –80 m. After 8 seconds object is 100 – 80 = 20 m far from the origin.

9. 3.1.6 The Motion of Accelerating and Decelerating Objects

During any trip, we do not normally travel long distances at constant velocity.
When we step on the gas, the velocity of car will increase and when we apply the
brakes the velocity of our car will slow down, or when we round a curve, because of
change in the direction, its velocity will change.

Often the velocity of a moving object changes either in magnitude, in direc-

tion, or both as motion proceeds. The object is then said to have an acceleration.

Car shown in the figure made accelerated motion by taking the x and 3x ways
Velocities of vehicles in traffic are constantly changing.
in equal time intervals. The velocity of the car was v while passing point L whereas
it was 2v at point M. Its velocity increased.

v0 = 0 v1 = v v2 = 2v

x 3x
K L M
∆t1 = t ∆t2 = t

120
 Car shown in the figure below reduced its velocity by taking 3x and x ways in
equal time intervals. And it was stopped finally at point M. Its motion is called as
decelerated motion.

v0 = 2v v1 = v v2 = 0

3x x
K L M
∆t1 = t ∆t2 = t

The rate of change of velocity of an object is called acceleration. If an object

is increasing its velocity in unit time intervals, the object is said to be accelerating
(speeding up). If the object is decreasing its velocity in unit time intervals, then the
object is said to be decelerating (slowing down).

UNITS
Symbol Quantity Unit
DID YOU KNOW?
∆v change in velocity meter (m/s) →
→ → →
∆v vfinal – vinitial
a= = Increasing or decreasing velocity of moving
∆t time interval second (s) ∆t tfinal – tinitial
objects over time causes acceleration.
a acceleration m/s2
Acceleration is defined as the change in velo-
city at the unit time of motion.

EXAMPLE

The velocity - time data of a car is given in the table. Draw velocity - time and ac-
celeration - time graphs of the car.

velocity (m/s) 0 6 12 18 24
time (s) 0 2 4 6 8
Velocity (m/s)

24
Solution
18

First we draw velocity - time graph by using the data given. 12

The slope of the line in velocity - time graph gives acceleration. 6

6 12
slope = tan a = = =3 a = 3 m/s2 0 Time (s)
2 4 2 4 6 8

Or we can find the acceleration by using the data.

121
 ∆v
a=
∆t
LOOK AT LINKS
6–0
0 - 2 s time interval : a = = 3 m/s2
2–0
You can watch the video at the following ge-
neral network address for the topic explanati- 2 - 4 s time interval: a = 12 – 6 = 3 m/s2
4–2
on about acceleration and deceleration. and so on.

https://goo.gl/ZXwBgQ
Acceleration (m/s2)

3
RESEARCH

Investigate what causes the accelera-

tion to occur. Share the results of your 0 Time (s)
2 4 6 8
research with your friends in the class-
room. Uniform or constant acceleration is a type of motion in which the velocity of
an object changes by an equal amount in every equal time period as given in the
previous example.
a (m/s2)
As mentioned in the previous example, the data table show a car changing its
2
velocity by 6 m/s in each consecutive two seconds. This is referred to as a constant
1 acceleration since the velocity is changing by a constant amount each second. An
object with a constant acceleration should not be confused with an object with a
1 2 3 4
0 t (s) constant velocity. Don’t be fooled! If an object is changing its velocity-whether by
a constant amount or a varying amount-then it is an accelerating object. And an
–1
object with a constant velocity is not accelerating.
–2 When an object is slowing down, the acceleration is in the opposite direction
–3 as the velocity. Thus, this object has a negative acceleration (deceleration). Decel-
eration-time graph of an object is shown aside.

EXERCISE
1. Describe a case in which is an example to relative motion in daily life.
2. Give examples of translatory, rotationary and vibratory motions from daily life.
3. The position values of a runner according to time are as shown in the following table.

position (m) 6 12 22 36 50 63 70 80 90 100

time (s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Find the speed at which the runner is in the fastest range and the average speed during the race.

4. Draw position-time and velocity-time graphs by creating position-time data of a train with uniform motion.
5. Give examples for the objects which make accelerated or decelerated motion in daily life.

122
 9.3.2 FORCE
9.3.2.1. Force Concept
In physics, a force is any influence that causes an object to undergo a certain
change, either concerning its movement, direction, or geometrical construction. In DID YOU KNOW?
other words, a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which
includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate, or a flexible object An affect that can move a standing object
to deform, or both. Force can also be described by intuitive concepts such as a push and change the speed, direction and shape
or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. It is of objects, stop an object in motion is called
measured in the SI unit of newtons (N) and represented by the symbol F. force. The forces are divided into two parts:
contact forces and non-contact forces.
A force is a push or pull acting upon an object as a result of its interaction
with another object. There are a variety of types of forces. Previously in this lesson,
a variety of force types were placed into two broad category headings on the basis
of whether the force resulted from the contact or non-contact of the two interact-
ing objects.

a. Contact and non-Contact Forces

Contact force is the force in which an object comes in contact with another
object. Contact forces are ubiquitous and are responsible for most visible interac-
tions between macroscopic collections of matter. Pushing a car up a hill or kicking
a ball or pushing a desk across a room are some of the everyday examples where
contact forces are at work. Certain contact forces describe specific phenomena and
are important enough to have been given unique names. The most common
in stances of this include friction, normal force, and tension. According to forces,
contact force may also be described as the push experienced when two objects are
pressed together.

Mother is applying a force through contact to baby carriage. A contact force required to
remove the barbell.

A non-contact force is any force applied to an object by another body that is

not in direct contact with it. The most common example of a non-contact force is
gravity. A non-contact force is different from a contact force , which is a force ap-
plied to a body by another body that is in contact with it. However it is to be noted
that the origin of all contact forces can be traced to non-contact forces. Gravity,
electricity and magnetic forces are non-contact forces.

123
 Some examples of non-contact forces.

b. Four Fundamental Forces

All four known fundamental interactions (gravity, electromagnetism, strong-
nuclear force and weak nuclear force) are non-contact forces.

i. The Strong Nuclear Force

A force which can hold a nucleus together against the enormous forces of
repulsion of the protons is strong indeed. This force is responsible for binding
of nuclei. It is the dominant one in reactions and decays of most of the fundamen-
tal particles. This force is so strong that it binds and stabilize the protons of similar
charges within a nucleus. However, it is very short range. It acts only over ranges of
order 10-13 centimeters. It is basically attractive, but can be effectively repulsive in
some circumstances.

Yukawa modeled the strong force as an exchange force in which the ex-
change particles are pions and other heavier particles. The range of a particle ex-
change force is limited by the uncertainty principle. It is the strongest of the four
fundamental forces

ii. The Weak Nuclear Force

The weak nuclear force is responsible for radioactive decay and neutrino in-
teractions. It mediates beta decay what happens when a neutron breaks down into
a proton and an electron or positron. It has a very short range and, as its name

124
indicates, it is very weak. The weak interaction is the only process in which a quark
can change to another quark, or lepton to another lepton.

The discowery of the W and Z particles in 1983 was hailed as a confirmation

of the theories which connect the weak force to the electromagnetic force in elec-
troweak unification.

The weak interaction changes one flavor of quark into another. It is cru-
cial to the structure of the universe in that

1. The sun would not burn without it since the weak interaction causes the
transmutation p→n so that deuterium can form and deuterium fusion can
take place.
2. It is necessary for the buildup of heavy nuclei.

iii. The Electromagnetic Force

The electromagnetic force holds atoms and molecules together. Electromag-

netism is the interaction of particles with an electrical charge. Charged particles at
rest interact through electrostatic forces, while in motion they interact through
both electrical and magnetic forces. The electromagnetic force causes electric and
magnetic effects such as the repulsion between like electrical charges or the inter-
action of bar magnets. It is long-ranged, but much weaker than the strong force.
It can be attractive or repulsive, and acts only between pieces of matter carrying
electrical charge.

The force is long range, in principle extending over infinite distance. However,
the strength can quickly diminish due to shielding effect. Many everyday experi-
ences such as friction and air resistance are due to this force. This is also the resist-
ant force that we feel, for example, when pressing our palm against a wall. This is
originated from the fact that no two atoms can occupy the same space.

For a long time, the electric and magnetic forces were considered to be dif-
ferent forces, but they were finally unified by James Clerk Maxwell in 1865, under
Maxwell’s equations. In the 1940s, quantum electrodynamics consolidated electro-
magnetism with quantum physics.

Electromagnetism is perhaps the most obviously prevalent force in our world,

as it can affect things at a reasonable distance and with a fair amount of force.

125
 iv. The Gravitational Force

This is the force that holds us onto the Earth. It could be important in our
daily life, but on the scale of atomic world it is of negligible or no importance at all.
Gravitational force is cumulative and extended to infinity. It exists whenever there
is matter. Your body is experiencing a gravitational pull with, say, your computer
(or anything close to you or as far away as stars and galaxies) but the effect is so
small you will never sense it. However, you can sense the gravitational pull with
the Earth (that is, your weight) due to the cumulative effect of billions of billions of
the atoms made up your body with those atoms of the Earth. This means that the
larger the body (contain more matter), the stronger the force. But on the scale of
individual particles, the force is extremely small, only in order of 10-38 times that
of the strong force.

You will notice that of all the four fundamental forces two of them can be
exeperinced in our daily life. They are also called the familiar forces which are the
electromagnetic and gravitational forces. Similarly, the strong force and the weak
force are called the unfamiliar forces.

Comparison of fundamental forces of nature.

Interaction Relative Strength Range Mediating Particle

Strong Nuclear 1 Short Gluon
Electromagnetic 0.0073 Long Photon
Weak Nuclear 10–9 Very Short W, Z bosons
Gravitational 10–38 Long Graviton

Strength Range (m) Particle

π
+ + Force which 10–13 gluons.
Strong π holds nucleus 1 (diameter of a p(nuleons)
N + togeher medium sized nucleus)

Electromagnetic
photon
+ +
1 infinite mass = 0
– + 37 spin = 1

Intermediate
v e–
10–18 vector bosons
W+, W–, Z0,
Week
W 10–6 (0.1% of diameter
mass > 80 GeV
of a proton)
spin = 1

graviton?
–39
Gravity m m 6 x 10 infinite mass = 0
spin = 2

Fundamental Forces

126
 c. Variables Where the Gravitational Force is Dependent

Isaac Newton compared the acceleration of the moon to the acceleration

of objects on earth. Believing that gravitational forces were responsible for DISCUSSION
each, Newton was able to draw an important conclusion about the depend-
ence of gravity upon distance. This comparison led him to conclude that the Investigate observable effects of force. Dis-
force of gravitational attraction between the Earth and other objects is inverse- cuss with your classmates the different cha-
ly proportional to the distance separating the earth’s center from the object’s racteristics of force by taking these influen-
center. But distance is not the only variable affecting the magnitude of a gravi- ces.
tational force.

Newton knew that the force that caused the apple’s acceleration (gravity)
must be dependent upon the mass of the apple. And since the force acting to
cause the apple’s downward acceleration also causes the earth’s upward ac-
celeration (Newton’s third law), that force must also depend upon the mass of
the earth. So for Newton, the force of gravity acting between the earth and any
other object is directly proportional to the mass of the earth, directly propor-
tional to the mass of the object, and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance that separates the centers of the earth and the object.
But Newton’s law of universal gravitation extends gravity beyond earth.
Newton’s law of universal gravitation is about the universality of gravity. All ob-
jects attract each other with a force of gravitational attraction. Gravity is universal.
Newton’s conclusion about the magnitude of gravitational forces is summarized
symbolically as

m1 . m2
Fgrav a
d2

where Fgrav represents the force of gravity between two objects

a means “proportional to”
m1 represents the mass of object 1
m2 represents the mass of object 2
d represents the distance separating the objects’ centers

The proportionalities expressed by Newton’s universal law of gravitation are

represented graphically by the following illustration. Observe how the force of
gravity is directly proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely pro-
portional to the square of the distance of separation.

127
 Effect of Mass on Fgrav Effect of Distance on Fgrav

attract with a M F M M F M attract with a

force of force of
d d

1
M 2F 2M M F M attract with
attract with a 4
force of a force of
2d
d

attract with 2M 4F 2M M 4F M attract with

a force of
a force of
1
d d d
2

attract with M
M 3F 3M 2M F 2M attract with
a force of a force of
d 2d

d. Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

To determine if the forces acting upon an object are balanced or unbalanced,
an analysis must first be conducted to determine what forces are acting upon the
object and in what direction. If two individual forces are of equal magnitude and
opposite direction, then the forces are said to be balanced. An object is said to
be acted upon by an unbalanced force only when there is an individual force
that is not being balanced by a force of equal magnitude and in the opposite
direction. Balanced forces

When two forces acting on an object equal in size but act in opposite di-
rections, we say that they are balanced forces.

If the forces on an object are balanced (or if there are no forces acting on
it) this is what happens:

• an object that is not moving stays still

• an object that is moving continues to move at the same speed and in the
same direction

So notice that an object can be moving even if there are no forces acting
on it.
• an object that is moving continues to move at the same speed and in the
same direction
So notice that an object can be moving even if there are no forces acting
on it.

128
EXAMPLE

Here are some examples of balanced forces.

Pull of the rope

Hanging objects
The forces on this hanging crate are equal in size but act in opposite direc-
tions. The weight pulls down and the tension in the rope pulls up.

Floating in water Rope

Objects float in water when their weight is balanced by the upthrust from
the water. The object will sink until the weight of the water it pushes out of the
way is the same as the weight of the object.
Crate
Upthrust of water

Weight of the crate

The forces on this hanging crate are balanced.

Weight of boat

A boat floats because its weight is balanced by the upthrust

from the water

Standing on the ground

When an object rests on a surface such as the ground, its weight is bal-
anced by the reaction force from the ground. The ground pushes up against the
object. The reaction force is what you feel in your feet as you stand still. Without
this balancing force you would sink into the ground.

Reaction force of the table

Weight of book

The weight of a book lying on a table is balanced by the reaction force from the table top.

129
 A force is a push or a pull. A force can give energy to an object causing the
object to start moving, stop moving, or change its motion

.Forces occur in pairs and can be either balanced or unbalanced. Balanced

forces do not cause a change in motion. They are equal in size and opposite in
direction.

Have you ever had an arm wrestling competition with someone? If you
compete against someone who is just about as strong as you are, there will
probably be a time when both of you are pushing as hard as you can, but your
arms stay in the same place. This is an example of balanced forces. The force
exerted by each person is equal, but they are pushing in opposite directions, in
this case together. It would look something like this.

Because the force that each of you is exerting is equal, the two forces can-
cel each other out and the resulting force is zero. Therefore, there is no change
in motion.

Another great place to see balanced forces in action is in a tug of war. This
is similar to an arm wrestling match, only in this case the forces are moving away
from each other. Just like in arm wrestling, if the two teams have equal strength, or
Tug of war force, the rope will stay pretty much in the same place. It would look like this.

Again the resulting force is zero and there is no change in motion. When two
forces acting on an object are not equal in size, we say that they are unbalanced
forces. If the forces on an object are unbalanced this is what happens:

• an object that is not moving starts to move

• an object that is moving changes speed or direction
When two unbalanced forces are exerted in opposite directions, their com-
A stationary object remains stationary if balanced bined force is equal to the difference between the two forces and is exerted in the
forces applied on it.
direction of the larger force.

Truck speeds up in this direction

Bigger force Smaller force

100 N Unbalanced forces 60 N

Unbalanced forces make the truck speed up.

130
 Resultant forces
The size of the overall force acting on an object is called the resultant
force. If the forces are balanced, this is zero. In the example above, the resultant
force is the difference between the two forces, which is 100 - 60 = 40 N.

Force diagrams
We can show the forces acting on an object using a force diagram. In a
force diagram, each force is shown as a force arrow. An arrow shows:

• the size of the force (the longer the arrow, the bigger the force)
• the direction in which the force acts.
The arrow is usually labelled with the name of the force and its size in new-
tons. Text books often show a force with a thick coloured arrow, but it is best if
you just use a pencil and ruler to draw an arrow with a single line.

Think again about the arm wrestling match. Only this time imagine that
you are competing against a world famous body builder. Chances are that his
force will be much greater than yours. Your arms will move in the direction he
is pushing with a force that is equal to his force minus your force. It will look
like this.

Or imagine that you and your friends are having a tug of war. Again their
force will probably be a little larger than yours. You will move in the direction
they are pulling with a force that is equal to their force minus your force. It will
look like this.

Unbalanced forces can also be exerted in the same direction. For example,
imagine that your family’s car breaks down on the road and you have to push
it into a parking lot. If you and your brother or sister both push on the car, the
resulting force on the car will be the sum of your forces and of course be in
the direction that you are applying the force. The figure below shows how this
would work.

Two important things to remember when working with balanced and un-
balanced forces are 1) forces in the same direction combine by addition, and 2)
forces in opposite directions combine by subtraction.

131
 EXAMPLE

F3 = 8 N
F2 = 12 N F1 = 25 N

In the above,
a. What is the net force acting on the body?
b. What is the direction and magnitude of the force that will balance the body?

Solution
LOOK AT LINKS
a. To find the net force, the sum of the forces to the left must be subtracted from
You can watch the videos at the follo- the sum of the forces to the right.
wing general web address for balanced and
Fnet = 25 – (12 + 8) = 5 N (to the right).
unbalanced forces.
b. The balancing force is equal to the net force in magnitude but in opposite direc-
https://goo.gl/UipEff
tion. Fd = 5 N, should be to the left.

EXERCISE

Try these problems to test your knowledge about balanced and unbalanced forces.

1. Two tugboats are moving a barge. Tugboat A exerts a force of 3000 N on the barge. Tugboat B exerts a force of 5000 N in the
same direction. What is the combined force on the barge?
2. Draw arrows showing the individual and combined forces of the tugboats in #1.
3. Now suppose that Tugboat A exerts a force of 2000 N on the barge and Tugboat B exerts a force of 4000 N in the opposite
direction. What is the combined force on the barge?
4. Draw arrows showing the individual and combined forces of the tugboats in #3.
5. Could there ever be a case when Tugboat A and Tugboat B are both exerting a force on the barge but the barge doesn’t move?
Draw arrows showing the individual and combined forces in such a situation.
6.
F3 = 6 N

F2 = 6 N K F1 = 14 N F2 = 6 N L F1 = 14 N

Figure-1 Figure-2

The objects K and L in Figures 1 and 2 are influenced by forces F1, F2, F3 in a frictionless surface.

Find the ratio of the magnitudes of the balancing forces that hold the objects in balance.

132
 9.3.3. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
A force alters the state of rest or motion of an object. The object may be
set into motion from rest, may be made to move with a greater velocity, may
be made to move with a lesser velocity or may be made to rest. An object may
have several different forces acting on it, which can have different strengths
and directions. But they can be added together to give the resultant force. This
is a single force that has the same effect on the object as all the individual
forces acting together.

9.3.3.1. The First Law of Motion: Inertia

Isaac Newton (a 17th century scientist) put forth a variety of laws that
explain why objects move (or don’t move) as they do. These three laws have
become known as Newton’s three law’s of motion. Newton’s first law of motion
(sometimes referred to as the law of inertia) is often stated as: An object at rest
stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and
in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

There are two parts to this statement-one that predicts the behavior of
stationary objects and the other that predicts the behavior of moving objects.
The two parts are summarized in the following diagram.

Forces are Balanced

Objects at Rest Objects in Motion

(v = 0 m/s) (v ≠ 0 m/s)

a = 0 m/s2 a = 0 m/s2

Stay at Rest Stay in Motion

(same speed and direction)

The behavior of all objects can be described by saying that objects tend The smooth track can quickly be moved so as not
to “keep on doing what they’re doing” (unless acted upon by an unbalanced to set the car in motion.

force). If at rest, they will continue in this same state of rest. If in motion with In the figure the card moves away, but the coin
an eastward velocity of 5 m/s, they will continue in this time state of motion drops into the glass. In figure if the track is
(5 m/s, East). If in motion with a leftward velocity of 2 m/s, they will continue jerked quickly to right or to left, the wheels of
in this same state of motion (2 m/s, left). The state of motion of an object is the car will turn, but the car itself will tend to
maintained as long as the object is not acted upon by an unbalanced force. If remain at rest.
friction could be entirely eliminated, the inertia of the body would keep it mov-
ing indefinitely with constant velocity. All objects resist changes in their state
of motion-they tend to “keep on doing what they’re doing.”

133
When the card is moved quickly the coin drops into the glass.

The law of inertia is most commonly experienced when riding in cars and
trucks. In fact, the tendency of moving objects to continue in motion is a com-
mon cause of a variety of transportation injuries-of both small and large mag-
nitudes. Consider for instance the unfortunate collision of a car with a wall.
Upon contact with the wall, an unbalanced force acts upon the car to abruptly
decelerate it to rest. Any passengers in the car will also be decelerated to rest if
they are strapped to the car by seat belts. Being strapped tightly to the car, the
passengers share the same state of motion as the car. As the car accelerates, the
passengers accelerate with it; as the car decelerates, the passengers decelerate
with it; and as the car maintains a constant speed, the passengers maintain a
constant speed as well.

But what would happen if the passengers were not wearing the seat belt?
What motion would the passengers undergo if they failed to use their seat belts
and the car were brought to a sudden and abrupt halt by a collision with a wall?
Were this scenario to occur, the passengers would no longer share the same
state of motion as the car. The use of the seat belt assures that the forces nec-
essary for accelerated and decelerated motion exist. Yet, if the seat belt is not
used, the passengers are more likely to maintain its state of motion.

Now perhaps you will be convince of the need to wear your seat belt. Re-
member it is the law-the law of motion.

The “forever” part is difficult to swallow sometimes. But imagine that you
have three ramps set up as shown below. Also imagine that the ramps are in-
finitely long and infinitely smooth. You let a marble roll down the first ramp,
When the driver stepped on the brakes people in the which is set at a slight incline. The marble speeds up on its way down the ramp.
car continue the movement.
Now, you will give a gentle push to the marble going uphill on the second
ramp. It slows down as it goes up. Finally, you push a marble on a ramp that
represents the middle state-between the first two-in other words, a ramp that
is perfectly horizontal. In this case, the marble will neither slow down nor speed
up. In fact, it should keep rolling forever.

134
 DISCUSSION
According to Newton’s first law, the marble on that bottom ramp should just keep going. And
going.
Investigate the purpose of using the
seat belts in vehicles. Discuss the results of
your work in the classroom by investigating
Physicists use the term inertia to describe this tendency of an object to resist
the use of safety belt with Newton’s Law of
a change in its motion.
Inertia.
Interestingly, Newton was not the first scientist to come up with the law of in-
ertia. That honor goes to Galileo and Rene Descartes. In fact, the marble- and-ramp
thought experiment described previously is credited to Galileo. Newton owed
much to events and people who preceded him.

Every kind of matter has inertia. The inertia of a body may be defined as that
property of a body which tends to resist a change in its state of rest or motion. The LOOK AT LINKS
inertia of an object is directly proportional to its mass. Mass is defined as a quanti-
tative measure of inertia. You can watch the videos at the follo-
wing general web address for inertia.

https://goo.gl/8N2Bbp

Force
v
m

135
 READING TEXT

Ibn-i Sina
Ibn-i Sina who born in the present Bukhara city of Uzbekistan, has disti
guished himself in various fields of knowledge and skill such as philosophy, math-
ematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medicine and music.

Ibn-i Sina, who is also commonly referred to as Avicenna, is arguably one of

the most well recognized, revered, and influential scientist, philosopher, and phy-
sician of not only his time but rather throughout history. He is widely recognized
for his vast achievements and contributions in the fields of medicine, but is con-
sidered a polymath who similarly revolutionized the global understanding of the
sciences of metaphysics, philosophy, astronomy, and physics among others. Many
of the modern day concepts of physics have a direct or indirect relationship to the
discoveries of Ibn-i Sina. These include kinematics in one or more dimensions, vec-
tors, dynamics, Newton’s laws of motion, circular motion, gravitation, work, energy,
linear momentum, and rotational motion.

Specifically in physics, one of Ibn-i Sina’s most influential theories involves the
concepts of mechanics and projectile motion. His theory most resembles Newton’s
first law of motion which states that an object in motion will remain in motion un-
less acted on by an outside force. Ibn-i Sina theorized that an object would only
have motion if a force is applied onto the object. Also, he differentiated between
the affinity of an object to remain in motion and the force applied. This is consistent
with the concept of inertia which will always remain with an object unless an out-
side force acts on the object to either increase or decrease its motion. Additionally,
Ibn Sina stated that in an environment without air resistance or friction, an object
in motion would always remain in motion due to its inertia.

Other observations that were initially discovered by Ibn-i Sina in the field of
physics include the notion that movement and motion within an object, such as
the motion of atoms and molecules, is a form of thermal energy that produces
heat. This concept has great relevance on the laws of thermodynamics, enthalpy,
entropy, and chemical reactions. Additionally, Ibn-i Sina was a pioneer in his use of
the air thermometer for his experiments. He stated that the speed of light is not in-
finite and can thus have a measureable value. He stated this with the evidence that
light is emitted in the form of particles that travel through space. Therefore, similar
to other objects travelling through space, light must have a finite speed. Ibn-i Sina
also commented on the dispersion and refraction of light.

136
 9.3.3.2. Relationship between Force, Acceleration and Mass-
The Second Law of Motion
Newton’s first law tells us what happens when the net force acting on an ob-
ject is zero. The object is either remains at rest if it is already at rest, or it moves with
a constant velocity if it is in motion. But what happens if the net force on an object
is not zero? How will the object move if one or more forces were acting on it? New-
ton’s answer to this that the object is accelerated. The relationship between force,
mass, and acceleration was summarized in his second law of motion.

According to Newton, an object will only accelerate if there is a net or unbal-

anced force acting upon it. The presence of an unbalanced force will accelerate an
object-changing its speed, its direction, or both its speed and direction.

Forces are Unbalanced

There is an accleration

The acceleration The acceleration

depends directly tepends inversely
upon the upon the
“net force* object’s mass.

EXPERIMENT 1

Finding the relationship between force, acceleration and mass of an object

Equipment
Dynamometer
1. Dynamometer 1 kg
2. Two bodies of 3 kg and 1 kg mass
3. 1 kg test vehicle
4. Rope
5. Pulley
3 kg
6. Marble surface table
7. Roller stabilizer

Procedure

1. Create groups according to class and material condition. Make a duty division among group members.
2. Connect the rope to each of the two ends of the dynamometer. Attach the 3 kg mass body to the free end of one of the
ropes as well as the 1 kg mass of body to the free end of the other rope.
3. Secure the pulley to the edge of the table and hang 3 kg of mass as shown.

137
 4. Release the system and record the reading on the dynamometer while the test car is moving.
5. Repeat the experiment by adding a mass of 1 kg mass onto the test car of 1 kg mass.
6. In both cases, calculate the F / m ratio by keeping the reading on the dynamometer.

Questions

1. Is the value you read on the dynamometer equal to the weight of the suspended object?
2. Is the value you read on the dynamometer be the net force for a 1 kg mass object?
3. Depending on the value you are reading on the dynamometer, how many newton should the net force acting on the
mass with 3 kg be?
4. Compare the masses’ accelerations.

The Second Law is concerned with relating acceleration to mass and net
force. This law of motion explains how an object will change velocity if it is pushed
or pulled upon.

Firstly, this law states that if you do place a force on an object, it will accelerate
(change its velocity), and it will change its velocity in the direction of the force. So,
a force aimed in a positive direction will create a positive change in velocity (a posi-
tive acceleration). And a force aimed in a negative direction will create a negative
change in velocity (a negative acceleration).

Secondly, this acceleration is directly proportional to the force. For example, if

you are pushing on an object, causing it to accelerate, and then you push, say, three
times harder, the acceleration will be three times greater.

v (m/s) v (m/s)
8 3F

6
2F

F
2

t (s) a (m/s2)
0 0
1 2 3 4 a 2a 3a
Velocity - time graph of an object which Force - acceleration graph of an object with
is moving under the influence of a con- constant mass
stant force.

F 2F

Increasing the force applied on an object increases the acceleration.

138
 Thirdly, this acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
For example, if you are pushing equally on two objects, and one of the objects has
five times more mass than the other, it will accelerate at one fifth the acceleration
of the other.

Increasing the force applied on an object increases the acceleration.

Newton’s second law of motion can be formally as follows: The acceleration of

an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of
the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to
the mass of the object.
Force v
This verbal statement can be expressed in equation form as follows: m
Fnet
a= m

To move a stationary object force is needed.

The above equation is often rearranged to a more familiar form as shown be-
low. The net force is equated to the product of the mass times the acceleration.

Fnet = m . a

In this entire discussion, the emphasis has been on the net force. The accel-
eration is directly proportional to the net force; the net force equals mass times ac-
celeration; the acceleration in the same direction as the net force; an acceleration is
produced by a net force. Acceleration and force are vectors; in this law the direction
of the force vector is the same as the direction of the acceleration vector.

Consistent with the above equation, a unit of force is equal to a unit of mass
times a unit of acceleration. By substituting standard metric units for force, mass,
and acceleration into the above equation, the following unit equivalency can be
written. 1 Newton = 1 kg.m/s2.

The definition of the standard metric unit of force is stated by the above equa-
tion. One newton is defined as the amount of force required to give a 1 kg mass an
acceleration of 1 m/s2.

139
 0.05 m/s2
LOOK AT LINKS ?N 1000 kg

To reinforce the concepts of net force, friction

force and acceleration, you can follow the si-
mulation at the following general network
address.

http://phet.colorado.edu/en/ simulation /
forces-and-motionbasics

Ahmet’s car with a mass of 1,000 kg, is out of gas. Ahmet is trying to push the
car to a gas station, and he makes the car go 0.05 m/s2. Using Newton’s Second law,
you can compute how much force Ahmet is applying to the car.

EXAMPLE

A race car with a mass of 500 kg can accelerate from 10 m/s to 40 m/s in 4 s. How
much force is required to cause this acceleration?

Solution

We will use the equation, F = ma. The acceleration is calculated according to the
definition of acceleration as

change in velocity
a=
time
40 – 10
a= = 7.5 m/s2
4

Substituting into Newton’s second law: F = 500 x 7.5 = 3750 N

EXAMPLE

Imagine that you had a stone with a mass of 500 g and threw it with a force of
100 N. What would be its acceleration while the force was acting on it?

Solution

In this case, we are asked to solve for acceleration. Newton’s second law is used as

F 100
a= = = 200 m/s2
m 0.5

140
EXAMPLE

A force of 24 N is applied to a 6 kg block that is at rest on smooth (friction-free)

level surface. Find
a. The acceleration of the block.
b. The velocity of the block after 10 s of the application of the force.

Solution

a. F = 24 N, m = 6 kg, a = ?
F 24
F = m x a or a = = = 4 N/kg = 4 m/s2
m 6
b. An acceleration of 4 m/s2 means the velocity of the block increases by 4 m/s in
every second, in ten seconds the velocity increases by 4 x 10 = 40 m/s. Because
the initial velocity of the block is zero, (it is at rest) its final velocity is 40 m/s.
∆v
Or we may be use the formula a =
t
∆v = a x t ==> ∆v = 4 x 10 = 40 m/s
∆v = vf – vi or vf = vi + ∆v = 0 + 40 = 40 m/s

EXERCISE

A block, initially at rest on a friction-free horizontal plane is acted on by a horizontal force of 40 N. If the velocity of the block
reaches 20 m/s during 5 s find (a) the acceleration of the block. (b) the mass of the block.

(a. 4 m/s2; b. 10 kg)

EXAMPLE

The force F accelerates the object K by 4 m/s2 whereas the same force accelerates
the object L by 20 m/s2.

What will the acceleration of the system be if the objects were moving togeth-
er under the influence of the same force?

Solution

If F = m . a then;

F = mK . 4 mK = . 4 = mL . 20

F = ML . 20 mK = 5mL

For the system:

141
 Fnet F F 20 mL 10
asystem = = = = = m/s2
mtotal mK + mL 5mL + mL 6mL 3

EXAMPLE

A force of 20 N is applied to a 5 kg block that is at rest on a perfectly smooth, level

surface. Find the speed of the block and how far it has gone after 8 s.

Solution

We start with the second law of motion to find the acceleration of the block.

F 20
a= = = 4 m/s2
m 5
v(m/s)
The velocity is
32
v = at = 4 x 8 = 32 m/s.

To find the distance taken by the block, let’s

draw velocity-time graph of the block.

The area of the (v – t) graph is equal to the

t(s)
distance taken by the block. 0 8

32 x 8
area = x = = 128 m
2

EXAMPLE

The force-acceleration graphs of F(N)

two objects given on the right. I
Find the masses of objects. 30

II
10

0 a(m/s2)
3 5

Solution

The slopes of lines give the masses of the objects.

F 30 F 10
m1 = = = 10 kg and m2 = = = 2 kg
a 3 a 5

142
EXAMPLE

The force-time graph of a 4 kg object, along a smooth and frictionless surface (ini-
tially the object is at rest) is given below.

a. Plot acceleration-time graph

b. Plot velocity time graph.

F(N)

15

10

0 t(s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–5

–10

–15

Solution

a. a = F
m
F(N)
F 10
a1 = = = 5 m/s2 between 0 and 2 s.
m 2 10

F 15 5
a1 = =– = –7.5 m/s2 between 2 and 4 s.
m 2
0
F 2 4 6 8 t(s)
a3 = = 0 between 4 and 6 s. –5
m
–7.5
F 10
a4 = = = 5 m/s2 between 6 and 8 s.
m 2

Let’s plot these values on the graph.

b. The area of the (a - t) graph is equal to the change of the velocity of the object.
∆v1 = 5 x 2 = 10 m/s
∆v = v1 –v0
v1 = ∆v1 + v0 = 10 + 0 = 10 m/s
∆v2 = –7.5 x 2 = –15 m/s
v2 = ∆v2 + v1 = –15 + 10 = –5 m/s

143
 ∆v3 = 0
v3 = –5 m/s
∆v4 = 5 x 2 = 10 m/s
v4 = ∆v4 + v3 = 10 – 5 = 5 m/s

We can also plot these values on the graph as in the figure below.

v(m/s)

10

0 t(s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

–5

EXERCISE

Find the net force necessary to slow a 1600 kg car down from 72 km/h to 18 km/h in 3 s.

(8000 N)

EXERCISE

v (m/s)

12

9
F2

F3 = 6 N F1 = 12 N

0 t(s)
3
Figure 1 Figure 2

In Figure 1, velocity-time graph of 4 kg object is given in the frictionless horizontal surface. The forces in Figure 2 are applied to
this object in the same surface. Find the value of F2 in newtons.

(10 N)

144
 Free Body Force Diagrams
Free body diagrams, often abbreviated “FBD” are a tool for solving problems
with multiple forces acting on a single body. The methods developed here can also Lift
be used for the summation of force fields. The purpose of a free body diagram is
to reduce the complexity of situation for easy analysis. The diagram is used as a Drag Thrust
starting point to develop a mathematical model of the forces acting on an object.

In order to effectively use free body diagram to analyze a body’s motion

you must be accomplish four skills.
Weight
1. Identify the force acting on a body

2. Identify the direction of each acting force and draw vectors representing
the forces

3. Create a pair of equations from a free body

4. Do the math. This usually involves systems of equations.

Below is a picture of a flying jet.

A free body diagram is a picture showing the forces that act on a body. Most
importantly it shows the forces’ directions without the clutter of drawing the body.

The word “body” is used to describe any object. But physicists and engineers
likes to simplify the drawing of the object by drawing a dot instead of a detailed
picture. Occasionally some simple details are added to create further clarify the
situation. Below is an example of a “body.”

A free body diagram of the jet might look like the one below.

Lift

Drag Thrust

Weight

Some examples for free body diagrams:

1. An object is at rest on a tabletop. A free-body diagram for this situation

looks like shown on the next page.

145
 Fnorm

Fgrav

2. An object is supported by two ropes that attach to the ceiling. A free-body

diagram for this situation looks like this:

Ftens Ftens

Fgrav

3. An object is free-falling from a high building. Neglect air resistance. A free-

body diagram for this situation looks like this:

Fgrav

4. A rightward force is applied to an object in order to move it across a plane

surface with a rightward acceleration. Consider frictional forces. Neglect air resist-
ance. A free-body diagram for this situation looks like this:

Fnorm

Ffrict Fapp

Fgrav

146
 5. A skydiver is descending with a constant velocity. Consider air resistance. A
free-body diagram for this situation looks like this:

Fair

Fgrav

6. The force exerted by the object X which is in the horizontal plane without
friction, on the Y is N, the reaction force developed by Y on the object X is N’.

X
Y
F
N’ N

The Acceleration of Gravity

Most of forces which act on a body are caused by other bodies in contact with
it. Other forces, such as fundamental forces, may act on a body without being in
actual physical contact with it. For example the gravitational force causes bodies to
fall toward the earth. We measure it when we find the weight of an object

vacuum in air
v=0

Freely falling

147
 An object falling in the sole influence of gravity is said to be free-falling. Since
all objects fall at the same rate in the absence of other forces, objects and people
will experience weightlessness in these situations.

A free-falling object has an acceleration of 9.8 m/s2, downward (on Earth).

Gravitational Acceleration of Different
This numerical value for the acceleration of a free-falling object is such an impor-
Planets:
tant value that it is given a special name. It is known as the acceleration of gravity
- the acceleration for any object moving under the sole influence of gravity. A mat-
Planet Gravity (m/s2)
ter of fact, this quantity known as the acceleration of gravity is such an important
Earth 9.81
quantity that physicists have a special symbol to denote it - the symbol g.
Jupiter 26.0
The numerical value for the acceleration of gravity is most accurately known as
Mars 3.75 9.8 m/s2. There are slight variations in this numerical value (to the second deci-
Mercury 3.61 mal place) that are dependent primarily upon on altitude. We will occasionally use
Neptune 13.3 the approximated value of 10 m/s2 in order to reduce the complexity of the many
Pluto 0.61 mathematical tasks that we will perform with this number.
Saturn 11.2 g = 9.8 m/s2, downward
Uranus 10.5 ( ~ 10 m/s2, downward)
Venus 8.8 The value of the acceleration of gravity (g) is different in different gravita-
tional environments.

The weight of an object is the force of gravity on the object and may be de-
fined as the mass times the acceleration of gravity, w = mg. Since the weight is a
force, its SI unit is the newton.

For an object in free fall, so that gravity is the only force acting on it, then the
expression for weight follows from Newton’s second law.

W = mg applies at all times, even

when the object is not accelerating.

Acceleration
Weight Force Mass
of gravity

If the object is in free

fall with no other force
other than gravity acting.

148
 2 kg 2 kg 2 kg

0 0 0
30 10 30 10 30 10
20 20 20

Earth: 19.6 N Moon: 3.3 N Deep Space: 0 N

You might well ask, as many do, “Why do you multiply the mass times the
freefall acceleration of gravity when the mass is sitting at rest on the table?”. The
value of g allows you to determine the net gravity force if it were in freefall, and
that net gravity force is the weight. Another approach is to consider “g” to be the
measure of the intensity of the gravity field in newtons/kg at your location. You can
view the weight as a measure of the mass in kg times the intensity of the gravity
field, 9.8 newtons/kg under standard conditions.

Weight object = mass of object x acceleration of gravity

EXAMPLE

The strength of gravity on the Earth’s surface is 10 newtons per kilogram (m/s2).
Calculate the weight of a car with a mass of 1500 kg.

Solution

The formula is:

Weight = Mass × Gravity

Weight = 1500 × 10 = 15000 N

Weight is measured in newtons.

EXAMPLE

The strength of gravity on the Moon is 1.6 new-

tons per kilogram. If an astronaut has a mass of
80 kg on Earth, what is the astronaut’s mass on
the Moon?

149
 Solution

Mass is independent of location, so the astronaut’s mass on the Moon is the same
as the astronaut’s mass on the Earth.
Astronaut’s mass on the Moon = Astronaut’s mass on the Earth m = 80 kg
Mass is measured in kilograms.

EXERCISE

The surface gravity of Jupiter is about 26 newtons per kilogram. What would be the weight of a probe of mass 50 kg at Jupiter’s
surface?
(1300)

N (reaction) 9.3.3.3. The Third Law of Motion: Action and Reaction

Basically, what Newton discovered and presented with his statement of the
third law of motions the fact that forces always occur in pairs. There is no such thing
as a single, isolated force. When discussing these force pairs, Newton chose to call
one of them the action and the other the reaction. There is no real significance in
these names.
As an example, suppose you are watching two boxers go At each other in the
G (action) ring. One of them exerts a force of 10 N on the chin of his opponent. The action
is the force that the fist exerts on the chin. The reaction is the force that the chin
Action and reaction forces acting a box
exerts on the fist.

Action-reaction pairs have three characteristics.

1. The forces are equal in magnitude.

2. They act in opposite directions.
3. The forces act on different objects: one was on the fist, the other on the
chin.

According to Newton’s third law of motion, when one object exerts a force on
another object, the second object also exerts a force on the first object. The force
exerted by the second object is equal to the first force, but is opposite in direction.
Notice that the forces are exerted on different objects.

A variety of action-reaction force pairs are evident in nature. Consider the pro-
pulsion of a fish through the water. A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. But
a push on the water will only serve to accelerate the water. Since forces result from
mutual interactions, the water must also be pushing the fish forwards, propelling
the fish through the water. The size of the force on the water equals the size of the
force on the fish; the direction of the force on the water (backwards) is opposite the

150
direction of the force on the fish (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in
size) and opposite (in direction) reaction force. Action-reaction force pairs make it
possible for fish to swim.

Consider the flying motion of birds. A bird flies by use of its wings. The wings
of a bird push air downwards. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the air
must also be pushing the bird upwards. The size of the force on the air equals the
size of the force on the bird; the direction of the force on the air (downwards) is op-
posite the direction of the force on the bird (upwards). For every action, there is an
equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make
it possible for birds to fly.

Consider the motion of a car on the way to school. A car is equipped with
wheels that spin. As the wheels spin, they grip the road and push the road back-
wards. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the road must also be pushing
the wheels forward. The size of the force on the road equals the size of the force on
the wheels (or car); the direction of the force on the road (backwards) is opposite
the direction of the force on the wheels (forwards). For every action, there is an
equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make
it possible for cars to move along a roadway surface.

Action Reaction

The rocket’s action is to push down on the ground with the force of its powerful engines, and the
reaction is that the ground pushes the rocket upwards with an equal force.

N’ (reaction)

If there is no other external force on the m

body as shown, N equals G. The resultant force
is zero.
G = mg

N (action)

X
Y
F
N’ N

151
 As seen, since the weight of X and Y objects is zero with the ground reaction,
the resultant force in the vertical direction becomes zero. The system is accelerated
by the force F.

N’ F

The force F applied to an object vertically downward changes the force that
acts on the ground. N = F + G. In this case, the reaction force from the surface will
be N’ = -(F + G).

F
F
N’

As seen, the force F applied to the rope causes the force applied to the floor to
be smaller than the weight of the object.

The effect on horizontal space, as seen, the force F applied to the rope causes
the force applied to the floor to be smaller than the object weight.

The effect on horizontal space, If N < G

N=G-F
In this case, surface reaction is N’ = G - F

152
 ACTIVITY

Pull the two balls on the edges of Newton’s cradle and leave them at the same
height and at the same time. Observe the movement of the balls.

Tie two dynamometers together. Read the values on dynamometers while pulling
the dynamometers at the same time.

EXAMPLE

F = 40 N K
L
5 kg
3k

What is the reaction force applied by L on K according to the figure given above on
a frictionless surface?

Solution

The force 40 N pushes 8 kg mass totally. The acceleration of the objects are the
same. The reaction is that the object L pushes the object K.

40 8
= ⇒ FK = 15 N
FK 3

EXERCISE

A force of 20 N is exerted horizontally against a 10 kg mass, which is turns

pushes a 2.5 kg mass as in the figure on the right. If the blocks are on a fric-
tionless surface, what force does one block exert on the other? X
F = 20 N
10 kg Y
(4 N) 2.5 kg

153
 9.3.4. FRICTION FORCE
Friction is very common force. Whenever one object slides over another ob-
ject, friction tries to stop the movement. Friction always opposes the movement of
an object.

If there were no friction a moving body will continue moving with the same
speed. Friction is probably one of the most familiar forces in your every day life. It
is friction, more than any other force, that makes a rolling ball slow and stop. It is
The frictional force and the force applied are in op-
posite direction. friction that makes it hard for you to pull a sled on bare ground.

9.3.4.1 Variables Where the Friction Force Depends

Experiments show us a few things about friction.

1. Friction acts parallel to the surface which are sliding over one another, and
in the direction opposite to that of the motion.
2. Frictional force depends upon the material and the character of the rub-
bing surfaces. When the rubbing surfaces are smooth the friction is small, when the
rubbing surfaces are rough the friction is large.
Frictional force depends on the material of rub-
bing surfaces. 3. Frictional force depends on the weight of the rubbing objects. Heavier
bodies produce larger frictional force, when rubbed together.

N=G G N = 2G 2G

4. Frictional force does not depend much on the size of the rubbing areas as
long as the weights remain the same.

Suppose a heavy box resting on a horizontal surface. If no horizontal force is

exerted on the box no friction acts on the box. But if you try to pull the box, it does
not move although you are exerting a horizontal force on it.

When we apply a horizontal force F, as shown in the figure to the block, the
block will remain stationary if F is not too large. The force that keeps the block from
moving is called the frictional force, f. As long as the block is not moving f ≥ F. Since
the block is stationary, we call this frictional force as the force of static friction, fs.

154
 Static friction refers to a force parallel to the two surfaces that can arise when
they are not sliding.

If we increase the magnitude of F enough, the block will eventually slip. When
the block is on the verge of slipping, fs is maximum. When F exceeds fs(max) , the
block moves and accelerates. When the block is in motion, the retarding frictional
force becomes less than fs(max). When an object slides along a rough surface the
force of kinetic friction, fk acts on the object, in the opposite to direction of the
object’s velocity.
Ff
Pulling a heavy box
N

F
f

W = mg

If F = fk, the object moves with constant velocity.

The force of friction is written as F = k . N

Where, f is the force of friction, k is the coefficient of friction, and N is the

normal force.

The constant ‘k’ depends on the kind of the kind of the two surfaces. Accord-
ing to equation given above, coefficient friction is the ratio of two forces; friction
force and the normal force. Since k is the ratio of the two quantities of the same
unit, it does not have a unit.
DID YOU KNOW?
F F
ks = s ⇒ Fs = ksN and kk = k ⇒ Fk = kkN
N N Friction forces between two objects come
into play as the objects touching each other
Friction force (N)
slide over each other.

The frictional force is caused by intermolecu-

FF lar forces that contact the bodies.
max

The friction force is directly proportional to

the reaction force.

The mathematical model of the friction for-

STATIC KINETIC
ce, Fs = k. N is expressed.
FRICTION FRICTION
0 Applied force (N) For objects, the static friction coefficient is
no motion sliding greater than the kinetic friction coefficient.

Friction force versus applied force graph.

155
 EXPERIMENT 2

Change of Static Friction Force

1 kg
Equipment

A mass of 1 kg object
Mass of 250 grams (5 pieces).
Pulley
250 g
Rope
Table
The surface is rough board

Procedure

1. Place the rough long board on the table.

2. Attach a mass of 1 kg mass to a rope that you will pass through the pulley by fixing the pulley to the table. Place the mass
of 1 kg mass on the board.
3. Attach the mass of the 250 g mass to the other end of the rope and observe if it starts moving. If the movement did not
start, how many newtons should the frictional force affect the mass of 1 kg on the table? (g = 10 m/s2 is taken.)
4. Repeat the experiment until the beginning of the movement, attaching a second one under the mass of 250 g.

Note how many newtons the magnitude of the frictional force on the table before the movement of the mass you attach
move is.

Questions

1. In this experiment, the weight of 250 g (0.25 kg) masses suspended when the friction of the pulley and the weight of the
rope are neglected determines the magnitude of the friction force.

Weight of each object is

G = mg
G = 0.25 x 10
G = 2.5 N.

According to this,

1. What is the friction force when the first object with a mass of 250 grams hangs on the end of the rope?
2. How many newton is the frictional force when the second mass is connected to the first one?
3. How did the static friction force change as the weight of the suspended masses increased?

156
 Static and kinetic coefficient of friction for somesurfaces.

Materials in contact Coefficient of static friction Coefficient of kinetic friction

Glass on glass 0.95 0.40
Steel on steel (lubricated) 0.15 0.09
Stell on steel (unlubricated) 0.70 0.60
Wood on wood 0.50 0.30
Wood on stone 0.50 0.30
Rubber tire on dry concrete 1.00 0.70
Rubber tire on wet concrete 0.70 0.50
Leather on wood 0.50 0.40
Teflon on steel 0.04 0.04
Copper on steel 0.53 0.36
Ice on ice 0.10 0.03
Synovial joints (in human limbs) 0.01 0.01
Lubricated ball bearing < 0.01 < 0.01

EXAMPLE

A wooden crate is pulled with F, 2F and 3F forces, as shown in the figure. Compare
the magnitudes of the frictional forces, since they do not move in three cases.

F 2F 3F

(a) (b) (c)

Solution

Since the crates do not move, in all three cases the friction force is equal to the
magnitude of the pulling force.
Fsa = F, Fsb = 2F, Fsc = 3F
Correct comparison of friction forces is, Fsc > Fsb > Fsa

EXERCISE
F
The friction forces F1, F2 and F3 affect the
bodies of identical m masses, which are a
moved by forces in the magnitude F on m F m m a
horizontal surfaces where the friction co-
efficient is the same. Compare the magni- F
tudes of the forces F1, F2 and F3.

157
 Some advantages and harms of frictions

RESEARCH

Investigate the daily life advantages and

disadvantages of friction force. Make
your research results a poster presenta-
tion. Hang your poster on the class panel.

Friction force is required for many activities.

Although it is often a nulsance, friction is also very useful. Our lives depend on
the friction at the brakes and tyres of cars and bicycles. A car will not go easily on
the street if there were no friction between the tyre and the street. The car will skid
this way and that way all the time. On icy roads if no chains are put on the tyres the
car skids all the time.

Snow tyres are used or chains are put on the tyres to increase the friction, and
prevent skidding.

Air friction slows the parachute of a falling man so that he can land safely.

Grease or machine oil is applied to the sliding

parts of machinery.

Cars can easily slide on icy roads. Car tire chains installed to increase friction only.
LOOK AT LINKS
You are able to walk only because of friction with the floor (try walking on wet
To reinforce the concept of friction force, you ice!). Knots in string and the threads in your clothes are held together by friction.
can follow the simulation at the following net- Nails and screws are held in wood by friction. What things do you think would hap-
work address. pen if there was suddenly no friction at all in this room.
the http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/ Friction is harmful in many machines. While a machine is working parts rub
friction against each other. Continuos rubbing wears out the parts, also some of the force
we put to make the machine work is used up to overcome the friction.

158
 CHECK YOURSELF

A. True and False

Write “T” near each one of the statements if it is true or “F” if it is false.

1. ( ) In physics, velocity and speed mean the same thing.

2.( ) The position versus time graph of an object moving with constant velocity is a straight line.
3. ( ) The rate of change of speed of an object is called acceleration.
4. ( ) The fundamental forces are gravity, the electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force and frictional force.
5. ( ) If the velocity of a car is increasing by 5 m/s in each second, then we can say that its acceleration is 5 m/s2.
6. ( ) Force is a vector quantity.
7. ( ) Newton is the unit of displacement.
8. ( ) The strong nuclear force is responsible for binding of nuclei.
9. ( ) The acceleration of a system is directly proportional to the force applied and to the total mass of the system
10. ( ) You are able to walk because of friction with the floor.

B. Fill in the Blanks.

Fill in the blanks with the words given in the box.

a. opposes b. acceleration c. reference d. speed e. displacement f. inertia g. velocity

h. dynamometer i. gravitational j. different k. acceleration l. directly m. freely falling n. force

1. ....................................... is how far the object is from its starting point.

2. ....................................... can be defined as the rate at which an object covers distance.

3. The unit of ....................................... is m/s2.

4. ....................................... is used for measuring force.
5. The ....................................... force is a weak, but very long ranged force.
6. An object falling in the sole influence of gravity is said to be ....................................... .
7. Newton’s first law of motion states that objects tend to keep their state of motion. This law is sometimes named ....................................... .
8. If a net ....................................... acts on an object, it will cause an ....................................... of the object.
9. Action-reaction forces act on ....................................... substances.
10. Friction always ....................................... the movement of an object.

159
 C. Problem About Matter

1. Under what conditions will the magnitude of the dis- 6. If you were to try to drive a large nail into hard wood with
placement for a moving object be the same as the dis- a light hammer, the hammer would bounce up at each
tance it travels? blow. Explain this in terms of Newton’s third law.

7. How do the forces of an action and reaction compare?

2. A person holds a textbook at arm’s length. Identify all the
forces acting.

8. Which law of motion is illustrated by each of the follo-

wing?

a. A person jumps to a dock from boat. The boat moves

away from the dock.
3. A traffic light is supported by two cables. Identify all the b. A galloping horse comes to a sudden stop. Its rider is
forces acting on the light. thrown over the head of the horse and lands on the
ground.
c. A ping-pong ball can be accelerated faster than a golf ball
when hit with the same force.

4. Is an object’s inertia more closely related to its mass or to

its weight? Explain.
9. An ant moves a distance of 36.5 cm in 7.3 s what is
its speed?
(5 cm/s)

5. You can remove the dust from a coat by shaking it. Could 10. What is the velocity of an airplane that experiences a
you shake out the dust in free space in the absence of displacement of 580 m in 2.5 s?
gravity? Explain.
(232 m/s)

160
11. 13. Draw a position - time graph for a runner who moves at
5 m/s for 10 s, then at 2 m/s for 20 s, then at –9 m/s for
A B C D E 10 s.

The car in the figure moves between points AD with a con-

stant velocity of 15 m/s and between points DE with a con-
stant velocity of 5 m/s.

What is the average velocity of the car? (Distances

between points are equal to x.)
14. A car has a velocity of 105 km/h. What is its displace-
(10 m/s)
ment if it travels at this velocity for 2.5 h?

(262.5 km)

12. The following position - time graph depicts the motion

of a jogger moving along a straight path.

x (m)
15. A car moves along a straight road at a constant velocity of
C 75 km/h for 4 h, stops for 2 h, and then drives in the reverse
750 direction at the original speed for 3 h.
B

500 a. Plot a velocity time graph for the car.

A D
b. Find the area under the curve for the first 4 h. What this
250 represent?
c. Explain how to use the graph to find the distance the car
time (s) is from its starting point at the end of 9 h.
100 200 300 400 500

Examine the graph to answer the following questions.

a. When was the jogger running the faster? 16. x (m)
b. What was the farthest point reached by the jogger?
C
c. When, if ever, did the jogger rest? 10 B

d. State the jogger’s displacement for the folllowing time

intervals.
A
i. 0 to 200 s. 5
ii. 100 s to 300 s.
iii. 300 s to 500 s.
iv. 0 to 500 s time (s)
0
2 4 6 8 10 12
e. Find the velocity for each of the lettered sections A, B, C
and D.
f. What was the total distance travelled by the jogger? This position - time graph shows the positions of several
runners at various times. Determine the velocity of each
(a. A, b. 750 m, c. C, d. 750 m, 250 m, –750 m, 0,
of the runners.
e. 5 m/s, 2.5 m/s, 0, –3.75 m/s, f. 1500 m)
(A: 0.5 m/s, B: 0.83 m/s, C: 0.6 m/s)

161
17. This position - time graph represent the motion of a dog 20. x (m)
runnig along a railway track.
10
x (m) 8
6
8 4
6 2
0 t (s)
4 1 2 3 4 5
2

0 t (s) Position versus time graph is given for an object.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Find the velocity of the object.
a. What is the dog’s position at 4 s?
b. What is the dog’s displacement between 2 s and 5 s? (1.6 m/s)
c. What is the velocity of the dog?
(a. 4 m, b. 3 m, c. 1 m/s)

18. x (km)
140
120
100
80
60 21. The velocity of an automobile changes over an 8 s time peri-
40 od as shown in the table.
20
0 t(h)
0.5 1 1.5 2 Time (s) Velocity (m/s) Time (s) Velocity (m/s)
–20
–40 0 0 5 20
1 4 6 20

The position time graph above represents the motion of a 2 8 7 20

car along a section of straight highway. The car starts south 3 12 8 20
of a town at a marker labeled 40 km [S]. Two hours later it is 4 16
located at a marker north of town marked 120 km [N].
a. What is the displacement of the car during the 2 h a. Plot the velocity - time graph of the motion.
period?
b. Determine the diplacent of the car during the first 2 s.
b. What is the velocity of the car for the 2 h interval?
c. What displacement does the car have during the first 4 s.
c. At what time does the car pass the 0 marker?
d. What displacement does the car have during the entire 8
(a. 160 km, b. 80 km/h c. 0.5 h)
s?
e. Find the slope of the line between
19. What velocity is required for a truck moving along the
t = 0 s and t = 4 s. What does this slope represent?
highway to experience a displacement of 400 m in a
f. Find the slope of the line between t = 5 s and t = 7 s. What
time of 20 s. Express your answer in meters per second
does this slope indicate?
and in kilometres per hour.

(20 m/s, 72 km/h) (b. 8 m, c. 32 m, d. 110 m, e. 4, acc, f. 0, acc = 0)

162
22. What is the acceleration of a 0.25 kg ball that is kicked 27. Determine the accelerations which result when a 18 N
with a force of 100 N? net force is applied to a 6 kg object and then to a 9 kg
object.
(400 m/s2)
(6 kg → a = 3 m/s2, 9 kg → a = 2 m/s2)

23. A mass of 4 kg is accelerated by a force of 20 N.

What is the acceleration if there is no friction? If a fricti-

onal force of 8 N is acting, what is the acceleration?
(5 m/s2, 3 m/s2)

28. A net force of 25 N is exerted on a box to cause it to accele-

rate at a rate of 5 m/s2.

Determine the mass of the box.

24. A force of 40 N accelerates a 5 kg block at 6 m/s2 along a
horizontal surface. (5 kg)

How large is the frictional force?

(10 N)

29. A sled of weight 98 N is pulled across an icy, frictionless lawn

25. A 8 kg object is moving across a friction-free surface with a by a boy who pulls with a force of 5 N on the sled.
constant velocity of 2 m/s.
What is acceleration of the sled? (g = 9.8 N/kg)

What is the horizontal force necessary to maintain this (0.5 m/s2)

state of motion?
(0)

30. A bicyclist can accelerate from 0 km/h to 10 km/h in 2 s.

Similarly, an automobile can accelerate from 80 km/h to
26. A force acts on a 10 kg mass and reduces its velocity
90 km/h in 2 s.
from 16 m/s to 12 m/s in 10 s. Find the force in N.

(4 N) Which vehicle is accelerating at a faster rate? Explain.

163
31. Suppose that a sled is accelerating at a rate of 4 m/s2. 35. A track of mass 2000 kg is braked to a stop in 20 m from
an initial velocity of 36 km/h. How much force was re-
quired?
If the net force is tripled and the mass is doubled, then
what is the new acceleration of the sled? (5000 N)

(6 m/s2)

32. A 2000 kg car is speeding at 72 km/h. Determine the re-

tarding force of brakes required to stop it in 300 m on a 36. A force of 8000 N acts for 15 s on a mass of 50 kg.
level road.
a. What is the acceleration?
(1333 N)
b. What is the velocity at the end of 15 s?

(a. 16 m/s2, b. 240 m/s)

33. The strength of the Earth’s gravity varies slightly over the
Earth from 9.81 N/kg at the poles to 9.78 N/kg at the equa-
tor.

What would be the change in weight of a person of mass

60 kg who went from the equator to the North Pole? 37. A person has a mass of 60 kg. How much do they weigh
on Earth, if the gravitational field strength is 10 N/kg?
(1.8 N)
(600 N)

34. In a physics lab, two students apply a 45 N rightward force

to a 3 kg cart to accelerate it across a horizontal surface at a
rate of 4 m/s2.

38. How much would the same person weigh on the Moon, if
Determine the friction force acting upon the cart. the gravitational field strength is 1.6 N/kg?
(33 N) (96 N)

164
 D. Multiple Choice

1. The motion of a car is plotted on a distance - time graph, 5. An empty truck whose mass is 3000 kg has a maximum
the horizontal straight line means. acceleration of 4 m/s2. What is its maximum acceleration
when it is carrying a 5000 kg load?
A) The car is moving at constant speed.
A) 1.5 m/s2 B) 2.4 m/s2 C) 3 m/s2
B) The car is moving at constant velocity.
D) 6.6 m/s2 E) 7 m/s2
C) The car is at rest.
D) The car is moving at constant acceleration.
E) The car is in steady motion.

6. As an object freely falls, its

A) velocity increases
2. On a distance - time graph, a straight line sloping down- B) acceleration increases
ward to the right means C) velocity decreases
D) acceleration decreases
A) The speed of car is decreasing at constant rate. E) velocity doesn’t change.

B) The velocity of car is decreasing at constant rate.

C) The car is in steady motion.
D) The car is moving at constant deceleration.
E) The car is moving at changing deceleration.

7. A heavy object & a light object are dropped at the same time
from rest in vacuum.

3. On a speed - time graph, a straight line sloping upward to

The heavier object reaches the ground
the right means
A) sooner than the lighter object.
A) The car is in steady motion. B) later than the lighter object.
C) at the same time as the lighter object.
B) The car moves at constant speed.
D) doesn’t fall in vacuum.
C) The car is slowing down. E) none of these.
D) The car moves at constant acceleration.
E) The car is moving at changing acceleration.

4. A truck travels 24 km in 15 min. What is its average spe-

ed? 8. How long does a car with an acceleration of 4 m/s2 take
from 36 km/h to 72 km/h?
A) 24/15 km/h B) 24 km/h C) 48 km/h
D) 96 km/h E) 6 km/h A) 2.5 s B) 6 s C) 9 s D) 12 s E) 18 s

165
9. Which one of the following is the graph of a uniformly ac- 11. An object is propelled along a straight line path by a force.
celerated motion?

a
A) B) a If the net force were doubled, its acceleration would

A) quadruple B) halve C) stay the same

D) double E) none of these
t t

a
C) D) a

12. If the mass of an object does not change, a constant net

force on the object produces constant
t t

A) velocity B) acceleration C) displacement

E) a D) speed E) all of these.

t
13. An object following a straight line at a constant speed
10. In which graph, the object is the nearest distance to the ........................ .
starting point?
A) has zero acceleration
v (m/s)
A) B) v (m/s) B) has a net force acting upon it in the direction of motion.
C) must be moving in a vacuum in the absence of air drag.
4 4 D) has no force acting on it.
E) has a constant velocity.
t(s) t(s)
1 2 1 2 3

v (m/s)
C) D) v (m/s)

4 4 14. A raindrop falling through air reaches a terminal velocity

before hitting the ground.
t(s) t(s)
1 2 3 4 1 2 3
At terminal velocity, the frictional force on the raindrop
E) v (m/s) is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 A) zero.
B) less than the weight of the raindrop.
t(s) C) greater than the weight of the raindrop.
1 2 3 D) equal to the weight of the raindrop.
E) not enough information is given
–4

166
15. x (m) 16. v (m/s)

20 40

20
10 t (s)
0
2 4 6 8 10 12

t (s)
1 2 3 4 Velocity - time graph of a moving object is shown in the
figure. What is the distance which is covered by this ob-
ject after 12 s?
Displacement - time graph of a car is shown in Figure.

A) 220 m B) 240 m C) 260 m D) 280 m E) 340 m

Which one of the following graphs shows velocity - time
graph of this car?

A) v (m/s) B) v (m/s)

15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
1 2 3 4 t (s) 1 2 3 4 t (s)
–5 –5
–10 –10
–15 –15

C) v (m/s) D) v (m/s)

15 15 17. v (m/s)
10 10
4 L
5 5
3
0 0 M
1 2 3 4 t (s) 1 2 3 4 t (s) 2
–5 –5 N
1
–10 –10
–15 –15 0 t (s)
2 4 6 8 10

E) v (m/s) Velocity - time graph of three object is shown in figure.

15
10 Which one of the followign is true, for the diplacements
of the objects?
5
0
1 2 3 4 t (s)
–5 A) xN > xL > xM B) xL = xM = xN C) xM = xL > xN
–10
D) xL > xM > XN E) xM > xN > xL
–15

167
18. The velocity-time graph of a moving object is shown in the 20. The velocity-time graphs Velocity
figure. of the vehicles K and L
2V K
v (m/s) which are moving on lin-
ear path and side by side
V
at t = 0 are given in the
figure.
0 Time
t (s) t
Accordingly, in the 0-t
–V L
time interval

I. K and L vehicles are moving away from each other.

Which one of the following is the acceleration - time II. A constant net force effects on L.
graph of the object? III. The direction of the net force which effects on K is the
A) a B) a same as the direction of movement of the vehicle.

Which of the statements given above is/are true?

t t
A) Only I B) Only II C) I and III
D) II and III E) I, II and III

C) a D) a

t t

21. Velocity - time graph of an object which moves on a linear

path is shown on the figure.
E) a
Velocity (m/s)

t 2V

0 Time (s)
t 2t 4t
19. Which one of the following is a correct definition of dis-
placement?
Accordingly, how is the relationship between the mag-
A) distance from a fixed point nitudes a1, a2 and a3 of accelerations of the object in 0-t,
B) distance moved from a fixed point t-2t and 2t-4t time intervals?
C) distance from a fixed point in a given direction
D) distance moved in a given direction A) a1 > a2 > a3 B) a2 > a1 > a3 C) a1 > a2, a3 = 0
E) distance from the origin D) a1 > a3, a2 = 0 E) a2 > a3 > a1

168