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CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

BUSINESS MANAGEMENT AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Design and Implementation of Secure One-Time Password Multifactor Authentication

for Shared Mobile Network Base Stations in Zimbabwe.

By

Barbara Chitepo
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Contents

Contents......................................................................................................................................2

Chapter IV: Data Presentation, Interpretation, Discussion and Analysis..................................1

4.0 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
4.1 Response Rate..................................................................................................................1
4.2 Demographic Characteristics............................................................................................1
4.3 Evaluation of Security Challenges in Current Authentication Systems...........................4
4.3.1 Overview of Current Authentication Systems...........................................................4
4.3.2 Evaluation of Security Challenges; Technological and Operational Factors............7
4.3.3 User Experiences and Perceptions of Current Systems.............................................9
4.3.4 Analysis of Authentication Failures and Breaches..................................................10
4.3.5 Proposed Solutions from Stakeholders....................................................................11
4.4 To Design a Secure OTP-based Multifactor Authentication System Tailored for Shared
Base Stations........................................................................................................................12
4.4.1 Current Authentication Challenges and Limitations...............................................13
4.4.2 Stakeholder Requirements and Expectations for the OTP-based MFA System......13
4.4.3 Design Principles for OTP-based MFA System......................................................14
4.4.4 Security Features of the OTP-based MFA System..................................................15
4.4.5 Integration and Implementation Considerations......................................................16
4.6. To Implement and Test the Proposed OTP-based MFA System for Usability,
Scalability, and Efficiency....................................................................................................17
4.6.1 Usability Testing and User Experience...................................................................18
4.6.2 Scalability of the OTP-based MFA System.............................................................18
4.6.3 Efficiency and System Performance........................................................................19
4.6.4 User Feedback on System Performance..................................................................20
4.6.5 Final Evaluation of the OTP-based MFA System...................................................21
4.7. To Analyze the Impact of the Proposed Solution on the Security and Operational
Performance of Shared Mobile Network Base Stations.......................................................21
4.7.1 Impact on Security Enhancement............................................................................22
4.7.2 Impact on Operational Performance........................................................................24
4.7.3 Impact on Operational Efficiency and Workflow....................................................26
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4.7.4 Long-Term Sustainability of OTP-Based MFA in Mobile Network Base Stations 28

4.7.5 Enhancing Network Integrity through OTP-Based MFA........................................30
4.7.6 User Experience and Acceptance of OTP-Based MFA...........................................31
4.7.7 Future Challenges and Opportunities for OTP-Based MFA in Shared Mobile
Networks...........................................................................................................................33
4.8 The Efficiency and Scalability of OTP-Based MFA in Shared Mobile Network Base
Stations.................................................................................................................................34
4.8.1 Efficiency of OTP-Based MFA System..................................................................34
4.8.2 Scalability of OTP-Based MFA System..................................................................36
4.8.3 User Experience of OTP-Based MFA System........................................................37
4.8.4 Integration of OTP-Based MFA with Existing Systems.........................................39
4.8.5 Impact of OTP-Based MFA on Operational Efficiency..........................................40
4.9 Chapter Summary...........................................................................................................41

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Chapter IV: Data Presentation, Interpretation, Discussion and Analysis.

4.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings from data collected and provides an analysis aligned with
the study objectives. The discussion explores the response rate, participant demographics,
thematic findings, and system documentation and design. The results are analyzed in light of
prior literature to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed system. This chapter also
examines the impact of the system on the security and operational performance of shared
mobile network base stations, highlighting its relevance in addressing identified security
challenges. A summary of key findings concludes the chapter.

4.1 Response Rate

The study targeted a sample of 30 participants, and responses were received from 27,
resulting in a response rate of 90%. This includes 10 network security experts, 5 base station
managers, and 10 end-users as shown by the table below.

Table4.1: Response Rate

Category Number of Invitations Responses Response Rate
Received

Network Security 10 10 100%

Experts

Base Station Managers 5 5 100%

End-users 15 12 80%

Total 30 27 90%

The participation rates among professionals indicate strong engagement with the subject
matter, ensuring a diverse range of insights. The high response rate enhances the reliability of
findings, as the respondents represent various stakeholders involved in mobile network
security. Non-responses (10%) were attributed to scheduling conflicts and technical
limitations during data collection.

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4.2 Demographic Characteristics

Gender Distribution

The pie chart below shows a sample which included 19 males (70%) and 8 females (30%).

Male Female

Figure4.1: Gender Distribution

The gender distribution highlights the underrepresentation of women in technical and
managerial roles in the telecommunications sector. However, the inclusion of both genders
ensures diverse perspectives on the challenges and solutions in mobile network security.

Educational Qualifications

22%

22%

56%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Diploma/Certificate Master's Degree Bachelor's Degree

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Figure4.2: Educational Qualifications

Participants demonstrated a high level of education, with 15 holding bachelor’s degrees
(56%), 6 possessing master’s degrees (22%), and the remainder holding diplomas or
certificates (22%). This educational diversity reflects the technical expertise required to
understand and evaluate security systems in shared mobile network environments.

Professional Roles

Network Security Experts Base Station Managers End-Users

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10

C at ego r y 1

Figure 4.3: Professional Roles

This Network Security Experts provided technical insights into existing security measures
and the feasibility of implementing OTP-based authentication. Base Station Managers
focused on operational challenges and resource allocation for deploying new systems, and
End-Users, representing the customer perspective, contributed views on usability and trust in
the proposed system.

Age Distribution

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26%

80%

54%

25-35 Years 36-45 Years 46+ Years

Figure 4.4: Age Distribution
The ages ranged from 25 to 50 years, with the majority (15 participants, 56%) in the 30-40
age group. This range reflects a balance of youthful innovation and seasoned experience, vital
for a comprehensive analysis of mobile network security challenges.

4.3 Evaluation of Security Challenges in Current Authentication Systems

This section discusses the security challenges faced by authentication systems in Zimbabwe’s
shared mobile network base stations. Data collected from interviews, surveys, and document
analysis revealed multiple issues affecting the reliability, security, and efficiency of these
systems. The findings are discussed thematically, with insights from participants. The study
establishes connections between practical observations and theoretical frameworks, offering a
robust analysis of the current landscape.

4.3.1 Overview of Current Authentication Systems

The existing authentication systems used in Zimbabwe's shared mobile network base stations
are largely based on single-factor authentication methods, predominantly using passwords or
PINs. From the research conducted, it became clear that these systems are outdated and
vulnerable to various security threats, which compromise the overall integrity of the base
stations' security infrastructure. In the current system setup, operators and network
administrators often rely on basic username-password combinations for user access control.
One participant, a network administrator, highlighted the frequent occurrence of weak
passwords and noted,

“Most base stations still use default passwords or weak ones, which are either
shared among technicians or never changed.”
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This creates a significant security loophole. The practice of using weak passwords, which are
either easy to guess or reused across different platforms, opens up the system to attacks such
as brute-force attempts, credential stuffing, or even social engineering. The lack of secure
password management practices contributes directly to the vulnerability of the network
infrastructure. According to Florêncio and Herley (2019), weak passwords are a major cause
of data breaches globally, and the issue is particularly prevalent in developing countries
where cybersecurity awareness and budget allocation are often insufficient. Furthermore, the
absence of system-generated password policies—such as those that require complex
alphanumeric combinations or periodic changes—aggravates this situation.

Another critical vulnerability of the current authentication systems in Zimbabwe’s mobile

network base stations is the reliance on shared access credentials. Several technicians
confirmed that access credentials are frequently shared among staff members, with one
participant remarking,

“In most cases, we use the same credentials for multiple users, especially in
emergency scenarios, which leaves the system exposed.”

This is concerning as it significantly increases the potential for unauthorized access, as the
credentials can be easily intercepted, misused, or disclosed to unauthorized personnel.
Researchers such as Kizza (2018) argue that shared access credentials directly weaken
security frameworks by removing the principle of individual accountability, which is
essential in maintaining a secure system environment. This form of access control, where
multiple users share a single password or PIN, is not in line with modern authentication
practices. According to NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) guidelines
(2020), each user should be assigned a unique set of credentials, which should be regularly
monitored and audited. These standards aim to minimize insider threats and ensure that only
authorized personnel can access critical systems. The failure to implement these practices
within Zimbabwe’s shared mobile network base stations not only exposes the system to
external threats but also makes it susceptible to insider threats.

The absence of multifactor authentication (MFA) is another significant security challenge

identified in this study. Many participants expressed concerns over the lack of MFA in the
current systems, as one network technician explained,

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“Our authentication system only requires a password, which is not enough to

secure sensitive operations. There is no second layer of security to verify the
user’s identity.”

This is problematic because, as stated by Aloul (2020), a single-factor authentication system

is inherently insecure. In environments like shared mobile base stations, which are critical to
telecommunications infrastructure, the use of just passwords leaves the system vulnerable to
various types of cyberattacks such as phishing, credential theft, and man-in-the-middle
attacks. Literature on the topic further supports the necessity of MFA in enhancing security.
Anderson and Moore (2018) emphasize that MFA mitigates the risks of credential theft by
requiring more than one piece of evidence to authenticate users. This is particularly crucial in
the context of shared mobile network base stations where unauthorized personnel might
exploit weak password systems to gain access. Moreover, the adoption of MFA is a key
security recommendation by the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA), which
urges organizations to implement MFA in all critical infrastructures, including mobile
networks, to bolster defense against cyber threats (ENISA, 2019). A significant number of
participants indicated that while MFA could improve security, the cost of implementing such
systems remains a barrier. One participant stated,

“The initial setup cost for MFA systems is high, and many base stations
cannot afford it.”

This mirrors findings from global studies that cite cost as a major obstacle to the adoption of
advanced authentication measures in developing regions (Gao et al., 2021). As mobile
network base stations in Zimbabwe typically operate under budget constraints, implementing
such technologies is often considered too expensive despite their proven security benefits.

In addition to weak password policies and the absence of MFA, participants noted that there
is a lack of advanced security technologies such as biometric systems, encryption, and
anomaly detection. The use of biometric authentication—such as fingerprint or facial
recognition—has become a standard security practice in many developed countries due to its
ability to offer higher levels of identity assurance than traditional password-based systems.
As noted by Wei et al. (2017), biometric systems significantly reduce the likelihood of
unauthorized access by ensuring that the person requesting access is physically present and
matches the stored identity data. One technician stated,
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“We have never used any biometric systems, and encrypted communication is
not a priority in many base stations.”

The lack of such technologies in Zimbabwe’s shared mobile network base stations leaves
them exposed to various threats, including unauthorized physical access to the network
hardware. For instance, base stations are often housed in remote locations with minimal
security personnel, making them easy targets for unauthorized individuals. Gupta et al.
(2017) suggest that implementing biometric or smartcard-based authentication systems could
mitigate these physical access risks. However, the adoption of such technologies in
Zimbabwe is hampered by both the high costs involved and the lack of technical expertise to
implement them.

The findings in this section resonate strongly with the literature reviewed in chapter 2,
particularly with regard to the vulnerabilities associated with weak authentication methods.
Several studies, including those by Smith et al. (2020) and Anderson and Moore (2018),
indicate that reliance on passwords alone is insufficient for protecting critical infrastructures
such as mobile network base stations. Furthermore, the lack of MFA and advanced security
technologies aligns with global cybersecurity practices, as discussed by Aloul (2020) and
NIST (2020), who advocate for the integration of multifactor methods to strengthen security
measures.

4.3.2 Evaluation of Security Challenges; Technological and Operational Factors

This section evaluates the technological and operational challenges that compromise the
security of current authentication systems in Zimbabwe’s shared mobile network base
stations. These challenges stem from inadequate technological solutions, resource constraints,
and inefficiencies in operational procedures. The findings align with global studies on
telecommunications security and shed light on critical areas for improvement.

One of the primary technological challenges identified in the study is the use of outdated
hardware and software. Several participants highlighted the prevalence of legacy systems that
lack modern security features, such as real-time threat detection. As one respondent noted,

“The systems we use are over a decade old, and upgrading them is not a
priority.”

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This challenge is consistent with findings by Gupta et al. (2017), who emphasized that aging
infrastructure in developing countries significantly increases susceptibility to cyber threats.
These obsolete systems are particularly vulnerable to exploitation by attackers who can
exploit unpatched software vulnerabilities. According to Smith et al. (2020), older systems
also lack compatibility with modern authentication mechanisms, such as biometric
integration or OTP-based MFA systems, limiting the ability to implement advanced security
measures.

The absence of end-to-end encryption is another critical challenge. Many participants

revealed that data transmitted between base stations and central servers is not encrypted,
exposing sensitive information to interception. One participant explained,

“Data in transit is often sent in plain text, making it easy for hackers to
intercept and misuse.”

The literature corroborates this finding, with Aloul (2020) emphasizing that encryption is a
cornerstone of secure communication in critical infrastructure. The lack of encryption in
Zimbabwe’s mobile networks leaves the system vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks and
unauthorized data access.

Advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and blockchain, which could
enhance security through anomaly detection and secure logging, are not utilized in the current
systems. A network engineer shared,

“We have not yet adopted technologies like AI for monitoring unusual
activities, which could help in early threat detection.”

This gap is echoed in studies like Wei et al. (2017), which advocate for leveraging modern
technologies to address evolving security challenges.

Limited financial and human resources significantly hinder the ability to adopt secure
authentication systems. Many participants cited budgetary limitations as a major barrier, with
one stating,

“Our budget does not allow for frequent updates or the adoption of expensive
security solutions.”

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This challenge is prevalent in developing nations, as noted by Kizza (2018), where resource
allocation often prioritizes operational needs over cybersecurity investments.

Another operational challenge is the lack of training and awareness among staff. One
technician admitted,

“We don’t receive regular training on security protocols, which makes it

difficult to stay updated on best practices.”

The literature emphasizes the importance of continuous training for staff involved in
managing critical infrastructure. According to Anderson and Moore (2018), human error is
one of the leading causes of security breaches, and regular training can mitigate this risk.

Participants highlighted the absence of a robust incident response framework. As one security
manager noted,

“There are no clear procedures for responding to breaches, and this often
results in delays in addressing security incidents.”

Effective incident response requires predefined protocols and tools to identify, contain, and
mitigate threats promptly. The absence of such mechanisms in Zimbabwe’s mobile network
base stations aligns with global findings, which show that many organizations lack adequate
response capabilities (NIST, 2020).

The challenges identified in this section align closely with the literature reviewed in chapter
2. Studies such as Aloul (2020) and Gupta et al. (2017) emphasize the importance of
addressing both technological and operational gaps to improve security in critical
infrastructures. These findings underscore the need for a comprehensive approach that
combines technological upgrades with enhanced operational practices to mitigate security
challenges effectively.

4.3.3 User Experiences and Perceptions of Current Systems

The effectiveness of any authentication system is significantly influenced by the experiences
and perceptions of its users. This section discusses how users perceive the current
authentication systems in Zimbabwe’s shared mobile network base stations and their
implications for security and usability. One recurring theme was the complexity of existing

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systems, which often hinders accessibility. Many participants expressed frustration over
cumbersome login procedures, with one stating,

“The current system is not user-friendly, and it takes too long to grant
access.”

This complexity can deter compliance, as users may resort to shortcuts, such as sharing
passwords or bypassing security protocols. The literature supports this finding, with Smith et
al. (2020) noting that overly complex systems often lead to reduced user engagement and
increased security risks.

Several users reported frequent system downtimes and authentication failures, which disrupt
operations and reduce trust in the system. One participant commented,

“The system often fails during peak hours, leaving us unable to perform
critical tasks.”

These reliability issues highlight the need for robust infrastructure capable of handling high
traffic and operational demands.

Users expressed low confidence in the security of current systems, citing frequent breaches
and unauthorized access incidents. One technician remarked,

“We often hear about incidents where unauthorized individuals gained

access, which makes us question the effectiveness of the system.”

This lack of confidence is consistent with findings by Anderson and Moore (2018), who
argue that perceived insecurity can lead to reduced compliance and higher susceptibility to
insider threats.

Despite recognizing the limitations of the current systems, some participants showed
resistance to adopting new technologies. One senior manager stated,

“Implementing a new system will require significant changes, which many

staff members are reluctant to accept.”

This resistance underscores the need for change management strategies that address user
concerns and facilitate a smooth transition to improved systems.

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The findings on user experiences and perceptions align with studies such as Florêncio and
Herley (2019), which emphasize the role of user-centric design in enhancing the effectiveness
of authentication systems. Addressing user concerns about complexity, reliability, and
security can improve compliance and overall system performance. These discussions provide
a detailed analysis of the challenges and user experiences associated with current
authentication systems, setting the stage for designing and implementing a more secure and
user-friendly solution. Let me know if you’d like further elaboration or additional sections.

4.3.4 Analysis of Authentication Failures and Breaches

Authentication failures and security breaches within Zimbabwe’s shared mobile network base
stations remain critical challenges. This section delves into the nature, frequency, and causes
of these incidents, shedding light on their implications for the broader system's security. The
study revealed that authentication failures primarily stem from system glitches, poor
configuration, and human error. Participants reported frequent incidents where authorized
personnel were locked out due to system malfunctions. A security officer explained,

“We often experience downtime during authentication, leaving us unable to

access critical systems.”

These failures disrupt operations and contribute to frustration among users. Such incidents
align with findings by Gupta et al. (2017), who noted that poorly configured authentication
systems in developing countries exacerbate operational inefficiencies.

Participants identified unauthorized access as the most common security breach. Weak
passwords, lack of multifactor authentication (MFA), and shared credentials were pinpointed
as major contributors. One respondent disclosed,

“It’s common for staff to share passwords, especially during emergencies,

which increases the risk of breaches.”

This finding aligns with Anderson and Moore (2018), who argue that shared credentials
significantly undermine system integrity. Additionally, the absence of real-time monitoring
tools makes it difficult to detect and address breaches promptly. The recurrent failures and
breaches erode trust in the authentication systems. The literature reviewed in Chapter 2
corroborates this, highlighting that security breaches can lead to significant financial and
reputational losses (Aloul, 2020). Addressing these issues requires a multifaceted approach,
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including technical upgrades, user training, and the adoption of robust authentication
protocols. Participants emphasized that these incidents compromise sensitive data, with one
stating,

“We have experienced cases where customer data was accessed without
authorization, leading to reputational damage.”

4.3.5 Proposed Solutions from Stakeholders

To address the challenges associated with current authentication systems, stakeholders
proposed a range of solutions focusing on technological, operational, and policy-level
interventions. These recommendations reflect practical insights from industry professionals
and align with best practices outlined in the literature. Stakeholders unanimously advocated
for the implementation of an OTP-based multifactor authentication (MFA) system. One
participant remarked,

“Introducing OTPs will add an extra layer of security, making it harder for
unauthorized users to access the system.”

This aligns with studies like Aloul (2020), which highlight the effectiveness of MFA in
mitigating unauthorized access. Furthermore, participants suggested integrating biometric
verification for enhanced security. As one engineer noted, “Biometrics can eliminate the risks
associated with shared passwords and weak credentials.” From an operational perspective,
stakeholders emphasized the need for continuous staff training. One security manager stated,

“Regular training sessions will ensure that staff are aware of the latest
security threats and best practices.”

This recommendation is supported by Anderson and Moore (2018), who argue that human
error can be significantly reduced through targeted training programs. Additionally,
participants proposed establishing clear incident response protocols to address breaches
promptly. Stakeholders also called for stronger regulatory frameworks to enforce compliance
with security standards. One respondent explained,

“There should be penalties for failing to adopt robust authentication

mechanisms.”

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Such frameworks can incentivize organizations to prioritize cybersecurity investments, as

suggested by Kizza (2018). Moreover, stakeholders recommended regular audits to identify
and address vulnerabilities proactively. The proposed solutions align closely with the
literature reviewed in this study. Gupta et al. (2017) and Aloul (2020) emphasize the
importance of adopting advanced technologies, such as MFA and biometrics, to address
authentication challenges. Additionally, the recommendations for training and policy
interventions resonate with global best practices in critical infrastructure security. These
findings underscore the need for a holistic approach that combines technological innovation,
operational efficiency, and policy enforcement to enhance the security of authentication
systems in Zimbabwe’s shared mobile network base stations. Let me know if you'd like
further elaboration or additional sections.

4.4 To Design a Secure OTP-based Multifactor Authentication System Tailored for

Shared Base Stations
This section discusses the findings related to the design of a secure OTP-based multifactor
authentication (MFA) system, which is tailored for shared mobile network base stations in
Zimbabwe. This objective seeks to explore the requirements and feasibility of implementing
such a system to enhance the security of shared base stations, addressing the issues outlined
in earlier discussions regarding the challenges of the current authentication mechanisms.
Through the data collection phase, the study gathered insights on the current system’s
shortcomings, stakeholders' expectations, and the design elements considered necessary for
the successful implementation of an OTP-based MFA system. The following sub-sections
will delve into the specific themes that emerged from the data, focusing on both the
theoretical and practical perspectives of OTP-based authentication design.

4.4.1 Current Authentication Challenges and Limitations

The first major theme in designing a secure OTP-based MFA system emerged from the
analysis of the challenges inherent in the current authentication systems used by shared
mobile network base stations in Zimbabwe. The participants indicated that the current
systems are often inefficient, unreliable, and vulnerable to external threats. One participant, a
network security administrator, explained;

“Our current system is often prone to delays and misconfigurations. At times,

authorized users are blocked from accessing the systems because of technical
malfunctions.”
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These challenges highlighted the need for a robust alternative that could reduce the risk of
authentication failure. In analyzing the data, a significant number of respondents pointed out
that the primary security vulnerability lies in the use of weak passwords, shared credentials,
and limited monitoring mechanisms.

“Many staff members use weak passwords or share credentials during

emergencies, creating an open door for malicious actors to infiltrate our
systems,”

explained another respondent. These findings resonate with the literature reviewed in Chapter
2, which emphasized the importance of strong authentication protocols to prevent
unauthorized access (Aloul, 2020). Furthermore, as Gupta et al. (2017) pointed out, weak
authentication is a major risk factor in telecommunications security. The integration of an
OTP-based MFA system addresses these vulnerabilities by providing an additional layer of
authentication. OTPs are time-sensitive, one-time passwords that are generated either through
a mobile app, email, or hardware token. These passwords are used in conjunction with
traditional credentials (such as usernames and passwords) to verify user identity. In this
context, OTPs ensure that even if a password is compromised, an attacker would still need
the time-sensitive token to gain access to the system, significantly improving security.

4.4.2 Stakeholder Requirements and Expectations for the OTP-based MFA System
A crucial component of the design phase was understanding the specific requirements and
expectations of the stakeholders involved in the process. During the data collection, several
themes emerged regarding what stakeholders desired from the new OTP-based MFA system.
The primary requirement expressed by almost all participants was the need for simplicity and
ease of use. A participant in the security sector emphasized;

“We need a system that is secure, but also user-friendly. If it’s too complex,
our staff won’t adopt it.”

This requirement for simplicity is essential, especially in environments where users may not
be highly technical. Another key expectation was the system’s adaptability to the existing
infrastructure of shared base stations. Many stakeholders expressed concerns over the need
for seamless integration with the current network setup. A network manager explained;

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“Any new system must integrate with our existing platform without causing
major disruptions to operations. We can’t afford any downtime.”

The findings show that while security is paramount, the ease of adoption and integration were
equally important in ensuring the system's success. Participants also highlighted the
importance of scalability in the OTP-based MFA system. As mobile network base stations in
Zimbabwe are expected to expand and handle more traffic over time, the new system must be
able to scale accordingly. A participant in the technical department noted;

“The system needs to grow with us. As we add more stations and more users,
we must not sacrifice performance.”

This aligns with global best practices, where scalability and flexibility are considered key to
maintaining long-term system security (Anderson & Moore, 2018). The literature review
(Aloul, 2020; Gupta et al., 2017) also underscores the necessity of scalability in modern
authentication systems. Many MFA systems today support cloud-based infrastructure that can
easily accommodate growth and allow for greater efficiency. Stakeholders’ emphasis on
scalability, adaptability, and simplicity is crucial in designing a system that meets their
operational and security needs.

4.4.3 Design Principles for OTP-based MFA System

The design of the OTP-based MFA system was informed by the findings from the previous
two sub-sections. Based on the challenges, stakeholder requirements, and industry best
practices, several design principles emerged. These principles are summarized as follows;

i. Multifactor Authentication (MFA); The first principle of the design was ensuring that the
OTP-based system would function as part of a multifactor authentication process. Multifactor
authentication involves using two or more independent factors to verify a user’s identity.
OTPs would serve as the second factor, supplementing the traditional password-based
approach. This is in line with recommendations from the literature, which highlight the
importance of combining something you know (password) with something you have (OTP or
hardware token) or something you are (biometric verification) (Anderson & Moore, 2018).

ii. User-Friendly Interface; Based on feedback from participants, it was crucial for the OTP-
based system to be easy to use, even for non-technical staff. The system would feature a
simple interface that allows users to request and input OTPs easily. The design would
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minimize the complexity involved in generating and entering OTPs, ensuring that it would be
accessible even for users with limited technical expertise.

iii Integration with Existing Infrastructure; As previously highlighted by stakeholders,

seamless integration with existing network systems was a critical design principle. The
system would be built in a way that allows it to operate alongside the current authentication
mechanisms without causing disruption to day-to-day operations. This would include
ensuring compatibility with the existing server infrastructure and ensuring that the
introduction of the new system does not affect performance or user access.

iv. Security Features; Security was the most emphasized design principle. To ensure the
integrity of the OTP-based MFA system, the design would incorporate strong encryption
methods for generating and transmitting OTPs. Additionally, the system would be configured
to prevent replay attacks, where an attacker intercepts a legitimate OTP and reuses it. The
OTPs would expire after a short period, further enhancing the security of the system.

v. Scalability; As highlighted by stakeholders, scalability was another key design principle.

The system would be designed with cloud-based infrastructure, which can easily scale to
accommodate growing network demands. This would ensure that as the number of users or
base stations grows, the system’s performance and security would not be compromised.

4.4.4 Security Features of the OTP-based MFA System

The implementation of security features is a crucial aspect of designing an OTP-based MFA
system tailored for shared mobile network base stations. Based on the findings of the data
collection phase, stakeholders emphasized the importance of incorporating a range of security
mechanisms to mitigate the risks of unauthorized access. One of the primary security features
discussed during the data collection phase was the use of time-sensitive, one-time passcodes
(OTPs) that expire after a short duration. As noted earlier, participants emphasized the
importance of ensuring that stolen credentials or compromised passwords would not grant
attackers access to the system. A technical expert emphasized;

“Even if someone manages to intercept an OTP, the fact that it expires in a

few minutes significantly reduces the risk of misuse.”

This aligns with global best practices in cybersecurity, where time-sensitive passwords are
widely used to mitigate security risks. Studies like those by Aloul (2020) suggest that using
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OTPs in conjunction with traditional passwords offers an effective defense against common
security threats like password theft and brute-force attacks. Another essential security feature
discussed was encryption. Participants in the data collection phase unanimously agreed that
OTPs should be encrypted during transmission to prevent interception by malicious actors.
The encryption of OTPs during transmission ensures that even if an attacker gains access to
the communication channel, they will not be able to read or reuse the OTPs. A network
administrator noted;

“We cannot afford to send OTPs in plaintext; encryption is a must to protect

user data.”

Encryption mechanisms such as TLS (Transport Layer Security) would be incorporated into
the design to protect OTPs during transmission. Additionally, the system would employ
measures such as rate-limiting and monitoring to prevent brute-force attacks, where an
attacker repeatedly attempts to guess or steal OTPs. By limiting the number of attempts a user
can make to enter an OTP, the system would mitigate the risk of unauthorized access through
this method.

In summary, the security features integrated into the OTP-based MFA system aim to enhance
the overall integrity of the authentication process. Through time-sensitive passcodes,
encryption, and additional protective measures, the system would provide a robust solution to
the security challenges faced by shared mobile network base stations in Zimbabwe.

4.4.5 Integration and Implementation Considerations

The design phase also focused on the integration and implementation aspects of the OTP-
based MFA system. Stakeholders expressed concerns about the smooth transition to the new
system and its compatibility with existing infrastructure. This section discusses the
integration challenges and how these were addressed during the design process.

A significant concern raised by participants was the potential for downtime during the
integration phase. As one IT manager explained,

“We cannot afford significant downtime. The system must integrate

seamlessly without causing disruptions to our ongoing operations.”

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To address this, the OTP-based MFA system was designed with backward compatibility to
ensure that it could be implemented gradually alongside existing authentication systems, thus
reducing the risk of operational disruptions. Additionally, stakeholders highlighted the
importance of training staff on the new system. One security supervisor remarked;

“We need to ensure that everyone understands how to use the new MFA
system. Proper training will help prevent user errors and enhance adoption
rates.”

A comprehensive training program would be developed as part of the implementation plan,

focusing on educating staff about OTP generation, entry, and troubleshooting. Lastly,
feedback mechanisms would be integrated into the system design to monitor user experiences
and identify areas for improvement. The goal is to continuously refine the system based on
real-world feedback and ensure it evolves to meet changing security needs.

4.6. To Implement and Test the Proposed OTP-based MFA System for Usability,
Scalability, and Efficiency
This section discusses the findings related to the implementation and testing of the OTP-
based multifactor authentication (MFA) system designed for shared mobile network base
stations. This objective sought to assess the performance of the proposed system in terms of
its usability, scalability, and efficiency. The implementation and testing phase was a critical
part of the study, as it provided concrete insights into how the system performed in real-world
conditions, including challenges and successes experienced by the stakeholders. The data
collected in this phase of the study focused on various aspects of the system's functionality,
including user feedback, operational efficiency, system performance under varying loads, and
the effectiveness of the OTP mechanism in securing access to shared base stations.

4.6.1 Usability Testing and User Experience

One of the key findings from the implementation phase was the overall positive feedback
from users regarding the usability of the OTP-based MFA system. A large portion of the
stakeholders interviewed expressed satisfaction with how easy it was to use the new system.
According to a participant,

“The process of generating and entering OTPs is straightforward. Even those

with minimal technical knowledge found it easy to use.”

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Usability testing was conducted using a sample of users from various departments, including
network administrators, security personnel, and maintenance staff. The primary criteria for
usability testing included ease of navigation, error rates, user satisfaction, and the time taken
to complete the authentication process. The results of the usability tests were overwhelmingly
positive, with most users reporting that the OTP-based system was intuitive and simple to
operate. According to a network engineer,

“The time taken to log in with the new system is slightly longer, but it’s
definitely more secure and still much easier than some of the older systems
we’ve used.”

These findings align with the literature on usability, which stresses the importance of user-
friendly interfaces in ensuring the adoption of new security technologies (Aloul, 2020). In
particular, studies by Kruger and Kearney (2017) have shown that usability plays a crucial
role in the success of multifactor authentication systems. Their findings suggest that if users
find a security system cumbersome or complicated, they are less likely to adopt it or comply
with its security protocols. Participants in this study also pointed out that the system’s ease of
use was critical to its acceptance. This simplicity is in line with the feedback received from
the stakeholder analysis phase, which emphasized that ease of use was one of the most
important factors for the success of the new authentication system. For instance, a technician
mentioned,

“What I like about this system is that I don’t need to remember a lot of
complex codes or configurations. The OTP is simple, and it’s generated
automatically.”

4.6.2 Scalability of the OTP-based MFA System

The scalability of the OTP-based MFA system was another key area of focus during the
implementation and testing phase. Scalability refers to the system's ability to handle increased
demand, such as a larger number of users or higher levels of network traffic, without
compromising performance. This aspect of the system was tested by simulating various usage
scenarios, including a high number of simultaneous authentication requests from multiple
base stations. The findings showed that the OTP-based MFA system performed well under
increased load, with response times remaining consistent even when the number of users
accessing the system simultaneously increased. A network administrator shared,
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“We tested the system during peak hours when multiple users logged in
simultaneously, and it handled the load perfectly. There were no noticeable
delays or timeouts.”

This result suggests that the system was scalable and could accommodate future growth in the
number of base stations and users, which aligns with the scalability requirements identified
by stakeholders in the previous phase of the study. The system's scalability was largely
attributed to its cloud-based infrastructure, which provided the necessary resources to manage
high levels of traffic efficiently. Cloud solutions are known for their ability to scale rapidly,
and this was confirmed by the results of the testing phase. According to a cloud specialist
involved in the implementation,

“The cloud-based nature of the OTP system is what allows it to scale so

easily. It automatically adjusts resources based on demand, which helps
prevent slowdowns during peak usage.”

These findings support the existing literature, which highlights the advantages of cloud-based
solutions in ensuring the scalability of security systems. As noted by Gupta et al. (2017),
cloud infrastructure enables organizations to scale their security systems quickly, providing
flexibility and reliability.

4.6.3 Efficiency and System Performance

Efficiency, as it pertains to the OTP-based MFA system, was another critical parameter
evaluated during the implementation phase. Efficiency refers to the ability of the system to
function effectively, providing quick response times without overburdening the system's
resources. During the testing phase, the system’s performance was evaluated based on its
processing time for OTP generation, the response time for user authentication, and the
system's ability to handle large amounts of data without degradation in performance. The
findings indicated that the OTP-based MFA system performed efficiently, with the average
time taken to generate and verify OTPs being within acceptable limits. One participant, a
systems administrator, noted;

“The OTP generation and verification process was seamless. The delays were
minimal, and the system performed as expected during the entire testing
phase.”

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These findings are in line with previous studies that emphasize the importance of system
efficiency in the success of authentication systems (Aloul, 2020). An efficient authentication
process helps prevent user frustration and promotes greater acceptance of the system. In
terms of resource usage, the system was found to be highly optimized. A technical engineer
explained,

“The system uses minimal processing power and doesn’t require excessive
bandwidth, which makes it ideal for environments with limited resources.”

This is a crucial aspect, as many mobile network base stations in Zimbabwe may face
constraints in terms of hardware capabilities and internet connectivity. The findings regarding
efficiency align with the recommendations in the literature, where systems are urged to
balance security and performance (Anderson & Moore, 2018). If security measures like OTP-
based authentication lead to significant slowdowns or require excessive computational
resources, it could result in system rejection or non-compliance.

4.6.4 User Feedback on System Performance

User feedback on system performance was collected as part of the testing phase to assess the
overall effectiveness of the OTP-based MFA system. The feedback was primarily gathered
through surveys, interviews, and direct observations. The majority of the users expressed
satisfaction with the system’s performance, particularly in terms of speed and reliability.
However, a few participants highlighted occasional issues with OTP delivery, especially
when network connectivity was weak. As one participant put it,

“The OTP system works well most of the time, but during network congestion
or low signal areas, sometimes it takes longer to receive the OTP.”

This feedback was valuable for identifying areas where the system could be improved. For
example, participants suggested that having multiple methods for receiving OTPs, such as
email or SMS, would improve the reliability of the system in areas with poor network
coverage. A technician added,

“In areas with weak signals, it would help if the system allowed OTPs to be
sent to multiple channels, like both email and phone, to ensure delivery.”

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These insights correlate with the findings of previous studies that discuss the limitations of
OTP systems in areas with poor network infrastructure. As highlighted by Aloul (2020), OTP
systems that rely on SMS or email may face delivery delays or failures in areas with
unreliable connectivity.

4.6.5 Final Evaluation of the OTP-based MFA System

The final evaluation of the OTP-based MFA system focused on its overall effectiveness,
taking into account the usability, scalability, and efficiency results from the testing phase.
The system was deemed a success, with stakeholders noting that it met the key requirements
set out during the design phase. One participant, a network operations manager, concluded,

“The system is a huge improvement over our previous authentication

methods. It’s secure, easy to use, and performs well under various conditions.
We’re confident it will handle future growth.”

Despite the occasional connectivity issues highlighted by some users, the system was overall
considered reliable, scalable, and secure. Participants agreed that the system would
significantly enhance the security of shared base stations and provide a solid foundation for
future improvements. Additionally, the system’s cloud-based architecture allows for
continuous monitoring and updates, ensuring its long-term effectiveness. These conclusions
are supported by literature in the field of secure authentication systems, which emphasize the
importance of continuous evaluation and refinement of security systems (Gupta et al., 2017).
As noted by Anderson & Moore (2018), the success of an authentication system depends not
only on its initial design but also on how well it performs over time and adapts to changing
security needs.

4.7. To Analyze the Impact of the Proposed Solution on the Security and Operational
Performance of Shared Mobile Network Base Stations
This section discusses the findings related to the impact of the OTP-based multifactor
authentication (MFA) system on the security and operational performance of shared mobile
network base stations. This objective focused on evaluating how the implementation of the
new system influenced both security outcomes and the overall operational efficiency of the
base stations, especially in light of the challenges identified in earlier sections of the study.
The analysis will draw upon both qualitative and quantitative data collected during the testing
phase and through feedback from stakeholders.

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4.7.1 Impact on Security Enhancement

The implementation of the OTP-based multifactor authentication (MFA) system brought
significant advancements in security at shared mobile network base stations. This section will
explore in-depth the impact of the OTP-based system on improving security across various
dimensions, including unauthorized access prevention, system integrity, and response times
to security threats. The findings, supported by data from stakeholders and previous literature,
will provide a thorough understanding of the security enhancements brought by this new
system. Before the introduction of OTP-based MFA, security measures primarily revolved
around password protection. Although passwords are an essential first layer of security, they
are susceptible to numerous vulnerabilities, including password reuse, weak passwords, and
phishing attacks (Aloul, 2020). These weaknesses were clearly evident in the shared mobile
network base stations, where reports of unauthorized access attempts were common. The
introduction of OTP-based MFA addressed these vulnerabilities by adding a second layer of
authentication, which significantly increased the overall security of the system. In practice,
participants overwhelmingly reported that the OTP-based MFA system provided a more
secure environment for accessing the shared mobile network base stations. One of the
security officers stated,

“Before, we had frequent incidents of unauthorized access because passwords

were easily shared or compromised. Now, with the OTP system in place, even
if someone manages to get the password, they still cannot log in without the
OTP, which is only valid for a short period.”

This statement reflects the core advantage of OTP systems; they require not only knowledge
(the password) but also possession of a time-sensitive code that is difficult for unauthorized
users to obtain (Kruger & Kearney, 2017). The enhanced security resulting from the OTP
system was particularly valuable in a shared network environment, where multiple operators
have access to the same physical infrastructure. Shared access increases the risk of internal
threats, such as sabotage or unauthorized use of network resources. The introduction of OTP-
based MFA helped mitigate these risks. According to one network administrator,

“We no longer have to worry about rogue employees using the network for
unauthorized activities. The OTP system has greatly reduced these security
threats.”

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This sentiment aligns with findings in the literature, where multifactor authentication (MFA)
has been shown to reduce internal and external threats by requiring additional verification
factors that are difficult to replicate (Anderson & Moore, 2018). The reduction in
unauthorized access attempts, as reported by participants, also highlights the OTP-based
system’s efficacy in protecting critical infrastructure. A technician explained,

“We have seen a reduction in the number of security breaches since the OTP
system was implemented. It’s become much harder for unauthorized
individuals to gain access, which gives us peace of mind.”

This positive feedback is in line with research by Aloul (2020), who notes that OTP-based
systems are particularly effective at reducing unauthorized access by offering real-time,
dynamic authentication mechanisms that are difficult for attackers to bypass. Further analysis
of system logs during the testing phase confirmed that there were fewer incidents of failed
authentication and fewer instances of unauthorized access attempts compared to the period
before the OTP-based system was implemented. The data suggests that the OTP system
effectively deterred potential attackers, making it significantly more difficult for malicious
users to gain entry without authorization. One key aspect of the OTP system that contributed
to its success in reducing security incidents was its integration with real-time monitoring and
alert systems. When an authentication attempt failed, administrators were immediately
notified, allowing them to investigate and take appropriate action promptly. This is an
example of the system’s capacity to not only prevent unauthorized access but also to enhance
the ability of administrators to respond to potential threats proactively. In addition to
preventing unauthorized access, the OTP system also enhanced the overall integrity of the
authentication process. By relying on a dynamic authentication code generated at the time of
login, the OTP system made it significantly harder for attackers to steal or reuse
authentication credentials. This improvement aligns with the findings of Dunphy & Kuo
(2018), who emphasize the role of OTP systems in securing login sessions by ensuring that
each authentication attempt is unique and time-bound, preventing replay attacks. Another
aspect of security improvement observed was the reduction in social engineering attacks.
Social engineering relies on manipulating users into revealing their passwords or security
credentials. With the introduction of OTP, even if a user was tricked into disclosing their
password, the attacker would still be unable to authenticate without the OTP, which is only
sent to the legitimate user’s phone or email. This was a significant improvement, as social
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engineering attacks had been one of the most common methods of unauthorized access at the
base stations. A network engineer shared,

“Before, we had cases where employees would fall victim to phishing emails,
and attackers would gain access to the system using their credentials. The
OTP system has made this much more difficult.”

This reflects a central theme in cybersecurity literature, where MFA is increasingly regarded
as the most effective defense against social engineering (Kruger & Kearney, 2017).

4.7.2 Impact on Operational Performance

While the primary objective of the OTP-based MFA system was to enhance security, it was
also crucial to assess its impact on the operational performance of shared mobile network
base stations. Operational performance, in this context, refers to the efficiency and
effectiveness of the authentication process, its scalability, and its integration into existing
workflows without causing disruptions. In this section, we will explore how the OTP-based
MFA system influenced operational processes, particularly focusing on any potential delays,
system downtime, and ease of integration into existing network management practices. At
first glance, one might assume that the addition of a second authentication factor, such as
OTP, could slow down the login process and cause delays in operational tasks. This was an
area of concern for several stakeholders before the system’s implementation. However, the
feedback received after implementation suggested that, while there was a minor increase in
the time taken for authentication, the overall operational performance remained largely
unaffected. A network administrator commented,

“Yes, the OTP process takes a few extra seconds, but it hasn’t caused any
significant delays in our daily work. The security benefits far outweigh the
small increase in time.”

This feedback reflects a key theme in the literature surrounding MFA systems; the trade-off
between security and usability (Anderson & Moore, 2018). It has been well-documented that
strong security systems, particularly those that involve multiple layers of authentication, can
introduce some level of delay. However, studies have also shown that the increase in time is
generally marginal and does not significantly hinder productivity, as long as the system is
properly integrated into existing workflows (Aloul, 2020). The minor delays reported by

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users in this study were consistent with these findings, suggesting that the OTP system, while
introducing a brief additional step in the login process, did not detract from overall
operational efficiency.

Another important aspect of operational performance is system uptime and reliability. The
OTP-based MFA system was designed to operate seamlessly without introducing significant
system downtime, which could negatively impact the performance of shared base stations.
Participants reported that the system was stable and reliable, with minimal disruptions during
the testing phase. A technician shared,

“We’ve had no major downtime since the system was introduced. The OTP
system is stable and hasn’t caused any operational interruptions.”

This finding is critical, as it underscores the importance of system reliability in maintaining

operational performance, particularly in high-stakes environments like mobile network base
stations. One feature that contributed to the stability and reliability of the OTP-based MFA
system was its cloud-based architecture, which allowed the system to scale efficiently as the
number of users increased. Several administrators noted that the cloud infrastructure enabled
the OTP system to handle fluctuating network loads without compromising performance. One
administrator noted,

“The system scales easily with the number of users, and we’ve seen no
degradation in performance as our network load increases.”

This scalability is a key advantage of cloud-based systems, as they allow organizations to

handle growth without incurring the costs and complexities associated with traditional on-
premise solutions. This aligns with research by Dunphy & Kuo (2018), who emphasize the
scalability of cloud-based MFA systems as a critical factor in their successful
implementation, particularly in large, distributed environments like mobile network base
stations. Moreover, the ease of integration of the OTP system into existing network
management processes was another positive aspect highlighted by participants. Although
implementing any new security system requires some initial training and adjustment,
stakeholders reported that the OTP-based system was relatively easy to adopt and integrate
into their existing workflows. A system administrator commented,

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“The integration process was smooth, and the staff quickly adapted to the new
system. We didn’t experience much disruption during the transition.”

This ease of integration is crucial, as it ensures that the new security measures can be
implemented without causing significant operational disruption or requiring extensive
retraining of staff. The introduction of the OTP-based MFA system had a positive impact on
the operational performance of the shared mobile network base stations. While there were
minor delays associated with the additional step of entering an OTP, these were deemed
acceptable given the significant security benefits. Furthermore, the system’s reliability,
scalability, and ease of integration ensured that operational performance was maintained at a
high level, with minimal disruption to daily tasks. This finding is consistent with the
literature, which emphasizes the importance of balancing security measures with operational
efficiency to achieve a successful implementation of MFA systems (Kruger & Kearney,
2017).

4.7.3 Impact on Operational Efficiency and Workflow

The implementation of the system has not only enhanced security but has also influenced
operational efficiency and workflow management. The findings from the data collected
during the testing phase indicate that while the introduction of an additional authentication
step initially raised concerns about potential delays in daily activities, these concerns were
mostly alleviated with time. The primary concern regarding the OTP-based system was the
potential delay it could cause in accessing the network infrastructure, which might affect the
operational performance, especially in critical situations. However, as the data suggests, the
OTP-based system has had a negligible impact on operational efficiency in practice. Several
participants reported that despite the added step in the authentication process, the operational
efficiency remained largely unaffected. One systems administrator explained,

"In the beginning, we were worried that the OTP system would slow down our
work, especially when we need quick access to certain systems. But once we
got used to it, the process became second nature, and it barely added any time
to the login process."

This sentiment was echoed by others, indicating that the OTP system was effectively
integrated into the operational workflow with minimal disruption. The OTP system was
designed to streamline authentication without causing significant delays, and participants
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highlighted the fact that its seamless integration into the network's existing infrastructure
allowed it to enhance operational efficiency.

"The ability to authenticate quickly and securely, without compromising

workflow, has been a significant advantage of the OTP-based MFA system,"

shared one network engineer. These insights are consistent with existing literature, which
highlights the balance between the need for robust security mechanisms and maintaining high
operational efficiency (Anderson & Moore, 2018). From an operational standpoint, OTP-
based authentication helped reduce downtime and bottlenecks that previously occurred due to
issues with password-based security. As passwords were often a single point of failure,
recovery processes could be time-consuming, especially when there were frequent cases of
forgotten or incorrect passwords. With the introduction of OTP, password-related issues were
significantly reduced, and the authentication process became smoother and more secure.

"I can’t remember the last time I had to deal with a forgotten password. With
the OTP system, everything runs much more smoothly,"

said a senior technician. The key to enhancing operational efficiency lay in the OTP system's
ability to eliminate redundant processes, particularly those associated with password recovery
and manual verification procedures. Additionally, the system's integration with existing
workflows helped ensure that technicians and administrators could perform their tasks
efficiently, without being bogged down by lengthy authentication procedures. Furthermore,
the OTP system was praised for being intuitive, with administrators mentioning that the
training required to use the system effectively was minimal. According to one of the
administrators,

"The system was straightforward enough that we didn’t need long training
sessions. Once we understood the process, it became part of our daily
routine."

Operational efficiency was also enhanced by the fact that the OTP-based system allowed for
real-time monitoring of authentication attempts, which helped to prevent delays related to
unauthorized access or security breaches. With quicker detection and response times, the
team could address potential issues before they escalated, reducing the overall operational
burden on the staff. A security officer noted,
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“Whenever there’s an unauthorized attempt, we get notified immediately. This

has made our jobs easier because we don’t need to go through a lengthy
manual investigation process anymore.”

The ability to detect and mitigate security threats promptly allowed teams to stay focused on
critical tasks, without having to divert resources to address security vulnerabilities. These
findings are consistent with the literature, where the proactive nature of MFA systems is
discussed as being beneficial in preventing operational disruption (Kruger & Kearney, 2017).
The OTP-based MFA system’s impact on operational efficiency was largely positive. Despite
concerns about potential delays due to the extra authentication layer, the system was well-
integrated into existing workflows, leading to minimal disruptions. It also helped improve
efficiency by reducing password-related issues, providing real-time security monitoring, and
allowing staff to focus on their primary tasks. The integration of the OTP-based system thus
demonstrates a successful blend of security and operational performance, highlighting its
relevance in modern network infrastructure.

4.7.4 Long-Term Sustainability of OTP-Based MFA in Mobile Network Base Stations

The long-term sustainability of the OTP-based MFA system is a critical aspect to consider in
evaluating its success and future applicability within shared mobile network base stations. As
mobile network technologies evolve and become increasingly complex, the ability of an
OTP-based system to remain effective, scalable, and efficient over time is paramount. This
section discusses the sustainability of the OTP-based MFA system, drawing from participant
feedback, system performance data, and a comparison with existing literature on sustainable
cybersecurity measures. The sustainability of an MFA system, especially in environments
like shared mobile network base stations, depends on various factors, including ease of
scalability, cost-effectiveness, adaptability to technological advancements, and user
compliance. From the data collected, it was clear that stakeholders were confident in the
long-term viability of the OTP-based system. A key point raised by several participants was
the system’s ability to scale as the number of users and devices increased. One security
administrator emphasized,

“We were initially concerned about whether the system could handle
increased load as we expanded the network, but it’s been highly scalable.
We’ve had no issues as we’ve added more users to the system.”

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This observation aligns with literature that highlights the scalability of cloud-based MFA
systems as a major advantage for long-term use in dynamic environments (Dunphy & Kuo,
2018). Cloud-based OTP systems are often designed with scalability in mind, allowing them
to accommodate increased demand without sacrificing performance or security. This
scalability feature is crucial for mobile network base stations, where growth is often a
continual process, both in terms of users and network expansion. Another critical aspect of
sustainability is the system’s adaptability to emerging security threats and technological
changes. The OTP system’s ability to evolve with new threats, such as phishing and social
engineering attacks, is essential in maintaining its relevance. According to several
participants, the system had been designed with flexibility in mind, allowing for easy updates
and modifications as new threats emerged. One technician noted,

“The system is continuously updated with the latest security protocols, and we
haven’t encountered any issues with it being outdated.”

This adaptability is particularly important in the fast-paced world of mobile networks, where
new security challenges can emerge frequently. Cost-effectiveness is also a significant factor
in the long-term sustainability of any security system. While initial implementation costs for
the OTP-based MFA system were higher than traditional password-based systems,
participants reported that the ongoing operational costs were relatively low. One network
manager commented,

“The initial setup was a bit costly, but maintenance and running costs are
much lower than expected. Plus, the cost of dealing with security breaches
would have been much higher.”

This cost-benefit analysis supports findings from existing literature that highlight the long-
term financial advantages of implementing secure, scalable systems like OTP-based MFA
(Anderson & Moore, 2018). The reduction in security incidents and the associated costs of
damage control further justifies the system’s initial investment. Compliance with industry
standards and regulations was another important factor in the long-term sustainability of the
OTP system. The mobile network sector is often subject to stringent regulatory requirements
regarding data security and privacy. Participants noted that the OTP system’s design adhered
to these regulations, ensuring that it would remain compliant with current and future
standards. One administrator mentioned,
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“The OTP system is fully compliant with our industry’s data protection laws,
which gives us confidence that it will continue to be viable in the long term.”

This focus on regulatory compliance is consistent with research emphasizing the need for
security systems that can meet evolving legal and regulatory frameworks (Aloul, 2020).The
OTP-based MFA system demonstrated strong potential for long-term sustainability. Its
scalability, adaptability, low operational costs, and compliance with industry regulations all
contribute to its continued relevance and success. As mobile networks continue to evolve and
face new security challenges, systems like OTP-based MFA will play an essential role in
maintaining secure and efficient operations. The findings from this study support the view
that the OTP-based MFA system is not only effective in the short term but also well-
positioned to provide sustainable security solutions for mobile network base stations in the
years to come.

4.7.5 Enhancing Network Integrity through OTP-Based MFA

In shared mobile network base stations, maintaining network integrity is paramount to ensure
consistent and secure service delivery. The introduction of an OTP-based Multifactor
Authentication (MFA) system, as discussed in the findings, has played a significant role in
reinforcing network integrity by preventing unauthorized access, mitigating the risks of
internal breaches, and ensuring that only authorized personnel can access critical
infrastructure. The data gathered during the implementation phase indicates a marked
improvement in the overall security posture of the mobile network base stations. Participants
across different roles, including security officers and network engineers, consistently
expressed that the OTP system has significantly reduced unauthorized access to critical
network components. One network administrator explained,

“Before we introduced the OTP system, there were too many cases of
unauthorized access, either by insiders or external actors. Since the system
was implemented, we’ve seen a significant reduction in these incidents."

This reduction in unauthorized access highlights the system’s effectiveness in improving

network integrity. According to previous studies, multi-factor authentication (MFA) systems
such as OTP-based mechanisms have proven to be highly effective at reducing unauthorized
access due to their layered approach to security (Srinivasan et al., 2021). The use of an OTP
system ensures that even if a password is compromised, an attacker would still need the one-
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time password sent to the authorized user’s mobile device to gain access. This layer of
protection adds an additional barrier that enhances the integrity of the network. A senior
technician shared,

"With just a password, there was always the possibility of a breach, especially if someone
guessed the password or stole it. The OTP system makes it much harder for unauthorized
individuals to breach the network."

This perspective aligns with findings in cybersecurity research that emphasize the
effectiveness of MFA in preventing unauthorized access and maintaining the integrity of
networks (Dhillon, 2020). Furthermore, OTP-based systems reduce the risk of internal
threats, which are often harder to detect due to the access privileges that employees may
have. Participants noted that even in cases where an employee’s login credentials were
compromised, the OTP mechanism acted as a safeguard, effectively blocking unauthorized
access attempts. One IT security officer highlighted,

“It’s difficult to prevent internal threats completely, but the OTP system adds
an extra layer that ensures only the rightful user can access critical
infrastructure, even if their password is exposed."

The security measures implemented via MFA systems have proven to provide more
comprehensive protection against internal and external security breaches, thus securing the
network’s integrity. The findings suggest that the OTP-based MFA system has substantially
enhanced network integrity by providing a robust mechanism for securing access to sensitive
infrastructure and systems. This system prevents unauthorized access, protects against
password breaches, and mitigates internal threats, ultimately safeguarding the integrity of the
network. As discussed in the literature (Ali et al., 2022), such security systems are becoming
increasingly essential in modern network environments, where threats continue to evolve.

4.7.6 User Experience and Acceptance of OTP-Based MFA

The implementation of an OTP-based MFA system in shared mobile network base stations
has not only enhanced security but has also raised significant questions regarding user
experience and acceptance. Despite the clear security benefits of the system, user adoption
and ease of use are critical for ensuring its successful implementation and long-term use. The
data gathered from participants during the testing phase indicate that while most users

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accepted the system, their experiences varied depending on factors such as familiarity with
technology, training, and perceived convenience. User experience plays a pivotal role in the
overall success of an authentication system, especially in a field where the system’s
effectiveness is directly linked to user compliance. From the interviews, it became evident
that the OTP system was generally well-received by the majority of users. One participant, a
senior network engineer, noted,

"Initially, there was some resistance, especially from those who weren’t used
to mobile authentication. But over time, people have gotten more comfortable
with the process, and now it’s almost second nature."

This shift in user perception over time is consistent with findings from previous studies that
demonstrate how user experience improves once individuals adapt to MFA systems
(Morrison & Kuo, 2019). On the other hand, some participants raised concerns about the
perceived inconvenience of receiving and entering OTPs, particularly in situations where
network connectivity was unstable. A technician shared,

“There are moments when the network is down, and receiving the OTP
becomes a challenge. That delay can be frustrating when you need to access
something urgently.”

These concerns point to the critical factor of network reliability in the effectiveness of OTP
systems. As highlighted by several participants, poor connectivity can hinder the
authentication process, especially in remote or less-equipped areas. These challenges are
well-documented in the literature, with some research suggesting that OTP systems can
experience difficulties in areas with unreliable mobile networks (Amin & Soni, 2020).
Despite these challenges, the OTP system has proven to be effective overall in terms of
enhancing security without significantly burdening users. The vast majority of participants
indicated that the security benefits outweighed the minor inconveniences associated with
using the system. One security administrator remarked,

“The small inconvenience of waiting for the OTP is nothing compared to the
peace of mind it provides knowing that our network is secure."

The findings suggest that user experience improves over time as individuals become
accustomed to the authentication process. Additionally, the minimal training required for
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users to effectively operate the system further enhanced its acceptance and adoption. The
findings from this study also corroborate the existing literature on the importance of user
experience in the adoption of new security technologies. Research by Aloul (2020)
emphasizes that while MFA systems can improve security, their adoption is heavily
dependent on user acceptance. To foster acceptance, it is essential to ensure that the system is
easy to use, minimally intrusive, and reliable. While there were initial challenges related to
user experience and perceived inconvenience, the overall feedback indicates that the OTP-
based MFA system has been accepted by users. The system’s benefits, including its ability to
enhance security and protect sensitive network infrastructure, have outweighed the minor
inconveniences reported by some users. As users become more accustomed to the system and
as network reliability improves, it is expected that the user experience will continue to
improve, leading to higher acceptance rates.

4.7.7 Future Challenges and Opportunities for OTP-Based MFA in Shared Mobile
Networks
As the mobile network industry continues to evolve, the use of OTP-based Multifactor
Authentication (MFA) systems in shared base stations faces both challenges and
opportunities. While the system has proven effective in enhancing security, it is essential to
examine the potential challenges that may arise in the future and the opportunities for
improving the system’s effectiveness and scalability. A key challenge identified during the
data collection process was the reliance on mobile networks for OTP delivery. Several
participants expressed concern that in cases of network outages or instability, users may not
receive OTPs in a timely manner, which could hinder their ability to authenticate
successfully. One network engineer explained,

“There are times when network congestion or outages make it difficult to

receive the OTP, which can delay processes. That’s something we need to
address in the future.”

This challenge highlights the ongoing need for OTP systems to be designed with a
consideration for network reliability, particularly in environments with inconsistent mobile
network coverage. In response to this, some participants suggested the integration of
additional authentication methods alongside OTPs, such as biometrics or hardware tokens, to
reduce dependency on mobile networks. As one participant suggested,

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“It would be beneficial to incorporate biometric authentication alongside

OTPs, especially in remote areas where the mobile network might not be
stable.”

The literature supports this perspective, with many experts advocating for hybrid MFA
systems that combine multiple methods, such as biometrics, smart cards, and OTPs, to
enhance reliability and security (Kruger & Kearney, 2017). Another challenge lies in the
scalability of the OTP-based system as the number of users and devices grows. While the
system has proven scalable to some extent, the increasing demands of modern mobile
networks require continuous improvement in scalability features. One of the senior
technicians noted,

“As the network grows, we might need to implement more advanced OTP
solutions to handle the increased load and ensure that the system remains
efficient and secure.”

The findings align with literature that discusses the need for MFA systems to be adaptable
and capable of scaling to meet future security demands (Amin & Soni, 2020). On the other
hand, there are significant opportunities for enhancing the OTP system in the future. The use
of machine learning algorithms to analyze and predict security threats could be integrated
with the OTP system to create a more proactive security model. One participant noted,

“Using machine learning to analyze patterns of OTP usage could help us

detect anomalous behavior and prevent potential security breaches before
they happen.”

This proactive approach would align with the growing trend of using artificial intelligence in
cybersecurity to predict and prevent attacks (Panda et al., 2021). In conclusion, the future of
OTP-based MFA in shared mobile network base stations presents both challenges and
opportunities. Addressing issues such as network reliability, scalability, and incorporating
additional authentication methods will be critical in maintaining the system’s effectiveness.
Furthermore, integrating emerging technologies like machine learning offers significant
potential to enhance the security and efficiency of the OTP system in the future.

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4.8 The Efficiency and Scalability of OTP-Based MFA in Shared Mobile Network Base
Stations
The efficiency and scalability of the OTP-based Multifactor Authentication (MFA) system
implemented in shared mobile network base stations have been vital considerations in
assessing the system’s overall impact. Efficiency relates to how well the system performs
under various operational conditions, including speed, user experience, and response time,
while scalability addresses the system's capacity to handle increased loads, such as more
users, devices, and data without degrading its performance. This section comprehensively
explores the data gathered during the testing and implementation phases regarding these
aspects, linking the findings to the broader context of existing literature.

4.8.1 Efficiency of OTP-Based MFA System

Efficiency is a crucial metric for evaluating the success of any authentication system. In
shared mobile network base stations, efficiency not only affects the security of the network
but also impacts the user experience and operational workflows. According to participants,
the OTP-based MFA system performed well in terms of response time and ease of use,
though several operational challenges were noted, particularly in environments with less
stable network connectivity. A network technician emphasized,

“The OTP system has drastically reduced the time needed for accessing
sensitive network areas. Even when you compare it to older systems, the
authentication is almost instantaneous once the OTP is received.”

The generally positive feedback on the system’s efficiency is indicative of its capacity to
enhance operational processes. In many instances, participants noted that the time taken to
authenticate using OTPs was considerably faster than the manual or less secure alternative
methods that were previously in place. This improvement in speed corresponds with findings
in the literature, where OTP systems have been shown to provide fast and reliable
authentication, reducing the time required for system access (Schwichtenberg & Kirchner,
2020). However, there were exceptions in certain geographic locations with unreliable mobile
network infrastructure. A key challenge reported was the delay in receiving the OTP,
especially in rural or less-connected regions. A senior IT administrator mentioned,

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“In some areas, the OTP message takes too long to arrive due to poor mobile
coverage, which affects the entire authentication process. This delay can lead
to frustration, particularly when time-sensitive tasks are involved.”

This insight mirrors concerns raised in existing studies regarding the reliance of OTP systems
on mobile network connectivity (Sundararajan & Thakur, 2021). These delays can
compromise the overall efficiency of the system, leading to potential operational bottlenecks,
especially during peak usage periods. Despite these challenges, the efficiency of the OTP-
based system in terms of security and ease of use was generally well-received. Most
participants agreed that once the OTP was received, the authentication process itself was
quick and seamless, which helped minimize disruption to workflow. For instance, one
participant from the operations team noted,

“Once the OTP is received, it’s very easy to input, and the system grants
access almost immediately. The security benefits outweigh the slight
inconvenience of waiting for the OTP.”

The efficiency of the OTP system, thus, aligns with the goals of the network operators to
streamline access to sensitive infrastructure while maintaining high security. The findings
also support literature that recognizes OTP systems as highly efficient, especially when
compared to older, less secure systems that required more manual intervention and were
prone to human error (Morrison & Kuo, 2019). Furthermore, research by Callegati et al.
(2019) highlights how OTP systems provide an efficient layer of security that can support
various authentication needs without significantly affecting system performance.

4.8.2 Scalability of OTP-Based MFA System

Scalability is another essential factor in evaluating the long-term viability of the OTP-based
MFA system in shared mobile network base stations. As these networks grow and the number
of users and devices increases, the system must maintain its effectiveness and reliability. The
findings from the study suggest that while the OTP system has performed well in a
moderately sized deployment, there are concerns about its scalability when faced with a
larger user base or increased demand. A security manager explained,

“As the network grows and more users are added to the system, there’s
concern about how the OTP delivery mechanism will scale. We haven’t faced

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major issues yet, but we know that if the user base expands significantly, we
might encounter delays in OTP delivery due to network congestion.”

This observation raises important questions about the system’s ability to handle a growing
number of simultaneous authentication requests without experiencing performance
degradation. Indeed, scalability issues in OTP systems are well-documented in the literature,
particularly when networks experience a high volume of requests at once (Dhillon, 2020). In
cases where the OTP system is reliant on external network infrastructure to deliver
authentication codes, the possibility of congestion or delays increases as the number of
concurrent users rises. Several participants expressed a similar concern, emphasizing the need
for a more robust system to handle future scalability requirements. A network administrator
noted,

“We need to ensure that as more stations are added and the number of users
increases, the system can handle the higher load without compromising
performance.”

Scalability challenges are also linked to the infrastructure supporting OTP delivery. As
mentioned previously, in regions with less reliable mobile network infrastructure, the
performance of the OTP system could be compromised during peak times. A technician
remarked,

“In remote areas where network connectivity isn’t as reliable, we’ve seen that
during times of heavy traffic, OTP delivery can be delayed, which affects
users’ ability to authenticate efficiently.”

The data suggests that scalability in such environments requires a strategic approach that
includes optimizing network infrastructure or integrating alternative authentication methods
that do not rely solely on mobile networks. However, there are opportunities to enhance the
scalability of OTP-based MFA. For instance, participants suggested integrating cloud-based
OTP services or increasing the redundancy of OTP delivery channels, such as incorporating
email or hardware tokens in addition to mobile-based OTPs. One IT director mentioned,

“Cloud-based OTP services could help mitigate delays caused by local

network congestion. This would ensure that OTP delivery is faster, even
during high-demand periods.”
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These suggestions align with the recommendations in existing literature, which advocates for
integrating multi-channel delivery systems to improve scalability and reliability (Srinivasan
et al., 2021). Additionally, advances in AI-driven optimization of network traffic could help
alleviate scalability issues. Machine learning techniques that predict traffic patterns and
dynamically allocate resources to manage load more effectively could enhance the scalability
of OTP systems. A participant from the research and development team suggested,

“AI could be used to forecast traffic spikes and optimize the distribution of
OTPs, ensuring the system can handle growing user numbers without
performance loss.”

While the OTP-based MFA system has shown promising efficiency and scalability in its
current deployment, there are challenges that need to be addressed as the system scales.
These challenges include potential delays in OTP delivery during peak times, especially in
areas with unreliable network infrastructure. However, the findings also indicate that with
proper planning, infrastructure improvements, and the integration of additional authentication
channels, the scalability of the OTP system can be enhanced, ensuring its continued
effectiveness as the network grows.

4.8.3 User Experience of OTP-Based MFA System

User experience is one of the key indicators of success for any security system, particularly in
the context of shared mobile network base stations where employees and technicians
regularly interact with the system. The OTP-based multifactor authentication (MFA) system
was implemented with the aim of improving user experience by simplifying and streamlining
access while maintaining high security. During the evaluation phase, user feedback was
collected to assess how users interacted with the OTP system and how it affected their
workflows. A technician explained,

“Initially, there were concerns from some of the team members about the
additional step of entering the OTP code, but over time, they got accustomed
to the process. Now, it’s second nature to receive and input the code when
needed.”

This insight reflects a key observation in the study, which was the initial resistance to
adopting the OTP-based system, particularly due to its extra step compared to older methods

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that employees were familiar with. However, over time, the integration of the OTP system
became smoother, indicating that the user base adapted to the new security protocol. This
experience was corroborated by the feedback of several other participants, who mentioned
that although the system initially slowed down access to network systems, it ultimately
improved user confidence in system security. A senior network administrator mentioned,

“The OTP system has ensured that only authorized personnel are accessing
critical parts of the network, and while it’s an additional step, it’s well worth
the effort for the added security.”

However, the user experience was not universally positive. Some participants noted that
delays in receiving the OTP due to poor network connectivity or device issues posed
challenges, particularly in remote or rural areas. A participant highlighted,

“When the OTP doesn’t come through on time, it disrupts my ability to do my

job effectively. We can’t afford such delays when working with critical
infrastructure.”

This feedback ties into earlier discussions on the scalability and reliability of OTP systems,
where network performance can significantly affect user experience, particularly in regions
with less reliable mobile coverage. Research in the literature on the usability of OTP-based
systems indicates a general trend that users tend to accept OTP systems when they perceive
them to provide stronger security without excessively burdening their workflow (Callegati et
al., 2019). However, as observed in this study, the challenge lies in ensuring that OTP
delivery is timely and reliable. This issue is consistent with the findings of Schriever et al.
(2020), who found that delays in OTP generation or delivery could significantly affect user
satisfaction and overall system efficiency. Thus, while the user experience with the OTP
system is largely positive, it also highlights the importance of network infrastructure and the
need for system optimization. Improving connectivity in remote locations and ensuring that
OTP systems are responsive to changes in network conditions will be key to further
improving user experience.

4.8.4 Integration of OTP-Based MFA with Existing Systems

Integrating new authentication systems into existing infrastructure presents a variety of
challenges, especially in complex network environments such as shared mobile network base

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stations. This section evaluates how well the OTP-based multifactor authentication system
was integrated into the existing operational systems, focusing on compatibility, system
disruptions, and overall effectiveness in enhancing security without introducing significant
complications. The findings revealed that, for the most part, the OTP system was well-
integrated into the existing network infrastructure. A network engineer noted,

“We didn’t face any major technical hurdles when adding the OTP system
into our current setup. The integration was relatively smooth, and most of our
systems could handle the new security measures without significant
modifications.”

This feedback suggests that the existing network architecture was adaptable to the new
system, which is crucial for the successful deployment of authentication technologies in
dynamic environments. However, there were some instances where the integration process
caused temporary disruptions. For example, during the initial deployment phase, a few legacy
systems experienced compatibility issues with the OTP protocol. One participant explained,

“We had a few teething problems with older systems that weren’t fully
compatible with OTP delivery. In those instances, manual intervention was
needed to ensure continuity of service.”

These challenges were expected, as OTP-based MFA often requires systems to handle new
layers of security, which may not always be compatible with older infrastructure. This
finding aligns with studies by Green and Solomos (2018), who noted that integrating new
security protocols often leads to compatibility issues, particularly with legacy systems.
Despite these initial challenges, the integration of the OTP system ultimately strengthened the
overall security of the shared mobile network base stations. The introduction of OTP as a
second factor authentication method improved access control and reduced the risk of
unauthorized access. As a senior security analyst mentioned,

“The integration of OTP added another layer of protection against

unauthorized users, which is crucial when dealing with sensitive network
infrastructure.”

The ability of the OTP system to seamlessly integrate with existing infrastructure also reflects
its versatility, as observed by researchers like Pandey and Singh (2020), who highlighted
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OTP’s compatibility with a wide range of systems, from legacy platforms to modern network
environments. While the integration of the OTP-based MFA system presented some
challenges, especially in relation to older systems, the overall impact on network security has
been positive. Ensuring that legacy systems are compatible with new technologies and
streamlining the integration process for future deployments will be crucial in enhancing the
effectiveness and efficiency of the OTP system.

4.8.5 Impact of OTP-Based MFA on Operational Efficiency

One of the primary goals of implementing the OTP-based multifactor authentication (MFA)
system in shared mobile network base stations was to enhance operational efficiency by
streamlining access and improving security. This section explores the impact of the OTP
system on the day-to-day operations, focusing on how it has influenced operational
workflows, time management, and overall productivity within the network. The study found
that, overall, the OTP system contributed positively to operational efficiency. A technician
highlighted,

“In terms of accessing systems, the OTP system has saved us time compared
to the old methods of security checks. It’s fast and secure, allowing us to get
the job done with fewer delays.”

The perceived improvement in operational efficiency was particularly notable in scenarios

where multiple users needed simultaneous access to secure network components. By reducing
the number of security clearance steps, the OTP system expedited the authentication process,
leading to faster access times and less downtime. However, operational efficiency was not
universally enhanced in all cases. Some participants reported that, during peak times when
network congestion was high, the time required to receive and input the OTP code became a
bottleneck. One network administrator mentioned,

“During high-traffic periods, it can sometimes take longer for the OTP to be
delivered, which slows down the process of getting users authenticated and
onto the network. This could lead to a delay in troubleshooting and
maintenance activities.”

Such issues echo the scalability challenges identified earlier in the study, where OTP systems
can experience delays when the network infrastructure is under heavy load. Interestingly, the

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impact on operational efficiency was also linked to the overall security posture of the
network. A security officer mentioned,

“While the OTP system sometimes takes a little longer to implement, it has
significantly reduced the number of unauthorized access attempts, which
saves us time and resources that would otherwise be spent responding to
security breaches.”

This feedback underscores the importance of balancing efficiency with security. In the long
run, the OTP system’s contribution to a more secure environment has prevented potential
downtime caused by security breaches, which could have had much larger operational
consequences. While the OTP-based MFA system has had a generally positive impact on
operational efficiency, the findings also highlight areas where its performance can be
improved, particularly in high-traffic conditions. Ensuring that the system can handle peak
loads without significant delays and further optimizing the authentication process will be
essential in maximizing operational efficiency moving forward.

4.9 System Documentation and Design

4.9.0 Introduction

This chapter focuses on the design and development of an enhanced security system for a
shared mobile base station, integrating one-time keys and RFID cards to address existing
vulnerabilities. The system is designed to mitigate unauthorized access and ensure the
integrity of the power supply by implementing advanced security measures. The following
sections explore the system's design through the lens of the software development life cycle,
encompassing requirement analysis, design, coding, testing, and deployment.

4.9.1 Requirement Analysis

The initial phase involves gathering and analyzing requirements to ensure the developed
system effectively addresses security concerns identified in the research. Stakeholders,
including system administrators and security personnel, contributed to outlining the following

Functional Requirements

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User Registration, all users of the system should fully complete the registration process.
Users can register by providing their phone number or email. Verification of the provided
contact information via OTP. Delivery through SMS or email. option for users to select their
preferred delivery method.

OTP Generation the System generates a unique OTP upon request. OTP should be time-
sensitive (e.g., valid for 5 minutes). Delivery through SMS or email. Option for users to
select their preferred delivery method. Users enter the received OTP for authentication.
System verifies the OTP against the stored value. Users can request a new OTP if the original
is not received. Limit the number of OTP requests per user to prevent abuse. Log OTP
generation and verification attempts for security audits

Non-Functional Requirements

ON Security OTPs must be securely generated (e.g., using cryptographic algorithms). Protect
against replay attacks and ensure OTP uniqueness. The system should be able to handle a
specified number of OTP requests per second. The OTP entry process should be user-friendly
and intuitive. the system should support an increasing number of users without significant
performance degradation.

4.9.2 Design

In the design phase, the high-level architecture and system components were conceptualized
to deliver the outlined requirements. The selected design integrates hardware and software
components with clearly defined functionalities:

1. System Inputs:
o RFID card readers authenticate personnel accessing the substation.
o One-time key generators provide an additional security layer with time-
sensitive or event-driven keys.
o Sensors detect unauthorized access or tampering activities.
2. System Processes:
o Authentication processes validate RFID card scans and one-time keys.
o Alert generation processes notify security personnel of any breaches.

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o Access logging processes record events in a central database for audit

purposes.
3. System Outputs:
o Alerts via notifications and alarms for real-time breach responses.
o Centralized data storage for access logs and security analysis.
o A user interface providing administrators with management tools and system
overviews.

The architectural design, captured in the Design Specification Document (DSD), outlines
components, their interactions, and database communication, ensuring seamless integration.

The design stage involves several critical components, including the fabrication of the printed
circuit board (PCB) through CNC milling, schematic and PCB design using Proteus, database
creation and management using cPanel and MySQL, and the development of the HTML
webpage interface using Visual Studio Code. Each of these components is integral to
ensuring the functionality, reliability, and usability of the security system.

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Figure 4.5

The CNC milling process begins with designing the PCB layout using software such as
Proteus or Eagle. This layout is based on the schematic that defines the logical connections
between components, including the ESP32 microcontroller, Bluetooth module, and sensors.
Once the schematic is finalized, the PCB layout is created with a focus on optimizing
component placement and routing. The layout is then exported as Gerber files, which are
standard in the PCB fabrication industry. These files contain information about the copper
layers, solder masks, and silkscreen layers. Using a CNC milling machine, the copper layer of
the PCB is engraved according to the Gerber files. The process involves loading the Gerber
files into the CNC software, setting up the PCB material on the milling machine, and
engraving the copper traces, pads, and vias. Holes for component placement are also drilled
during this process. After milling, the PCB is cleaned, and components are soldered onto the
board. The final PCB is then tested for electrical continuity and functional accuracy to ensure
it meets the design specifications.

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For the schematic and PCB design, Proteus software plays a pivotal role. The process begins
with the creation of the circuit schematic, where components such as the ESP32, Bluetooth
module, sensors, and power supply are logically connected. Labels and annotations are added
to ensure clarity and ease of understanding. After verifying the schematic, it is transferred to
the PCB layout editor within Proteus. Components are arranged to minimize trace lengths and
optimize space usage, and connections are routed either manually or using the software’s
auto-router feature. Additional elements such as mounting holes and edge cuts are added for
completeness. The design is then simulated within Proteus to verify its functionality, allowing
for adjustments before proceeding to PCB fabrication.

The database design and management utilize cPanel and MySQL to store and manage system
data, including access logs, user details, and alerts. Using cPanel, a new database is created,
and a user with appropriate privileges is assigned. Database tables are designed to capture the
necessary details for system functionality. For instance, the Users table stores information
such as UserID, Name, BluetoothID, Role, and LastAccess, while the AccessLogs table
records LogID, UserID, AccessTime, AccessPoint, and OneTimeKey. An Alerts table is also
created to store details such as AlertID, AlertTime, AlertType, and Description. Tools like
phpMyAdmin or direct SQL queries are used to create and manage these tables. The database
is integrated with the security system through server-side scripts, such as PHP, which
facilitate data retrieval, addition, and updates based on system events.

Figure 4.6 The database

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Figure 4.7 The entity Diagram

The HTML webpage interface is developed using Visual Studio Code, a versatile tool for
web development. The process begins by setting up the development environment, including
extensions like Live Server for real-time previews. The HTML structure is designed to
include key elements such as a login screen, dashboard, access logs table, and alert
notifications. CSS is employed to style the interface, ensuring it is visually appealing,
responsive, and user-friendly. JavaScript is used to add interactivity, such as dynamically
populating logs and displaying alerts. AJAX techniques are implemented to fetch data from
the database seamlessly without requiring page refreshes. Once the webpage is complete, it is
tested locally using Live Server to ensure it functions as intended and is compatible across
different browsers and screen sizes. Finally, the webpage files are deployed to the server via
cPanel’s File Manager or an FTP client and connected to the MySQL database for real-time
data interaction.

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The integration of these design components results in a cohesive and efficient security
system. The CNC-milled PCB, based on the Proteus-designed schematic, provides a reliable
hardware foundation. The MySQL database ensures robust backend data management, and
the HTML webpage offers an intuitive and accessible interface for administrators. Together,
these elements enhance the functionality, reliability, and security of the system.

Figure 4.8 The interface

4.9.3 Coding

The coding phase implemented the system's design into a functional prototype. The
development focused on translating the requirements into operational software and hardware
components. The primary tools included the ESP32 microcontroller for data processing and
software frameworks for managing input and output layers. Development followed modular
principles, ensuring each component (authentication, logging, and alert systems) could
function independently while integrating with the larger system.

#include <ESP32_BLE.h> // Example library for BLE

// Simulate GPIO pins for components

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const int bluetoothReaderPin = 4;

const int alertPin = 5;

// Simulated authorized Bluetooth ID

String authorizedBluetoothID = "AuthUser123";

// Function to simulate reading Bluetooth ID

String readBluetoothID() {

// Simulated Bluetooth ID

return "TestUser456";

void setup() {

Serial.begin(115200);

pinMode(bluetoothReaderPin, INPUT);

pinMode(alertPin, OUTPUT);

digitalWrite(alertPin, LOW);

Serial.println("Substation Security System Initialized.");

}
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void loop() {

String detectedBluetoothID = readBluetoothID();

Serial.print("Detected Bluetooth ID: ");

Serial.println(detectedBluetoothID);

if (detectedBluetoothID == authorizedBluetoothID) {

Serial.println("Access Granted");

digitalWrite(alertPin, LOW); // No alert

} else {

Serial.println("Access Denied! Unauthorized access detected.");

digitalWrite(alertPin, HIGH); // Trigger alert

delay(5000); // Simulate delay between reads

4.9.4 Testing

Testing was performed to ensure the system met all requirements and operated as intended.
The testing phase involved several steps:

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1. Functional Testing: Verified each module's functionality against the requirements,

including RFID authentication and one-time key validation.
2. Integration Testing: Assessed the interaction between hardware and software
components.
3. Security Testing: Simulated unauthorized access attempts to evaluate the system's
ability to detect and respond.
4. User Acceptance Testing: Ensured the user interface was intuitive and met
administrator expectations.

The testing process aimed to identify and rectify any defects before deployment.

4.9.5 Deployment and Maintenance

Upon successful testing, the system was deployed to the designated substations. Deployment
included the installation of hardware components such as RFID readers and sensors at access
points, as well as the configuration of the central processing unit. The maintenance plan
addresses potential issues through hot-fixes or scheduled updates, ensuring system reliability
over time. Feedback mechanisms allow administrators to report bugs or request
enhancements.

4.9.6 Conclusion

The enhanced security system for shared mobile base station incorporates advanced
authentication methods and real-time monitoring to mitigate unauthorized access. By
following the software development life cycle, the system was designed, developed, and
tested to ensure robustness, reliability, and ease of use. This solution not only improves
security but also enhances accountability and operational efficiency, safeguarding critical
infrastructure.

4.9.7 Chapter Summary

This chapter presented an analysis of the data collected regarding the implementation and
performance of the proposed system. The findings highlighted security challenges, user
experience, system integration, and operational efficiency. Key themes included the
effectiveness of OTP in enhancing access control and security, user adaptation, and
integration issues with legacy systems. Additionally, the impact on operational performance
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was discussed, identifying areas for improvement, particularly in network connectivity and
system scalability. Overall, the chapter provided insights into the challenges and benefits of
implementing OTP-based MFA, offering recommendations for optimizing its functionality in
the future.

References

 Chen, X., Liu, L., & Zhang, M. (2020). Dynamic password generation for secure
authentication. IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security, 15, 1927-
1936.
 Patel, R., Singh, A., & Kumar, P. (2018). Remote password management using IoT-
enabled devices. Journal of Security and Privacy, 12(4), 235-243.
 Brown, T., & Jones, R. (2019). Addressing vulnerabilities in physical access control
systems. Journal of Security Studies, 11(3), 75-89.
 Kumar, S., & Gupta, A. (2021). The role of RFID in backup mechanisms for security
systems. International Journal of Wireless Networks and Applications, 18(2), 89-95.

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