UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION

We are all different. It is what makes us unique and interesting humans. Some differences are
obvious, such as our height, the colour of our skin, or the size of our nose. Other features are
not so readily discernible, such as our reading ability or understanding of mathematical
concepts. However, in the school system, greater emphasis has been placed on “being normal
and having average intelligence”. Individuals who deviate in this sense either positively or
negatively and do not fall in the “normal/regular category” are termed as being
special/exceptional and needing a form of special attention in the teaching and learning
process.

These special/exceptional individuals may have a form of disability making it difficult to

learn through the “normal” means or they may not have a form of disability but may have a
unique learning need such that the normal school system will have to be altered before it can
help them. In simple terms, the education formulated for individuals with unique learning
needs and/or disabilities cconstitute special education.

What is Special Education?

Special education is a form of education that caters for individuals whose educational, social,
emotional, physical and other needs cannot be met through the ordinary or average ways of
teaching/learning in the regular schools. It requires an alteration or adaptation of the regular
school programme in terms of the methods, personnel, materials, curriculum or even the
environment. Hence, it involves individually planned and systematically implemented
teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, accessible settings and other
interventions designed to help learners with special educational needs and disabilities achieve
a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school (Wilmshurt & Brue,
2010).For example, if a learner in your class has a reading difficulty even though he/she has
been taught many times, and you assist him/her individually, using specially designed
strategies to overcome or manage the difficulty, you are in a way, applying special education.
The reason is that since the ordinary reading strategies is not helpful to the individual, you are
using specially designed instruction to help him/her. The specially designed instruction
includes special methods and teaching/learning materials. Additionally, it involves
instructional and learning environments which may include specific and appropriately trained
teachers for each group of exceptional individuals. It also focuses on appropriate placement
of the individual in the educational system.

Thus, special education is concerned with individuals (with disabilities and those without
disabilities) who cannot learn through the ordinary method or would need some sort of
modification to be able to learn effectively. These individuals are termed as special needs
individuals because of their unique learning needs. They may include those unable to learn,
underachieving, those from war-torn countries or disaster-stricken areas, individuals who are
sexually abused such as rape victims, street children, children of nomads (Fulani), head
porters (kayayie) among others.

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Definitions of Special Education
Kirk and Gallagher (1994) see special education as those additional services over and above
the regular school programme that are provided for exceptional individuals to assist in the
development of their potentialities or the amelioration of their disabilities. These additional
services include special equipment such as Braille machines for the blind, hearing aid for the
deaf, instruction in sign language for the deaf and special devices for the physically
challenged.

Hallahan and Kauffman (1986) define it as specially designed instruction that meets the
unique needs of an exceptional individual.

UNESCO (1983) also sees Special Education as a form of education provided for those who
are not achieving, or unlikely to achieve through ordinary provision, the levels of education,
social and other attainments appropriate at their age.

Heward and Orlansky (1992) said that “special education is individually planned,
systematically implemented and carefully evaluated instruction to help exceptional learners
achieve the greatest possible personal self-sufficiency and success in present and future
environments.

Heward (2013, p 34) defines special education as ‘individually planned, specialized,

intensive, goal-directed instruction’. He further states that, when practised most effectively
and ethically it involves the use of evidenced-based teaching methods and the use of these
methods is guided by ‘direct and frequent measures of student performance’.

In all of these definitions, some key points stand out; Special Education involves;
i. individuals who are special/exceptional
ii. unique learning needs
iii. adaptation of the regular curriculum
iv. specially designed instruction
v. individually planned teaching,
vi. intensive and goal-directed instruction
vii. customised education
Special education may have some similarities with regular education but is different in a lot
of ways. One contrast is that special education is specially designed to meet the unique
learning needs of individuals. It could be conceptualised as “customised education” whereas
general education could be conceptualised as “mass production”, one-size-fit-all form of
education. The idea of customised education simply means that the programme and all
approaches are carefully tailored to meet the unique needs of individual learners. In special
education, the emphasis is placed on the uniqueness of the individual.

Special Education as Instructional intervention

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Special education can also be viewed as purposeful instructional intervention. The
philosophical underpinning of special education stems from the medical model of disability
which will later be discussed under the concept of disability. It simply explains that persons
with a form of disability, deviation or uniqueness must be separated, labelled and be given
special attention. In the field of medicine, such individuals are given medical or surgical
intervention for them to restore or at least approximate to normalcy.
In the same vein, in the field of special education, individuals who deviate in learning are
given instructional or educational intervention with the hope of restoring them to normalcy or
at least close to it. Hence, special education aims at approximation to what is considered
normal. Special education begins where medicine ends and so it could be considered as a
form of Para medicine.

Heward (2013, p.28) therefore explains that the central purpose of special education is
‘instructionally based intervention’. This purposeful intervention prevents, eliminates or
helps to overcome the obstacles that might keep an individual with special needs from
learning and from full and active participation in school and society. There are three basic
types or levels of intervention:
1. Preventive Iintervention: This aims at intervening to keep potential or minor
problem from becoming a disability. This preventive intervention can be exercised on
three levels:
i. Primary Preventive Intervention: this focuses at reducing the incidence
of new cases of disability. This involves efforts to eliminate or
counteract the risk factors so that a child never acquires a disability.
This preventive efforts targets people who might be at risk.
ii. Secondary Preventive Intervention: this is targeted towards people who
have already been exposed to or display specific risk factors. It aims at
eliminating or counteracting the effects of these risk factors.
iii. Tertiary Preventive Intervention: this targets individuals with a
disability and intends to prevent the effects of the disability from
worsening.
NB: It must be noted that preventive efforts must be embarked on as early as possible even
before birth.
2. Remedial Intervention:Remediation attempts to eliminate specific effects of
disability through teaching. Remediation as an educational term equates rehabilitation
in social services. Hence, the purpose of remedial intervention is to teach the person
with disabilities skills for independent and successful functioning. Examples of such
skills may be academic (reading, writing), social (maintaining conversations) self-care
(eating, dressing) or vocational (career and job skills).
3. CompensatoryIntervention:This involves teaching a substitute skill or the use of
assistive devices/tools that enable a person to engage in an activity or perform a task
in spite of a disability. For example, the teaching of how to use prosthetics such as
artificial limbs or the use of the white cane for mobility.

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 Terminologies in Special Education
At-risk Children
When talking about children who are at-risk, professionals generally mean individuals who,
although not yet identified as having a disability, have a high probability of manifesting a
disability because of harmful biological, environmental, or genetic conditions.
Environmental and biological factors often work together to increase the likelihood of a
child’s exhibiting disabilities or developmental delays.
Environmentally at-risk - those infants who have developmental delays because they are
born into extreme poverty or experiences of abuse and neglect.
Biologically at-risk - those infants who have developmental delays because of health
problems such as premature, low birth weight or born to drug dependent mothers and have
congenital abnormalities.
Exposure to adverse circumstances may lead to future difficulties and delays in learning and
development, but it is not guaranteed that such problems will present themselves. Many
children are exposed to a wide range of risks, yet fail to evidence developmental problems.
Possible risk conditions include low birth weight, exposure to toxins, child abuse or neglect,
oxygen deprivation, and extreme poverty, as well as genetic disorders such as Down
syndrome or PKU (phenylketonuria).

Exceptionality
This refers to a comprehensive term that is used to describe any individual whose physical,
intellectual or behavioural performance deviate substantially or significantly from the norm
or what is considered normal. This deviation can be positive or negative. This includes both
individuals with disabilities and those who are gifted. Therefore, a person who is exceptional
is not necessarily an individual with disability. However, an individual with disability is an
exceptional individual. Such individuals may need additional educational, social, or medical
services to compensate for the physical, mental, sensory, behavioural and communication
characteristics that differ significantly from what is considered normal. In the school system,
exceptional individuals will require adaptation, modification, alteration or a change of school
practices or special education services in order for the individual to develop to his maximum
potential.

Impairment
This refers to a loss or damage to part or all of a body organ/system or structure. It could be a
temporary or a permanent loss. The loss for example, could be damage to the ear and the
hearing mechanism (hearing impairment) or it could be loss of vision due to cataracts which
would be a visual impairment. Impairment can be psychological, anatomical, or physiological
in nature. It should be made clear, however that, impairments need not be a disability, or a
handicap. Impairment then is an injury, illness, or congenital condition that causes or is likely
to cause a loss or difference of physiological, anatomical or psychological function.

Disability
According to WHO (1999) disability is the physical, sensory, psychological or neurological
deviation that results in reduced functioning or loss of a particular body part or organ

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(impairment) that makes a person unable to perform certain tasks in the same manner as most
persons without disabilities. Disabilities are the descriptions of the functional levels of the
individuals experiencing the impairment. One or more of the six general areas may be
affected;
i. Health
ii. Social (attitudinal)
iii. Mobility
iv. Cognitive (intellectual), and
v. Communication
vi. Sensory
Simply put, a disability is the loss or greatly reduced ability to perform a function or any
function due to damage or loss of a body part or an organ in the body. In other words, a
disability is the impact of impairment upon the performance of activities accepted as
elements of everyday living such as mobility, domestic routines, or occupational and
communicative skills. Impairment becomes a disability when it hinders the individual from
performing normal routines expected of the individual's sex, age, and social roles.

Disability versus Inability

All disabilities are an inability to do something. However, not every inability to do something
is a disability. That is, disability is a subset of inability: A disability is an inability to do
something that most people, with typical maturation, opportunity, or instruction, can do
(Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005). However, age, maturation and opportunity can limit
someone’s ability creating inability.

Models (theories) of Disability

According Kaplan (2008) historically, professionals used four models to explain disability
and these are moral model, medical model, rehabilitation model and disability or social
model.
1. The medical model regards disability as a medical condition or sickness or defect
which can be ‘corrected’ through medical intervention.
2. The rehabilitation model, an offshoot of the medical model, regards disability as a
defect that can be fixed through rehabilitation by a professional or society as a whole.
3. The social model sees disability as the result of the dominating attitude of
professionals and others, inadequate support services as well as architectural, sensory,
cognitive and economic barriers and the tendency to overlook the large variations
within the disabled community.
4. The moral model regards disability as the effect of end result of sin. This reflects the
predominant perception in Ghana where disability is seen as retribution from the gods
for some wrongdoing.

NB: Disability is also seen from the social model as the loss or limitation of opportunities to
take part in society on an equal level with others due to social and environmental barriers.
Although the terms impairment, disability and handicap are sometimes used interchangeably,
they are not synonymous.

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Handicap
Handicap comes from the time when persons with disabilities were seen with “cup in the
hand” on the streets to beg for alms. However, in a more scholarly terms, handicap refers to
the limitation or restrictions imposed on an individual either by disability or environmental
demands. According to WHO (1980, p. 183), handicap is a social, psychology, and
occupational disadvantage that results from impairment and disability. A handicap is the
profound effect of impairment and disability. In other words, handicap refers to problems a
person with a disability or impairment encounters in interacting with one environment.It is
important to note that handicap is a situation specific and depends on a circumstance that
makes an individual with impairment or disability disadvantaged. In Ghana and some parts of
Sub Saharan Africa, many individuals with disabilities are educationally, occupationally or
economically disadvantage because they are unable to attain a level of education or pursue a
preferred career because they are blind, deaf or crippled and this is what handicap means.

Historical Developments and Concepts in Special Education

Throughout history, people perceived as “different” have been vulnerable to practices such as
infanticide, abuse and abandonment (Hardman, Drew, & Egan, 2005). These practices
reflected a common societal fear that the person with disability would defile the human race.
Most treatment meted out to persons with disabilities can be traced to three major factors
which include beliefs, value system and attitudes. However, the historical roots of persons
with disabilities leading to their education is grouped into eras: ancient, asylum and
contemporary.

Ancient Era
This was the era with evidence of maltreatment of persons with disabilities throughout the
world. It was characterised by avoidance, discrimination and exclusion. Belief in the
supernatural largely led to condemnation of children born with deformity and declaring them
of deserving of death. Hence, infanticide, the killing of children, was largely practised. For
example, children with mental retardation were considered as creatures incapable of human
feelings and therefore undeserving of human compassion. The Greeks, the Romans and the
Spartans had history denoting severe maltreatment that were meted out to children with
disabilities. For instance, because of the need for military superiority, their societies needed
to be free of defective individuals and as consequences, children with disabilities were killed,
left in the hills or forest to die, thrown off cliffs, locked away or drowned. Fathers have the
rights to terminate any of their children with disability. There were rigid caste systems such
that persons with disabilities had no rights to certain places such as the shrine, the chief’s
palace, and other sacred places. Persons with disabilities were ridiculed, used as servants or
source of amusement and some had to be used as ‘guinea pigs” for experiments. This period
was marked by persecutions, killings and ostracism.

Asylum Era

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The period of Christianity and the medieval time brought some changes in the lives of
persons with disabilities because of the compassion of people. This era is characterised by
acceptance, humane treatment and segregation. Persons with disability were kept in
homes/institutions called asylums where they were cared for. This era was a time of
traditional search for the non-existing cure for disabilities from sooth-sayers, shrines, fetish
priests, and even charlatan men of God. Many institutions were however established for them
for welfare purposes rather than educational as a gesture of sympathy. It first began with
mental hospitals for lunatics and then other centres for providing asylum to other categories
of persons with disabilities came into existence throughout the world. All this time, there was
no form of education for persons with disabilities. It they were just provided with shelter and
sustenance.

Contemporary Era
The contemporary era began with Renaissance movement which propagated intellectual
movement known as the enlightenment. It was the time when knowledge was abounding and
people began questioning the way of doing things. So, the question of why persons with
disabilities were not educated and how to do so may have ignited the search for answers. This
gave birth to most of the genuine efforts in the direction of special education. The
Renaissance movement provided essential theoretical grounds for the action-oriented work of
the many pioneers in the field of special education. Some of these pioneers include; Abbe C.
M. de l’Epee (1760); Jean Marc Gaspard Itard (1774-1838); Thomas Gallaudet (1787-1851);
Louis Braille (1809-1851); Eduard Seguin (1812-1880); Alexander Graham Bell (1847-
1922); Alfred Binet (1857-1911); Maria Montessori (1870-1952) etc.
There was the realisation that persons with mental, hearing and visual disabilities could learn
and achieve success if they are not only segregated but also given special attention in the
form of education. By the close of the 18th century, special education was accepted as a
branch of education and separate schools were established for the education of diversified
group of children with disabilities all over Europe and the USA.

Historical Developments in Ghana

Special education was first introduced to Ghana (then Gold Coast) in 1945 through the
missionaries during the colonial era. The following are the highlights of its development;
 Basel mission established the 1st school for the Blind at Akropong (1945). It also
served the cripple in literacy and basket weaving.
 Consequently, Mrs. Greenwood and Mrs. Sakyiama-Amoako were taken abroad to be
trained in braille and to return to support blind education in Ghana.
 The second school for the blind was then established in Wa in1948 by the
Presbyterian and Methodist churches.
 Deaf education was started by Dr Andrew Foster (a deaf African-American) in Ghana
shortly after independence in 1957 and established a demonstration school for it at
Accra and then moved to Akropong.

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  Later in 1957, the Government of Ghana assumed full responsibility of education of
the “handicapped” children and established a unit for it which later became the
Division of Special Education under the Ghana Education Service, GES.
 Private individuals such as Mrs. Salome Francois also established a private special
school called New Horizon School in 1972 in Cantonment in Accra for children with
developmental disabilities.
 In 1965, the Government of Ghana established the Deaf Education Specialist Training
College to train specialist teachers for the deaf.
 Later, the specialist programme was moved to the University of Education, Winneba
in 1992 to be established as the Department of Special Education which has been
training basic school special education teachers for the country.
 Presently, there are a number of Colleges of Education and the University of Cape
Coast that have courses and programmes in Special education as part of teacher
preparation.

The historical development of the education of persons with disabilities has brought about
some important concepts and nomenclatures in special education. The following are a few of
them:

Labelling
It is the act of categorising, classifying or stigmatising an individual and placing him or her
into any of the categories of exceptional individuals. Hence, in special education, we have
about eight major categories of disabilities. These include:
i. Intellectual disabilities
ii. Learning disabilities
iii. Sensory disabilities (hearing and visual)
iv. Communication impairment
v. Emotional/Behavioural Disorders
vi. Physical/health disabilities
vii. Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorders
viii. Autism Spectrum Disorders
Heward (2013) has enumerated some benefits of labelling and possible disadvantages of
labelling some of them have been stated below.
Advantages
 It recognises differences in learning or behaviour and is the first important step in
responding to these differences.
 It makes peers accept atypical behaviour of disabled individuals.
 It enables professionals to communicate, categorise and evaluate their research
findings.
 It enables disability-specific advocacy groups to promote specific programmes and
facilitate legislative action.
 It allows funds and resources for research and other programmes based on specific
categories of exceptionality to flow.

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  Labels highlight the needs of exceptional individuals to policy makers, professionals
and the public at large.
Disadvantages
 Labelling highlights the exceptional individual’s disability or weaknesses rather than
their ability.
 It leads to stigmatisation, ridicule and rejection.
 It makes the exceptional individual have negative self-concept.
 Once the individual is labelled it would be difficult for the individual to achieve the
status of just another kid.
 Labelling helps keep exceptional individuals out of the regular education classroom.
 Teachers hide behind label and do not do their work. As labels suggest that there is
some deficit with the individual and therefore it is his own fault, while in actual fact it
can be due to poor teaching.
To avoid some of the harms of labelling, some scholars propose a non-categorical
approach. This involves seeing students as individuals with specific strengths and weakness
that must be identified and addressed in the educational environment.
As a regular school teacher, you are in a unique position to help shape the attitudes and
opinions of your students, their parents, and your colleagues about individuals with
disabilities. Please consider the following points when dealing with individuals with
disabilities.
 Do not sensationalise a disability by saying “afflicted with,” “crippled with,” “suffers
from,” or “victim of.” Instead, say “a person who has intellectual disability”.
 Do not use generic labels for disability groups, such as the retarded or the deaf.
Emphasize people, not labels. Say “people with learning disability” or “people who have
communication disorders.” This puts the focus on the individual, not the particular
functional limitation.
 Emphasize abilities, not limitations. For example, say “uses a wheelchair/ braces” or
“walks with crutches,” rather than “is confined to a wheelchair,” “is wheelchairbound,”
or “is crippled.”
 Similarly, do not use emotional descriptors such as “unfortunate” or “pitiful”.
 Avoid euphemisms in describing disabilities. Some blind advocates dislike partially
sighted because it implies avoiding acceptance of blindness. Terms such as handicap,
mentally different, physically inconvenienced, and physically challenged are considered
condescending and outdated. They reinforce the idea that disabilities cannot be dealt with
up front and they should be avoided.
 People with disabilities should never be referred to as “patients” or “cases” unless their
relationship with their doctor is under discussion.
 Show people with disabilities as active participants in society. Portraying persons with
disabilities interacting with nondisabled people in social and work environments helps
break down barriers and open lines of communication.

Exclusion
 It is a situation where individuals with disability were excluded from school.

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  They were denied education in established institutions of learning.
If they ever received a form of education, it was provided to them in homes or
hospitals away from school facility.
 Their exclusion from school was because of the disability.

Segregation
 It is a situation where individuals with disability are educated in a special school.
 Such individuals are exempted from the regular school because of their disability.
 Schools that practice a form of segregation are the schools for the blind, deaf and
intellectual disability.

Normalisation
 It involves the acceptance of people with disabilities, with their disabilities, offering
them the same conditions as are offered to other citizens.
 It involves the normal conditions of life – housing, schooling, employment, exercise,
recreation and freedom of choice.
 This includes “the dignity of risk”, rather than an emphasis on “protection”.
 Normalisation reflects the idea that all individuals regardless of their abilities have a
right or opportunities of everyone else in everyday life.
 The person with a disability ought to be able to live as equal as possible to a normal
existence and with the same rights and obligations of other people.
 The normalisation principle signifies the need to make available to all people with
special needs the patterns and conditions of everyday life which are close to the norms
and patterns of mainstream society as possible.
 Normalisation is not just the physical inclusion of individual with special needs in the
community but rather they should be supported through training and supervision.
 Normalisation = equal chances, equal opportunities, equity.

Deinstitutionalisation
 The movement of individuals from institutions to community-based settings.
 Concomitant with deinstitutionalisation movement has been the expansion of
community-based services (Saland, 1990).
 These include living arrangements such as group homes and apartments, community
training programmes, and work experiences in competitive, community settings.

Integration
 It is most closely associated with social policy to end separate education for ethnic
minority individuals.
 Most often it is simply defined as the physical placement of the students with
extensive needs in general school campuses.

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  Integration is most commonly associated with the concept of mainstreaming and then
inclusion.
 The two types of integration are Social integration and Instructional integration.

Mainstreaming
 It refers to the practice of educating students with special needs in regular classes
during specific time periods based on their skills.
 The child is placed at the regular classroom for some school hours and pulled out at
some specific hours for special attention.
 It is also considered as the “pull out” method where classes are combined with special
education classes.
 Educating individuals with disabilities alongside their non-disabled peers fosters
understanding and tolerance, better preparing students of all abilities to function in the
world beyond school.
 It has a resource room (self-contained classroom) with a resource teacher.
 Some schools that practise mainstreaming are Okuapeman SHS, PTC, UG, UEW,
UCC

Inclusion
According to the concept of inclusion, special education students should attend their home
school with their age and grade peers, all day, in the regular education classroom rather than
being pulled out of regular classrooms to receive special services. This is in accordance with
the Regular Education Initiative (REI), a position held by some special educators that
students with disabilities should be served exclusively in regular education classrooms and
should not be “pulled out” to attend special classes. The inclusion system posits that support
services should be brought to the child and presumes that the child will benefit from being in
that class. Full inclusion connotes full-day placement for all students, regardless of
handicapping conditions.
 It is giving education to children with special education needs and disabilities together
in regular schools.
 Inclusion is the most effective means of doing away with discrimination, creating
welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving education for
all.
 By this, all children including those with those with disabilities and those without
disabilities are educated in the regular school where equal opportunities and access
are to provided.

Practice of Special Education as Team Work

Special education is a team game. Hence, it is common for regular education teachers to work
with other professions as a team. The team that plans, delivers and evaluates the programme
of specially designed instruction and related services to meet the unique needs of an
individual with special educational needs and disabilities.

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What are Related services?
They are the ancillary programmes required by handicapped children to benefit from special
education (Mandel & Fiscus, 1981). Services offered to students with disabilities to
supplement special education programmes (Lewis & Doorlag, 1995). The additional services
provided to students with disability so they can benefit fully from special or regular education
The related services include assistive technology services (to gain independence eg.
Wheelchair, prosthetics, magnifiers, hearing aids, memory aids, etc); Physical therapy,
audiology, speech and language, recreational therapy, counselling, medical, interpreting
services, orientation and mobility service.
It is mandatory that educational assessments of a student’s strengths and needs be done
multidisciplinarily and that related services be provided to meet the unique requirements of
each learner. Some of the professional who provide related services include:
Professionals in Education
Regular teacher;
 teaches in the regular classroom and is responsible for the day-to-day management of
learning in the classroom.
 provides important information about the student's academic, social, emotional and
behavioural abilities to multidisciplinary team to have vivid knowledge of the students.
 make referrals to specialists like audiologist and physiotherapist, in consultation with the
student's parents for further assessment.
 implements the instructions of the IEP and takes responsibility for instructing the
individual with SEND. He/she does this in consultation with other professionals.
 evaluates the learning progress the individual with special educational needs and
disabilities (SEND) and reports it to the members of the multidisciplinary team.
 make the classroom environment regular classroom conducive and inclusive for all
learners.
NB: Sometimes regular school teachers are also supported by paraeducators. They are also
known as paraprofessionals, teacher aides and instructional/teaching assistants. They play
important roles in delivering special education services to students with disabilities
(Carnahan, Williamson, Clarke, & Sorensen, 2009).
Special education teacher;
 offers great assistance to the regular class teacher.
 helps in teaching either in the regular class, special class or resource room.
 helps to handle individuals with exceptional need and in certain cases, act as consultants
to the regular class teacher.
 evaluates student's achievements on the goals spelt out in the IEP and relay this
information to the other members of the team.
 Provides information and advice on where to place students with special needs.
Itinerant and peripatetic teachers
 They are trained in special education and their duty is to diagnose and draw up remedial
programmes for students with special needs.
 Such teachers move from school-to-school supervising students' progress.
 They deliver services to students either in the classroom or outside the classroom.
 Also, they work and cooperate with the regular teacher and officers in education offices.

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 They make identification, referrals for placement and counsel parents on how to handle
their individuals with special needs.
 In Ghana they do not exist rather, work is subsumed by Special Education Needs
Coordinators (SENCos).

Professionals in Medicine
Nurses /physician report information about any relevant health problems, conditions and
diseases to the team members. Apart from providing the medical information, it is their duty
to make clear the educational implication of the information they are providing.
Ophthalmologists diagnose and treat eye diseases. They determine the cause, degree and
type of visual loss.
Optometrists specialize in evaluation and optical correction of refractive errors by providing
spectacles.
Optician grinds and fits corrective lenses that have been prescribed by an ophthalmologist or
optometrist. The information that these three professionals will provide will go a long way in
helping the IEP team to plan for the education of a visually impaired student.
Physiotherapists specialize in muscles, bones and joint problems. They engage the
physically impaired in exercises and massages in order to improve their motor abilities. On
the team, they would be able to tell the type of exercises they will put the student through and
the likely outcomes in terms of improvement of motor abilities.
Audiologists specialize in hearing. Their contribution to the assessment and placement
recommendation of students with hearing loss is very important. They;
 prescribe the type of help that will be required for those with hearing loss for
example, ear washing, surgery, fitting of hearing aids or suggetion of special teaching
skills.
 offer counselling services to parents and people with hearing impairment.
 can act as consultants to educational, medical, legal and other professionals.
 can recommend appropriate seating position for students with hearing losses to
teachers.
Otologist a physician whose specialization is diseases of the ear. She/he may participate in
the diagnosis of hearing loss and treat the individual later for related problems.
Speech and language therapists/pathologists are responsible for speech and
communication disorders. They;
 screen, identify, assess and diagnose speech and language problems.
 recommend appropriate strategies that would help individuals with such problems.
 help parents and teachers understand individuals with speech and language problems.
 directly teach individuals with such problems appropriate ways to articulate words
and develop effective communication skills.

Professionals in Psychology
School psychologists assess individuals to come out with their strengths and weaknesses and
also administer standardized test and interpret the results of such tests. They;
 provide inputs as to the type of placement to be given.

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  interview and consult with parents, guardians and teachers, for information about
individuals who have academic difficulties.
 apply psychological theories and principles to school work and then, train teachers to
deal with difficult individuals.
Social workers consult with parents and teachers and serve as liaison personnel between the
school and the home. They collect information about the individual both in the home and at
school and help individuals who have problems interacting with individuals.
School counsellors help individuals solve many personal problems. They gather information
from teachers, school records and parents. They help individuals/student to better understand
themselves and make informed decisions and choices. In addition, they play a tremendous
role in involving parents in the education of their individuals.

Collaboration in Special Education

Regular school teachers are able to suspect and solve learning and behaviour problems in the
classroom when they work together. Three ways in which team members can work
collaboratively is through coordination, consultation and teaming (Heward, 2013).
Coordination is the simplest of collaboration. It requires only ongoing communication and
cooperation to ensure that services are provided in a timely and systematic fashion. Although
it is an important and necessary element of special education, coordination does not require
service providers to share information or specifics of their efforts with one another.
Consultation is when team members provide information or expertise to one another.
Consultation is traditionally considered to be unidirectional with the expert providing
assistance and advice to the novice. However, team members can, and often do, switch roles
from consultant to consultee and back again.
Teaming: There are a number of teams in the delivery of special education; intervention
assistance team, child study team, Individualised Education Programme (IEP) team. Each
step of the special education process involves a group of people who must work together for
the benefit of a child with special education needs. For special education to be most effective,
these groups must become functioning and effective teams.
Teaming is the most difficult level of collaboration to achieve; it also pays the most reward. It
bridges coordination and consultation together and builds on their strength. It brings on board
reciprocity and information sharing among all team members through more equal exchange.
In practice, three team models have been seen in the field of special education. It includes
multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary teams.
Multidisciplinary teams are composed of professionals from different disciplines such as
education, psychology and medicine who work independently of one another. Each team
member conducts assessments, plans interventions and delivers services. In is kind of team
work, there is the risk of not providing services that recognise the child as an integrated
whole; there is the tendency to splinter the child into segments along the respective
disciplines.
Interdisciplinary teams are characterised by formal channels of communication between
members. Although each professional usually conduct discipline-specific assessments, the
interdisciplinary team meets to share information and develop intervention plans. Each

14
member is generally responsible for implementing a portion of the service plan related to
his/her discipline.
NB: members of both multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary teams generally operate in
isolation and may not coordinate their services to achieve the integrated delivery of related
services.
Transdisciplinary teams involve the highest level of team involvement but also the most
difficult to accomplish. Members seek to provide services in a uniform and integrated fashion
by conducting joint assessments, sharing information and expertise across discipline
boundaries, and selecting goals and interventions that are discipline-free. Members also share
roles often referred to as role release.

Multidisciplinary Interdisciplinary Transdisciplinary

Least collaborative Most collaborative

Least cooperative Most cooperative
Least coordinated Most coordinated
Least integrated Most integrated

Laws and Legislations Backing the Practice of Special Education

United State of America
In the USA there are many laws and legislations and new reforms backing the education of
individuals with disabilities. Notable amongst them is the Individuals with Disability
Education Act (IDEA) which has seen major review and re-enactment.
The IDEA is viewed as a “Bill of Rights” for children with exceptionalities and their
families; it is the culmination of many years of dedicated effort by both parents and
professionals. It is considered to be one of the most important pieces of federal legislation
ever enacted on behalf of children with special needs. It may rightfully be thought of as the
legislative heart of special education in the USA. Despite legislative and court challenges
over the past three decades, the following six principles have been well entrenched in the
IDEA:
• A free appropriate public education (FAPE). All children, regardless of the severity of
their disability (a “zero reject” philosophy), must be provided with an education appropriate
to their unique needs at no cost to the parent(s)/guardian(s). Included in this principle is the
concept of related services, which requires that children receive, for example, occupational
therapy as well as other services as necessary in order to benefit from special education.
• The least restrictive environment (LRE). Children with disabilities are to be educated, to
the maximum extent appropriate, with students without disabilities. Placements must be
consistent with the pupil’s educational needs.
• An individualised education program (IEP). This document, developed in conjunction
with the parent(s)/guardian(s), is an individually tailored statement describing an educational
plan for each learner with exceptionalities. The IEP, which will be fully discussed later in this
chapter, is required to address a number of issues relating to ensuring befitting education for
the individual with SEND.

15
• Procedural due process. The act affords parent(s)/guardian(s) several safeguards as it
pertains to their child’s education. Briefly, parent(s)/guardian(s) have the right to
confidentiality of records; to examine all records; to obtain an independent evaluation; to
receive written notification (in parents’ native language) of proposed changes to their child’s
educational classification or placement; and to an impartial hearing whenever disagreements
arise regarding educational plans for their child. Furthermore, the student’s
parent(s)/guardian(s) have the right to representation by legal counsel.
• Non-discriminatory assessment. Prior to placement, a child must be evaluated by a
multidisciplinary team in all areas of suspected disability by tests that are neither racially or
culturally nor linguistically biased. Students are to receive several types of assessments,
administered by trained personnel; a single evaluation procedure is not permitted for either
planning or placement purposes.
• Parental participation. This mandates meaningful parent involvement. Sometimes referred
to as the “Parent’s Law,” this legislation requires that parents participate fully in the decision-
making process that affects their child’s education.
Ghana
In Ghana, the current developments in special education have been drawn from educational
reforms and national policies and from international documents. Hence, special education
today is the result of major policy initiatives in education adopted by past and present
governments. Although these initiatives have their checked history, they have actually helped
in structurally transforming the education system and improving access to quality education
for all individuals in Ghana including those with disabilities. Here are a few highlights of
them;
1. The 1961 Education Act (Act 87)
Every child who attained the school going age as determined by the Minister shall attend a
course of instruction as laid by the Minister in a school recognized for the purpose by the
Minister.
2. The 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana: Article on Education Rights
Article 25(1): All persons shall have the right to equal educational opportunities and facilities
and with a view to achieving the full realization of that right. Specific concerns include basic
education being free, compulsory and available to all.
3. Persons with Disabilities (PWD) Act, 2006 (Act 715)
Unlike the policies and acts before it, which talked generally about all Ghanaian children to
include those with SEND, the PWD Act, 2006 (Act 715) appears to have clear-cut directives
on social and educational issues for individuals with disabilities in Ghana. The following are
the core clauses on education:
Clause 16: Education of a child with disabilities
1) A parent, guardian or custodian of a child with disabilities of school-age shall enrol the
child in a school.
2) A parent, guardian or custodian who contravenes subsection (1) commits an offence and
is liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding ten penalty units or to a term of
imprisonment not exceeding fourteen days.
Clause 17: Facilities and equipment in educational institutions

16
The Minister of Education shall by Legislative Instrument designate schools or institutions in
each region which shall provide the necessary facilities and equipment that will enable
persons with disabilities to fully benefit from school or institution.
Clause 18: Free Education and Special Schools
The Government shall
a) Provide free education for a person with disability and
b) Establish special schools for persons with disabilities who by reason of their disabilities
cannot be enrolled in formal schools.
Clause 19: Appropriate training for basic school graduates
Where a person with disability has completed basic education but is unable to pursue further
formal education, the Minister shall provide the person with appropriate training.
Clause 20: Refusal of admission on account of disability Refusal of admission on account
of disability
1) A person responsible for admission into a school or other institution of learning shall not
refuse to give admission to a person with disability on account of the disability unless the
person with disability has been assessed by the Ministry responsible for Education in
collaboration with the Ministries responsible for Health and Social Welfare to be a
person who clearly requires to be in a special school for children or persons with
disability.
2) A person who contravenes Subsection (1) commits an offence and is liable on summary
conviction to a fine not exceeding fifty penalty units or imprisonment for a term not
exceeding three months or to both.
Clause 21: Special education in technical, vocational and teacher training institutions
The Minister of Education shall by Legislative Instrument designate in each region a public
technical, vocational and teacher training institutions which shall include in their curricula
special education, such as
1. sign language, and
2. Braille writing and reading
Clause 22: Library facilities
A public library shall as far as practicable be fitted with facilities that will enable persons
with disability to use the library.
Clause 34: Periodic screening of children
The Ministry of Health in collaboration with the Ministries responsible for Education and
Social Welfare shall provide for the periodic screening of children in order to detect, prevent
and manage disability.
Clause 35: Establishment of assessment centres
The Ministry of Health in collaboration with District Assemblies and the Ministry responsible
for Social Welfare shall establish and operate health assessment and resource centres in each
district and provide early diagnostic medical attention to mothers and infants to determine the
existence or onset of disability.
Clause 36: Incentive for manufacturers of technical aids and appliances
A person who manufactures technical aids or appliances in the country for the use of persons
with disability shall be given tax exemption that the Minister in consultation with the
Minister of Finance may determine in Regulations.

17
International Dimensions
Other international documents that influence special education in Ghana are
 The Jomtien World Conference (1990) (Education for All, EFA).
 The Dakar Framework
 Convention on the Rights of the Child
 The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action which focuses on the Inclusive
Education.

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 UNIT TWO
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. Justification for inclusive education
3. Definition of inclusive education
4. Benefits of inclusive education
5. Challenges in inclusive education
6. Overview of inclusive education in Ghana
7. Roles of stakeholders in the implementation of inclusive education in Ghana
8. Barriers to inclusive education in Ghana

OBJECTIVES OF THE UNIT

By the end of this unit, the student should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of inclusive education
2. Justify the need for inclusive education
3. Mention at least three benefits and challenges of inclusive education
4. Tell the development of inclusive education in Ghana
5. Discuss the roles of stakeholders in the implementation of inclusive education in
Ghana
6. Identify at least four barriers to inclusive education in Ghana and suggest ways to
overcome the challenges

Introduction
Inclusive education has become the current approach to education worldwide. Before the
implementation of inclusive education, students with special education needs (SEN) were
expected to learn in an environment separated from children without SEN. However, in 1994,
the international conference held in Spain introduced the concept of inclusive education, thus,
the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action, which called for an inclusive education
system. Ghana among several nations across the globe were signatories to the Salamanca
statement which called for an inclusive education system. The Salamanca Statement and
Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (UNESCO,1994) recognises the/that:
1. Education is a fundamental right, and every child must be given the opportunity to
achieve and maintain an acceptable level of learning
2. Every child has unique needs, interest, abilities, characteristics, and learning needs
3. Education system should be structured to cater for the unique needs of all learners
4. Students with special educational needs (SEN) must have access to regular schools
which should accommodate them within a child-centred pedagogy capable of meeting
their needs.
5. Regular schools with inclusive orientation is the most effective means of combating
discriminating attitudes, creating welcoming communities and building an inclusive
society.
Justification for inclusive education

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According to Ainscow (2020), the paradigm shift towards inclusive schools can be justified
on three grounds namely:
1. Educational: This means that school will have to devise strategies that meet the
unique needs of all learners to benefit all learners.
2. Social: Inclusive education seeks to combat any form of discrimination in the
school setting and promote positive attitude by educating all children together in
the same educational environment.
3. Economic: Establishing and maintaining schools which educate all children
together is less costly than building separate schools to house particular group of
children.

Definition of Inclusive Education

The concept of inclusive education has been defined by several authors. While some
others argue that there is no clear cut definition (Dayan, 2017; Abery, Tichá & Kincade,
2017), some authors also argue that, the concept of inclusive education should be described
rather than defined ((Danso, 2009; Gyimah, 2009). It is important to note that, whether
inclusive education is described or defined, it should highlight the major issues that were
outlined in the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action.
According to UNESCO (2020, p. 8), inclusive education refers to “securing and
guaranteeing the right of all children to access, presence, participation and success in their
local regular school”. Cologon (2019) mentioned that, inclusive education involves valuing
and facilitating the full participation and belonging of everyone in all aspects of our education
communities and systems. According to Lewis, Wheeler and Carter (2017) inclusive
education refers to the meaningful participation of students with SEN in general education
classrooms and programmes. It can be said that, inclusive education is a system that ensures
that, students with and without disabilities are educated in the same educational environment
with equal opportunities devoid of any form of discrimination.

Benefits of Inclusive Education

Several researches point out the benefits on inclusive education to students with and without
SEN, regular education teachers and parents and families. These benefits have been
highlighted below:
To students with and without disabilities
a. Academic outcomes: There is strong evidence that, students with disabilities benefit
academically from inclusive education. Empirical findings showed that, students with
SEN who are taught in the regular school setting performed better than peers who
were taught in a segregated school setting in both academic and vocational skills
(Cologon, 2019). Research also shows that, students with SEN who are educated in
regular school settings are more likely to graduate at the expected time than students
in segregated settings. Additionally, it has been argued that inclusive education
stimulates learning in that more time is spent on academic learning than segregated
schools.
b. Communication and language outcome: Communication and language
development in students with SEN has been found to be enhanced through inclusive

20
 education. Support for inclusive peer communication has been found to be
particularly important. Students with SEN in inclusive settings have been shown to
increase independent communication, mastery of augmentative and alternative
communication (AAC) strategies, and increased speech and language development
when provided with appropriate support for inclusive education. Consequently, it can
be said that, inclusive education supports communication and language development
of students with SEN, which enhances the likelihood of their full participation in the
inclusive setting.
c. Physical development outcome: Existing research provides evidence to suggest that
inclusive education contributes positively towards the physical development of
students with SEN who experience physical disability. For example, students who
experience physical disability who are educated in the regular school settings show
gains in motor development and have a higher degree of independence. Inclusive
education has been found to encourage participation and provide more opportunities
for students with SEN to observe and learn through the ‘power of the peer’, as well as
to learn through trial-and-error which can enhance their physical development. For
instance, a student who has fine motor problem may be encouraged to engage in
colouring activities with her or his non-disabled peers. This can improve her/his fine
motor skills. Students with physical disability who learn in the inclusive setting are
more active because of the regular peer support and the urge to interact with their
non-disabled peers.
d. Social and Emotional outcome: Research evidence suggests that genuinely inclusive
education allows students to build and develop friendships. It also facilitates improved
attitudes between students with and without SEN. Inclusive settings encourage higher
levels of interaction than segregated settings, which results in more opportunities for
children and young people to establish and maintain friendships. The more time a
student spends within an inclusive setting, the greater the social interaction. In turn,
this leads to better outcomes for social and communication development. The growing
body of research into the outcomes of inclusive education for social development has
also found that inclusion results in a more positive sense of self and self-worth for
students with and without SEN. Inclusive education leads to a sense of belonging,
increased likelihood to be part of a school group, and to a self-concept not only for
students with SEN who may require help, but also for students without SEN who may
offer help. Hence, inclusive education can promote advanced social skills in both
students with and without disabilities.
Behavioural outcome: Overall, research provides evidence that inclusive education
leads to improved behavioural development in students in both students with and
without SEN. According to Rossetti (2014), the idea that, bullying and other
inappropriate behaviour are more likely to occur in the regular school setting is not
really the case. They argued that, in spite of the higher supervision and teacher
support in the special school setting, the full range of bullying occurs in the special
schools setting. Even though there are different schools of thought when it comes to
improved behaviour development and the type of school setting, particularly based on
teacher or parent ratings, growing evidence suggests that children and young people

21
 who attend ‘special’ settings are more likely to experience bullying than their peers in
the regular school settings. Inclusive education is a key factor in reducing or
eliminating bullying and other inappropriate behaviour.

To regular education teachers

The benefits of inclusive education are not only students with and without disabilities.
Research has found that, through participation in inclusive education, teachers
experience professional growth and increased personal satisfaction. Additionally,
developing skills to enable the inclusion of students with SEN results in higher-
quality teaching for all students and more confident teachers. Even though, most
teachers are initially reluctant to participate in inclusive education and may feel that
they are not equipped for the challenges involved (Deku and Vanderpuye, 2017),
several Studies have also found that most teachers develop confidence and positive
attitude towards teaching in their ability to implement inclusive education.
To parents and families
Most researches suggests that when students with SEN are educated in the regular
school setting, it enhance the confidence of the parents and the family. Additionally,
the experience of genuine inclusive education contributes to parents’ psychological
and economic well-being. Inclusive education, when it does occur, is often the result
of considerable parent advocacy and many families strongly desire inclusive
education for their children.
Apart from the benefits discussed above, Chauhan and Mantry (2018) outlines the following
benefits of inclusive education:
1. It helps the teacher to develop practical competencies that will lead to a conducive
learning environment.
2. It strengthens good relationship between students with and without SEN
3. It provides a mechanism for responding to the learning and other needs of all
learners as soon as they are suspected or identified
4. Students without disabilities can learn to value and respect children with diverse
abilities in inclusive classroom.
5. It enhances collaboration between regular and special education teachers
Challenges in Inclusive Education
The implementation of inclusive education has been faced with several challenges
worldwide, especially in developing countries. Schuelka (2018) identified the most common
challenges to the effective implementation of IE in developing countries. These include:
 Funding
 Inadequate school resources and facilities
 Inadequate specialised school staff
 Inadequate teacher training in inclusive thinking and techniques
 Rigid curriculum
 Unsupportive school and district leadership
 Socio-cultural attitudes about schools and disability

22
Overview of inclusive education in Ghana
The ideology of Inclusive education was initiated at the world conference held in
Salamanca, Spain in June 1994. During the conference, the delegates recognised the urgency
and the need to provide equal opportunities for learners with SEN within the regular school
setting. The conference was held by United Nations Educational scientific and cultural
organization (UNESCO). There were delegates from around the world representing 92
governments and 25 international organizations. This maiden conference set the pace for the
implementation of inclusive education worldwide.
In response to the global call for inclusive education, Ghana started piloting inclusive
education in 2003/2004 (Isaac & Dogbe, 2020) academic year. In the 2013, the Ministry of
Education drafted the inclusive education policy (MoE, 2013). In 2015, the policy was
implemented for all levels of education. In May 2016, the policy was launched. Currently, all
private and public schools in Ghana are expected to implement inclusive education. It is also
important to note that, there are two other documents that were developed to aid the
implementation of the inclusive education policy. These documents are the implementation
plan and the standard and guidelines for the practice of inclusive education. The policy is set
to be reviewed every five years. There are four main objectives of the 2015 inclusive
education policy. They are:
1. Improve and adapt education and related systems and structures to ensure the
inclusion of all learners particularly learners with special educational needs
2. Promote a UDL/learner friendly school environment for enhancing the quality of
education for all learners.
3. Promote the development of a well-informed and trained human resource cadre
for the quality delivery of IE throughout Ghana.
4. Ensure sustainability of Inclusive Education Implementation

Categories of persons with special educational needs recognised in the policy

In Ghana persons with Special Educational Needs as captured in the Inclusive
Education policy are said to be “children with special educational needs. They go beyond
those who may be included in disability categories to cover those who are failing in schools,
as well as a wide variety of reasons that are known to be barriers to a child’s optimal progress
in learning and development” (p.6) The various categories of persons recognised in the policy
are:
1. Persons with Hearing Impairment 13. Persons with other health
2. Persons with Visual Impairment impairment (asthma, etc)
3. Persons with Intellectual Disability 14. Children displaced by natural
4. Persons with physical disability catastrophes and social conflicts
5. Persons with Deaf-blindness 15. Nomadic children (shepherd boys,
6. Persons with Multiple disabilities. fisher-folks’ children and domestic
7. Persons with Speech and child workers)
Communication disorders 16. Children living in extreme social and
8. Persons with Attention Deficit economic deprivation
Hyperactivity Disorder 17. Children exploited for financial

23
 9. Gifted and Talented persons purpose
10. Persons with Specific Learning 18. Orphans and children who are not
Disability living with their biological parents
11. Persons with Autism 19. Children living with HIV/AIDS
12. Persons with Emotional and 20. Street children
Behaviour Disorder

Roles of stakeholders in the implementation of inclusive education in Ghana

Based on the policy requirement, stakeholders are expected to collaborate with the
Ministry of Education to ensure the implementation of inclusive education. The stakeholders
include the Ministry of Education; Ghana Education Service; Parents, head teachers, teachers
and Special Education Needs Co-ordinators. The Ministry of Education (2015) stipulates the
following roles of stakeholders as follows:
The Ministry of Education
The ministry shall provide overall leadership for Inclusive Education. The ministry
shall have the responsibility of:
1. Overseeing policy implementation, review, coordination, monitoring and evaluation
and impact assessment.
2. Leading the submission of budget proposals for inclusive education financing while
working closely with the Ministry of Finance to ensure inflow of funds to Inclusive
education programmes.
3. Assessing progress against targets.
4. Coordinating reporting on inclusive education to relevant stakeholders.
5. Overseeing the review of curriculum, training and professional development of all
educational personnel in collaboration with all key stakeholders.
The Ghana Education Service
The Ghana Education Service (GES) is tasked with oversight of the implementation,
ensuring that the issues defined in the IE policy are implemented through the national,
regional and district decentralised structures to the school level. It shall act as the body that
provides advice and direction as well as monitoring progress and instituting mechanisms for
ensuring compliance in the education system on IE measures and practices as defined by this
policy.
1. The GES through its decentralized structures shall provide all schools with adequate
and requisite teaching and learning materials including assistive devices for all
learners especially, meeting the diverse and special educational needs.
2. The GES shall ensure that school authorities follow the Universal Design Principle
and the Child Friendly School Model.
3. The GES shall collaborate with the Ghana Health Service to conduct training for
Health Staff in the implementation of the IE.
4. The GES shall collaborate with communities, parents and PTAs to monitor the
implementation of the IE
Parents
The PTAs/School Management Committees also have a role in ensuring that communities,
families and parents are involved in planning for early childhood education. Parents must be
24
encouraged and supported to be involved in meeting the needs of their children. Their
involvement shall include but not be limited to
the following:
1. Supplying vital information about the child’s health prior to referral for appropriate
intervention.
2. Participating in school-related decisions e.g. collaborating with teachers and
administrators to set realistic goals for their children.
3. Fulfilling their home-school obligations or expectations in order to meet the needs of
their children.
4. Forming associations inclusive of SMCs/PTAs for individuals with special needs.
5. Engage in advocacy for the rights of all children.
Regular education teachers
The roles of regular education teachers in the implementation of inclusive education was not
specifically specified in the inclusive education policy but the standard and guidelines for the
practice of inclusive education in Ghana. The standard and guidelines for the practice of
inclusive education requires both the private and public schools to provide quality learning
for all learners through four key areas thus; process, learner, personnel and resources. The
regular education teacher has key roles to play in all these areas to ensure that learners
receive quality education. For the purpose of this course, emphasis will be placed on the
process and the learner. According to the Ministry of Education (2015), The following are the
expected roles of the regular education teacher in the implementation of inclusive education:
Process
The process is focused on the teaching and learning activities, which includes the content and
the instruction. The following are some of the roles expected to be played by the regular
education teacher. Teachers are expected to:
1. Adapt the content of the national curriculum (teaching syllabi) to make them relevant
and functional to all learners.
2. Set appropriate objectives and achievable targets for all learners, ensure learners can
cope with the levels set for them; use appropriate pace for all learners, do not slow
down or hurry some learners through the curriculum (syllabus).
3. Use diverse strategies in teaching. For example, multi-sensory approaches,
demonstration, project, fieldtrips, direct-teaching, differentiated teaching, individual
teaching, peer teaching, small group teaching, role plays, scenarios. Teachers should
also do co-teaching.
4. Use different communication techniques (speech, sign language, braille light, ICT)
while teaching.
5. Provide appropriate and adapted games and recreational equipment such as bell balls,
show down, soft ball, among others.
6. Provide additional time for learners with SEN to complete learning activities/tasks
and assignment.
7. Provide learners with SEN opportunities to participate in all activities, both within
and without the schools.
Learners

25
 1. Teachers shall screen all learners for special educational needs. Families should be
invited to witness and learn about the process and importance of screening and early
intervention of special educational needs.
2. Teachers shall refer learners suspected of having special educational needs for further
assessment by District Inclusive Education Team (DIET) and later by the District
Assessment Team (DAT).
3. DIET shall organize case conferences and develop IEP for learners diagnosed with
special educational needs. Parents, guardians and custodians shall be involved in all
stages involving the screening and diagnosis of learners’ needs.
4. Teachers shall complete school registers indicating the diverse learning needs in their
classrooms.
Special Education Needs Co-ordinators (SENCOs)
SENCOs are special educators who co-ordinate the implementation of inclusive education
Their key mandate is to support the regular education teachers to handle children with SEN in
the inclusive setting and ensure that children with SEN receive quality education in the
inclusive setting (Okai, 2021). They are expected to be at the school level, district, regional
and national level. However, their expected roles are not explicit in the policy or the standard
and guidelines unlike head teachers’ and teachers’ that are clarified in the policy. A study
conducted by Okai (2021) found out that, SENCOs perform the following roles in the
implementation of inclusive education in Ghana:
1. Screening for identification for children with SEN
2. Collaborating with parents of children with SEN
3. Making examination accommodation
4. Ensuring a conducive school environment
5. Collaborating with internal and external agencies
6. Providing support for teachers
7. Engaging in educational placement
8. Engaging in administrative task such (keeping records on children with SEN), teaching
children withSEN
9. Monitoring and evaluating inclusive education in schools
10. Acquiring assistive technologies for the school
11. Collaborating with the school to educate the parents and the community about SEN
issues
12. Supporting teachers to handle children with SEN
13. Making referral
14. Preparing Individualised Education Plans
15. Making home visitations to monitor the progress of children with SEN
16. Counselling parents of children with SEN on how to handle their children
Challenges in the implementation of inclusive education in Ghana
According to Okai (2021) there are some barriers that hinder the effective implementation of
inclusive education in Ghana. They are:
1. Lack of SENCOs
2. Negative attitude and poor perception of educational leaders
3. Inadequate assessment tools and assessment centres

26
 4. Lack of assistive technologies
5. Negative attitude of parents
6. Inadequate preparation of parents towards IE
7. Poor collaboration among professionals
8. Inadequate professionals
9. Inadequate funds
10. Inaccessible physical environment
11. Negative attitude of teachers
12. Poor competence of teachers
13. Large class size
Apart from the Okai’s findings, the following researchers also mentioned some challenges to
the implementation of IE:
14. Negative attitude and prejudice mind (Adera & Asimeng-Boahene, 2011; Nketsia,
2016).
15. Limited pedagogical competence (Adusei, Sarfo, Manukre, & Cudjoe, 2016; Nketsia,
2016).
16. Shortage of qualified teachers (Chitiyo, Kumedzro, Hughes & Ahmed, 2019).
17. Lack of educational resources (Gyimah, Sugden, & Pearson, 2009).
18. Teacher’s inadequate skills in identification and assessment (Gyimah & Amoako,
2016).
Suggestions for effective implementation of IE in Ghana (Whole class discussion)

27
 UNIT 3
LEARNERS WITH INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES
DEFINITION
According to American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD)
(2007), Intellectual disability is a disability characterised by significant limitations both in
intellectual functioning and in adaptive behaviour as expressed in conceptual, social, and
practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before age 18. (AAMR Ad Hoc Committee
on Terminology and Classification, 2010, p. 1)

 American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) changed its name to the name
in existence till 2017.
 The change of name became necessary since people with sub-average intellectual
abilities have been the subject of ridicule and scorn; terms such as “idiot,” “imbecile,”
and “moron” were labels for those who, today, would be referred to as having severe,
moderate, or mild intellectual disability.
 Developmental disability connotes that the limitations interfere with normal
development of functions. In practice, most professionals simply use the shorter-term
intellectual disability.
 In many public schools, the term mentally retarded is still used (Polloway, Patton, &
Nelson, 2011).
The AAIDD definition underscores two important points:
i. Intellectual disability involves problems in adaptive behaviour, not just intellectual
functioning,
ii. Intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour of a person with intellectual
disabilities can be improved.
IDENTIFICATION
Determining whether a person is intellectually disabled or not addresses two major areas:
intelligence and adaptive behaviour.
Intelligence Tests
School psychologists use individually administered tests rather than group tests when
identifying students for special education because of the accuracy and predictive capabilities
of IQ tests. The two most widely used intelligence tests are the Wechsler Intelligence Scale
for Children (WISC-V) (Wechsler, 2014) and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (Roid,
2003a). The WISC-V consists of a Full-Scale IQ, as well as four composite scores: Verbal
Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed.
Although the major intelligence tests are among the most carefully constructed and
researched psychological assessment instruments available, they are far from perfect.
Educators should be aware of the following considerations (Overton, 2016; Salvia,
Ysseldyke, & Bolt, 2013; Venn, 2014):
• Intelligence is a hypothetical construct. No one has ever seen a thing called intelligence; we
infer it from observed performance. We assume it takes more intelligence to perform some
tasks at a given age than it does to perform others.

28
 • An IQ test measures only how a child performs at one point in time on the items included
on the test. An IQ test samples a small portion of an individual’s skills and abilities; we infer
from that performance how a child might perform on other tasks and in other situations.
• IQ scores can change significantly. IQ scores often increase over time, particularly in the
70 to 80 range, where diagnostic decisions are not so clear cut (Whitaker, 2008). Examiners
are hesitant to diagnose intellectual disability on the basis of an IQ score that might increase
after a period of intensive, systematic intervention.
• Intelligence testing is not an exact science. Among the many variables that affect a person’s
IQ score are motivation, the time and location of the test, inconsistency or bias by the test
administrator in scoring responses, which IQ test was selected, and which edition of that test
was used.
 Intelligence tests can be culturally biased. IQ tests tend to favour children from the
population on which they were normed. Some items may tap learning that a middle-
class child is more likely to have experienced. Both the Binet and Wechsler tests,
which are highly verbal, are especially inappropriate for children for who are English
language learners.
• An IQ score should never be used as the sole basis for making a diagnosis of intellectual
disability or a decision to provide or deny special education services. An IQ score is just one
component of a multifactored, non-discriminatory assessment.
• An IQ score should not be used to determine IEP objectives. A student’s performance on
criterion-referenced tests of curriculum-based knowledge and skills is a more appropriate and
useful source of information for IEP objectives.
Adaptive Behaviour
Sometime ago, individuals who are intellectually disabled were solely diagnosed on the basis
of an IQ score. Today, it is recognised that IQ tests alone cannot determine a person’s ability
to function. Furthermore, they are only one indication of a person’s ability to function.
Professionals therefore considered adaptive behaviour in addition to IQ tests in defining
intellectual disability. because they began to recognise that some students might score poorly
on IQ tests but still be “streetwise” (able to cope, for example, with their jobs and peers).
Adaptive behaviour is “the collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills that have been
learned by people in order to function in their everyday lives” (AAIDD, 2015a).
 Conceptual—using language for speaking, reading, writing; using number concepts
such as those involved in counting and telling time
 Social—getting along with others, being a responsible group member, solving social
problems, following rules and obeying laws, avoiding being victimized
 Practical skills—daily living activities such as dressing, toileting, and food
preparation; job skills; healthcare, traveling in the community, following schedules,
maintaining one’s health and safety, making purchases; and using the phone (adapted
from AAIDD, 2015a)
The adaptive skills exhibited by a person with intellectual disabilities are critical factors
in determining the supports required for success in school, work, community, and home
environments (Tassé et al., 2012).

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TYPES AND CLASSIFICATIONS
Significantly, persons with intellectual disability are classified based on severity and
educability. This is the traditional classification of Intellectual Disability determined by IQ
scores:
a. Those with mild intellectual disability (IQ of 50 to 70) are also known as educable.
b. Those with moderate intellectual disability (IQ of 35 to 50) are also referred to as
trainable.
c. Those with severe intellectual disability (IQ of 20 to 35) also can be called custodial
d. Those with profound intellectual disability (IQ below 20); also known as vegetables
Per the notion that intellectual disability is improvable, the developers of the current AAIDD
definition hold that how well a person with intellectual disabilities functions is directly
related to the amount of support he receives from the environment. The concept of support is
integral to the AAIDD’s conceptualisation of intellectual disabilities. Contemporarily,
clinicians and researchers apply the same four descriptors to designate levels of intellectual
disability but base their classification on a person’s adaptive behaviour rather than IQ score.
This new classification recognises the central role of adaptive behaviour in determining the
types and levels of supports a person needs, the inexactness of intelligence testing, and the
importance of clinical judgment in diagnosis and classification (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013; Schalock & Luckasson, 2014). Supports are defined as “resources and
strategies that aim to promote the development, education, interests, and personal well-being
of a person and that enhance individual functioning” (AAIDD Ad Hoc Committee, 2010, p.
18). Classifications under supports are;
1. Intermittent: Supports given on a needed basis, characterised by episodic (the person
does not always need the support) or short-term nature (supports are needed during
life-span transitions, e.g.; job loss or acute medical crisis). Intermittent supports may
be high or low intensity when provided.
2. Limited: Refers to an intensity of supports characterised by consistency over time,
time-limited but not an intermittent nature, may require fewer staff members and less
cost than more intense levels of support. In other words, support is provided for a
short time. E.g., time-limited employment training or transitional supports during the
school-to-adult period.
3. Extensive: Refers to regular support needed on daily basis in at least some
environment (e.g., school, work or home) and not time-limited in nature. e.g., long-
term support and long-term home living support.
4. Pervasive: Refers to support given across the environment; it is potentially life-
sustaining nature and involves more staff members. The support must be constant and
of high intensity.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS

People with intellectual disabilities generally have substantial shortfalls in adaptive behaviour
and are likely to experience deficits in attention (difficulty allocating their attention properly),
memory, language, self-regulation, motivation, and social development.
Though they have widespread memory difficulties, they often have particular problems with
working memory -the ability to keep information in mind while simultaneously doing

30
another cognitive task (Lanfranchi, Baddeley, Gathercole, & Vianello, 2012) and short-term
memory-the ability to recall and use information that was encountered just a few seconds to a
couple of hours earlier (Henry, 2008).Virtually all persons with intellectual disabilities have
limitations in language comprehension and production.
People who are intellectually disabled also have difficulties with metacognition.
Metacognition refers to a person’s awareness of what strategies are needed to perform a task,
the ability to plan how to use the strategies, and the evaluation of how well the strategies are
working. Students with intellectual disabilities do not tend to use such strategies
spontaneously so they are said to have problems with self-regulation. Self-regulation is a
broad term referring to the ability to regulate one’s own behaviour. Self-regulation is thus a
component of metacognition.
People with intellectual disabilities have a variety of social problems. A key to understanding
the behaviour of persons with intellectual disabilities is to appreciate their problems with
motivation (Switsky, 2006). They tend to look for external rather than internal sources of
motivation. They often lack awareness of how to respond in social situations (Snell et al.,
2009).

LEARNERS WITH SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL OR BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS

DEFINITION
Getting a widely accepted definition of emotional or behavioural disorders is lacking since no
clear agreement exists about what constitutes good behaviour. Disordered behaviour is a
social construct and all children behave inappropriately at times. In response to the problems
with the many proposed definitions of emotional or behavioural disorders (EBD), the Council
for Children with Behavioural Disorders (CCBD, 2000) drafted a new definition which was
later adopted by the National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition:
The term “emotional or behavioural disorder” means a disability that is characterized by
emotional or behavioural responses in school programmes so different from appropriate age,
cultural, or ethnic norms that the responses adversely affect educational performance,
including academic, social, vocational, or personal skills; more than a temporary, expected
response to stressful events in the environment; consistently exhibited in two different
settings, at least one of which is school-related; and unresponsive to direct intervention in
general.
Advantages of this definition, according to the CCBD (2000), are that it clarifies the
educational dimensions of the disability; focuses on the child’s behaviour in school settings;
places behaviour in the context of appropriate age, ethnic, and cultural norms; and increases
the possibility of early identification and intervention.

TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS

Externalising and internalising behaviours are the two broad characteristics exhibited
by persons with EBD. Externalising behaviour involves striking out against others.
Individuals with emotional or behavioural disorders do so with disturbing frequency, and
their antisocial behaviour often occurs with little or no apparent provocation. Aggression and
conduct disorders take many forms such as verbal abuse toward adults and other peers,
destructiveness, vandalism and physical attacks on others. These individuals seem to be in

31
continuous conflict with those around them (Heward, Alber-Morgan, & Konrad, 2017).
Conduct disorders,
Internalising behaviour involves mental or emotional conflicts, such as depression and
anxiety (Gresham & Kern, 2004). Immaturity and withdrawal are other characteristics of
internalising disorders. These two dimensions are not mutually exclusive; comorbidity (the
co-occurrence of two or more conditions in the same individual) is common. Few individuals
with an emotional or behavioural disorders however exhibit only one type of such
maladaptive behaviour. Students with internalising problems might be less obvious, but they
are not difficult to recognise. Either pattern of abnormal behaviour adversely effects
academic achievement (intelligence and achievement) and social relationships.
IDENTIFICATION
The following steps can help to identify students with emotional or behaviour disorders:
• Systematic screening should be conducted as early as possible to identify children who are
at risk for developing serious patterns of antisocial behaviour.
• Most screening instruments consist of behaviour rating scales or checklists that are
completed by teachers, parents, peers, or children themselves.
• Direct observation and measurement of specific problem behaviours within the classroom
can indicate whether and for which behaviours intervention is needed. Five measurable
dimensions of behaviour are rate, duration, latency, topography, and magnitude.
• Functional behaviour assessment (FBA) is a systematic process for gathering information to
discover a problem behaviour’s function, or purpose, for the student. Two major types of
behavioural functions of problem behaviours are (a) to get something the student wants
(positive reinforcement)
and (b) to avoid or escape something the student does not want (negative reinforcement).
• Results of FBA can point to the design of an appropriate and effective behaviour
intervention plan (BIP).
HEARING IMPAIRMENT
What is Hearing Impairment
Heward (2013) regards hearing impairment as a generic term which encompasses a
wide range of conditions from mild to profound or from slight hearing loss to profound
deafness.
Anatomy of the ear
Anatomy of the ear can be seen in Fig. 1. The outer ear is made up of the pinna (ear
lobe) and auditory canal. The middle ear consists of the eardrum, malleus, incus and stapes.
The inner ear is made up of the cochlea and auditory nerve.It is possible that one may have
hearing loss in only one ear. This is referred to asunilateral hearingloss. Where the two ears
are defective in hearing, the person is said to have bilateral hearing loss.

32
 Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear

Oval window

Semi-circular canals
Malleus
Utriculus
Sacculus
Ear canal Auditory nerve

sound waves
Perilymph

Ear lobe Endolymph

Cochlea
Incus Stapes Round window
Ear drum
Sustachian tube
Air filled space
Anatomy of the Ear

Process of Hearing
1. For hearing to be possible the earlobe (pinna) must trap sound waves.
2. The sound is transmitted into the middle ear through the auditory canal.
3. The tympanic membrane (ear drum) vibrates the sound.
4. In the middle ear, sound energy is concentrated and the three small bonesmalleus, incus,
and stapes provide amplification.
5. The sound waves are converted into electrical impulses in the cochlea.
6. Finally, the sound electrical impulses are transmitted to the brain for interpretation
through auditory nerves. The part of the Brain responsible for hearing is the left temporal
lobe.
If any part of the structures is damaged it can cause a hearing loss.

Types of Hearing Impairment

There are various types of hearing impairment. They are most often defined on the basis of:
1. Degree of loss
2. Type of loss/Site of lesion.
3. Age of onset
1. Degree of loss
Degree of hearing loss refers to the severity of the loss. The numbers are representative of the
patient's thresholds, or the softest intensity at which sound is perceived. Hearing sensitivity is
indicated by the quietest sound that can be detected, called thehearing threshold. For the
degree of hearing loss to be detected it must be measured by the audiologist. Sound is
measured in units.Loudness of sound is measured in decibels (dB) while the frequency
(Pitch) of sound is measured in Hertz (Hz). The lower the dB the smaller the sound and the
larger the dB the louder the sound.
Level of Hearing Loss
-10-25dB NORMAL
26-40 dB MILD
41-55 dB MODERATE

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56-70 dB MODERATELY SEVERE
71-90 dB SEVERE
91dB or more PROFOUND
Classification
i. Hard of hearing (26dB-70dB): Individuals with mild to moderately severe losses are
referred to as hard of hearing. Their hearing loss makes understanding of speech through the
ear alone difficult unless with aid. They benefit from use of residual hearing, hearing aid and
lip/speech reading.
ii. Deaf (71dB-90dB or more):Those with severe-profound losses are deaf. A person who
is deaf is unable to use hearing aid to understand speech. He/she communicates using sign
language.
2. Type of loss/Site of lesion
The type of loss is concerned with the site of lesion of loss. Hearing impairment are
categorised as:
1. Conductive hearing loss
2. Sensorineural hearing loss
3. Mixed hearing loss.
4. Central hearing loss
Conductive hearing loss is due to blockage or damage in the outer and middle ear that
prevents sound waves from travelling (being conducted) to the inner ear. This could result
from too much wax and in children the presence of foreign materials such as clay, sand eraser
or seed. Also, it can result from the fact that some part of the middle or outer ear has not
formed properly.
Sensorineural hearing loss results from damage to the cochlea and auditory nerves in the
inner ear.
Mixed hearing loss involves a combination of any two or all of the conductive, sensorineural
and central hearing loss.
Central hearing loss results from damage of the hearing centres in the brain and as such one
cannot hear. It is caused by damage to the nerves of the central nervous system.
3. Age of onset
The age of onset deals with time when the loss occurred. Under age of onset the following
types can be identifies
 Congenital loss: This one is present at birth/it occurs from birth. It can include
hereditary hearing loss or hearing loss due to other factors present either in prenatal or
at the time of birth.
 Adventitious/acquired loss: The adventitious hearing loss is a hearing loss which
appears after birth, at any time in one's life, perhaps as a result of a disease, a
condition, or an injury.
i. Pre-linguistic loss: This is when the loss takes place before speech is acquired.
ii. Post-lingual loss: post-lingual loss occurs after the acquisition of speech
Characteristics and Identification
Individuals with hearing impairment exhibit several characteristics for identification. Among
them include the following.
 Thrusting the head forward to listen
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 Constantly dragging the feet when walking
 Turns better ear to the source of sound
 Poor voice modulation
 Inability to carry out simply verbal instructions
 Constantly bangs doors
 Easily irritated
 Inability to articulate some speech sounds
 Always calling for repetition from the speaker
Adaptation and Teaching Strategies
Communication
 face the child during all oral communications
 do not exaggerate your mouth movement
 speak clearly and naturally
 demonstrate concepts practically
 use gestures, body language and facial expressions to emphasize ideas
Seating
 Allow the child to choose sitting place to take advantage of the visual and auditory cues
 There should be facial contact in the classroom
 The seating position should be comfortable to the child
Environmental needs
 Make sure the classroom is serene
 Control environmental noise in the school
 Avoid excessive noise in the classroom

LEARNERS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT

DEFINITION
Visual impairment is a condition of reduced or total loss of visual functioning that cannot be
remedied by any conceivable means, According to Hallahan, Kauffman and Pullen (2009),
visual impairment is vision loss (of a person) to such a degree as to qualify as an additional
support need through a significant limitation of visual capability resulting from either disease,
trauma, or congenital or degenerative conditions that cannot be corrected by conventional
means, such as refractive correction, medication, or surgery. Two common ways of
describing someone with visual impairment are based on legal and the educational
definitions:
Legal Definition
The legal definition involves assessment of visual acuity and field of vision.
Visual acuity
This is the ability of the eye to clearly distinguish forms or discriminate among details.
Individuals are considered legally blind when their visual acuity measures 20/200 or less in
the better eye with the use of a corrective lens (Social Security Administration, 2015). It is
most often measured by reading letters, numbers, or other symbols from the Snellen Eye
Chart. An individual whose visual acuity in the better eye after correction falls between 20/70
and 20/200 is considered partially sighted or Low vision for legal or statutory purposes

35
Field of vision
This is the angular area the eye can see when an individual looks straight. A person whose
field of vision is restricted to an area no greater than 20 degrees is considered legally blind.
Educational definition
Educators focus on functional use of sight for academic work and classify learners with
visual impairments based on the extent to which they use vision, tactile and auditory senses
for learning (Heward, Alber-Morgan & Konrad, 2017).
 A student who is totally blind receives no useful information through the sense of
vision and uses tactile and auditory senses for all learning.
 A student who is functionally blind has so little vision that she learns primarily
through the tactile and auditory senses; however, she may be able to use her limited
vision to supplement the information received from the other senses and to assist with
certain tasks (e.g., moving about the classroom).
 A student with low vision uses vision as a primary means of learning but supplements
visual information with tactile and auditory input.

BASIC ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE

Basically, effective vision requires proper functioning of three anatomical systems of the eye:
i. The optical system, ii. the muscular system, iii. the nervous system.
 The eye’s optical system collects and focuses light energy reflected from objects in
the visual field (cornea, iris, lens,)
 The eye’s muscular system enables ocular motility (the eye’s ability to move). Six
muscles attached to the outside of each eye enable it to search, track, converge, and
fixate on images.
 The eye’s nervous system converts light energy into electrical impulses and
transmits that information to the brain, where it is processed into visual images,

Basic anatomy of the human eye indicating how seeing takes place

The process of seeing

 As light passes through the cornea of the eye, several structures bend, or refract the
light to produce a clear image.
 The pupil which is in the centre of the iris contracts or expands to regulate the amount
of light entering the eye.

36
  The light passes through the lens, which suspends in the aqueous and the vitreous
humours and focuses on the innermost layer of the eye, the retina
 For a clear image to be seen, the light rays must come to a precise focus on the retina.
 Eye muscles fuse the separate images from each eye into a single, three-dimensional
image (depth perception or binocular vision)
 Optic nerves carry the electrical messages from the retina directly to the visual cortex
at the base of the brain.

IDENTIFICATION
The use of Snellen Eye Chart
This is a programmed chat that is commonly used to measure people’s visual acuity thereby
identifying those with visual impairments. People are normally tested at the 20-foot distance.
If they can distinguish the letters in the 20-foot row, they are said to have 20/20 central visual
acuity for far distances. If they can distinguish only the much larger letters in the 70-foot row,
they are said to have 20/70 central visual acuity for far distances. The familiar phrase “20/20
vision” does not, as mostly considered, indicate perfect vision; it simply means that at a
distance of 20 feet, the eye can see what a normally seeing eye sees at that distance. As the
bottom number increases, visual acuity decreases.
Functional vision assessment
This involves observing the student interacting in different environments under different
lighting conditions to see how well the student can identify objects and perform various tasks
using the sense of sight (Zimmerman, 2011). Three other signs that can aid teachers in
identifying whether a student has visual impairment of not are:
i. Appearance of the eye
ii. Actions of the student
iii. Complains that the students usually make concerning his ability to see.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS

Cognition and Language Development
Though getting cues out of abstract concepts and expressions can be particularly difficult for
children who cannot see, there is no evidence that these restrict their potential since they rely
on auditory modality for learning. Though there is no evidence-based information to believe
that blindness results in lower intelligence, the condition precludes most incidental learning
that sighted individuals spontaneously acquire. In the view of Ferrell and Spungin, (2011)
these challenges magnify the importance of repeated and direct contact with concepts through
nonvisual senses (Ferrell & Spungin, 2011).

37
Motto Development
Blindness or severe visual impairment often leads to delays or deficits in motor development.
According to Houwen, Visscher, Limmink, and Hartman (2009).Vision plays four important
functions in the acquisition of motor skills they are:
(a) motivation (b)
(b) spatial awareness (c)
(c) protection
(d) feedback
The absence of sight or clear vision, however, reduces the child’s motivation to move. The
blind lack the spatial awareness and feedback functions of vision that enables a sighted child
to observe and imitate the movements of others.
Orientation and Mobility
Orientation skills refer to the ability to have a sense of where one is, in relation to other
people, objects, and landmarks and mobility refers to moving through the environment.
Orientation and Mobility (O&M) skills depend to a great extent on spatial ability and
obstacle sense.
Spatial information is processed through sequential route or cognitive mapping (the general
relation of various points in the environment). Cognitive mapping offers more flexibility in
navigating. Obstacle sense is the ability of the blind to sense object in their path when
walking.
Social Adjustment
Social interaction among the sighted is characterised by visual and subtle cues. Two notable
factors influence the social adjustment for the visually impaired are:
i. Difficulty emulating the sighted society in using the subtle visual interactive cues.
ii. Unwillingness of sighted society in interacting with them.
Blindism among the visually impaired sometimes affect their socialisation and learning
process. These are stereotypic behaviours such as: body rocking, poking or rubbing the eyes,
repetitive hand or finger movements, and grimacing which can sometimes be self-injurious.

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
What is Communication?
Speech and language are interrelated skills, tools that are used to communicate.
Communication refers to exchange of information, ideas, thoughts, and feelings (Hunt &
Marshall, 2002). There are three things in communication: the sender, the message and the
receiver. Communication can be verbal e.g. speaking or non-verbal e.g. use of body language
such as facial expression or gestures or writing (Kirk, Gallagher & Anastasiow, 2000).
Communication is the means by which living organisms send and receive information.
Heward (1996) defines the related term this way: Communication is the exchange of
information and ideas. Communication involves encoding, transmitting and decoding
messages. It is an interactive process involving at least two parties to play the roles of both
sender and receiver. Language is a system used by a group of people for giving meaning to
sounds, words, gestures and other symbols to enable communication with one another.

38
Speech is the actual behaviour of producing a language code by making appropriate vocal
sounds. Although it is not the only possible vehicle for expressing language (gestures, manual
signing, pictures, and written symbols can also be used to convey ideas and intentions),
speech is a most effective and efficient method. Speech is also one of the most complex and
difficult human endeavours.
Definition of Communication Disorder
Because language development and use are such complicated topics, determining what is
normal and what is disordered communication is also difficult. According to Emerick and
Haynes (1986), a communication difference is considered a disability when
 The transmission or perception of message is faulty.
 The person is placed at an economic disadvantage
 The person is placed at a learning disadvantage
 The person is placed at a social disadvantage
 There is a negative impact upon the person’s emotional growth
 The problem causes physical damage or endangers the health of the person
Kirk, Gallagher and Anastasiow (2000) state that communication disorder is a disorder in
both speech and language
Types of Communication Disorders
There are two major types of communication disorders. These are speech disorders
and language disorders.
What is speech?
Speech deals with production of words. It is the way sounds of oral language is
formed and sequenced. Kirk, Gallagher and Anastasiow (2000 p. 307) define speech as ‘the
systematic oral production of the words of a given language’.
Speech Disorders
Speech is abnormal when it deviates so far from the speech of other people that it
calls attention to itself, interferes with communication or causes the speaker or his/her
listeners to be distressed.
Shea and Bauer (1997) defined speech disorders as impairments in the production of oral or
spoken language.
Speech disorders fall into three categories namely:
 Phonological/articulation disorder: Phonology is the sound system of language. The
phonology of language tells us how sounds fit together in words. Phonological disorderis
defined as the abnormal production of speech sounds. Although some articulation errors
are normal and acceptable at young ages, when students are older these same errors may
be viewed as unacceptable and problematic.Children who have phonological disorders
have not learned the rules for how sounds fit together to make words, and use certain
processes to simplify words. The most common types of articulation errors are:
substitutions, distortions, omissions and additions.
1. Substitution: Replace one sound with another sound. Children sometimes
substitute one sound for another, as in saying “train” for “crane” or “doze” for
“those, “cheacher” for teacher, “wed” for “red” etc.

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 2. Omission: A sound is omitted in a word. Children may omit certain sounds, as in
saying “cool” for “school”, “Ofi” for “Kofi”. They may drop consonants from the
ends of words, as in “pos” for “post.”
3. Distortions: A sound is produced in an unfamiliar manner. The /s/ sound, for
example, is relatively difficult to produce; children may produce the word “shop”
as“shoup”, “sleep” as “schleep,” “zleep,” or “thleep.
4. Addition: An extra sound is inserted within a word as in bəlack for black.

Fluency disorder: Fluency disorder is defined as the abnormal flow of verbal expression
characterized by impaired rate and rhythm, which may be accompanied by struggle behaviour
such as distortion of the lips, mouth facial grimaces, eye blinks and extraneous body
movement that interrupt the flow of speech. Thus bring the table becomes b-b-b bri-bri-ng the
t-t-t-t-t-t-able. For example, stammering or stuttering. Two types of fluency disorders are:
i. Stuttering - this is a condition characterised by rapid-fire repetitions (e.g., W-W-W-
When will you go’) of consonants or vowel sounds, especially at the beginning of words,
prolongations (e.g.,‘Sssh is a girl’), hesitations, interjections (‘can we um, um, go next
week’) and complete verbal blocks (Ramig & Polland, 2011). Stuttering is more common
among males than females and occurs more frequently among twins (Heward, 2013).
Heward further reports that stuttering may be situational and that it may be related to
setting or circumstances of speech. Stutterers are usually aware of their problem.
ii. Cluttering - this is characterised by ‘excessive speech rate, repetitions, extra sounds,
mispronounced sounds, and or absent use of pauses’ (Heward, 2013). It is often very
difficult to decipher what a clutter is saying, for example,’ did you eat’ may be uttered as
‘jeet’ (Yairi & Seery). a clutterer may unaware to their problem

Voice disorder: Voice is the sound produced by the larynx. A voice disorder is characterized
by “the abnormal production and/or absences of vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance,
and/or duration, which is inappropriate for an individual’s age and/or sex” (ASHA, 1993). A
voice is considered normal when its pitch, loudness, and quality are adequate for
communication and it suits a particular person. Sometimes a person’s voice may be described
as dysphonia. This refers to a condition in which a person’s voice is poor or has an unpleasant
voice quality.There are two basic types of voice disorders and it involves phonation and
resonance.
 Phonation disorder - deals with the clarity of the voice and causes the voice to sound
breathy, horse, husky, or stained most of the time and at times the person may have no
voice at all.
 Resonance disorder - deals with the quality of the voice. A voice with this disorder is
characterised with too many sounds coming out through the air passage (hypernasality).
Such a speaker may be said to be talking through the nose or having an unpleasant
accent. Or the person may not enough resonance of the nasal passage (hyponasality).
This condition can also be called denasality and a person with this condition may sound
as if he/she has a perpetual cold or stuffed nose.

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What is language?
Language is a code whereby ideas about the world are expressed through a
conventional system of arbitrary signals for communication. Language is regarded as an
organised system of symbols used to express and receive meaning. Language can therefore be
said to be the manner in which ideas are expressed using a system of symbols.
Language Disorder (Aphasia)
A language disorderis the impairment or deviant development of comprehension and/or use
of spoken, written and/or other symbol systems. Language disorders are usually classified as
either receptive or expressive.
Receptive language disorders interfere with the understanding of language (Wernicke’s
Aphasia) A child may, for example, be unable to comprehend spoken sentences or follow a
sequence of directions.
Expressive language disorder interferes with the production of language(Broca’s Aphasia).
The child may have a very limited vocabulary, may use incorrect words and phrases, or may
not even speak at all, communicating only through gestures.
A child may have good receptive language when an expressive disorder is present or may
have both expressive and receptive disorders in combination. Writing and speaking are forms
of expressive language; reading and listening are examples of receptive.

Components of Language
Form of Language: Form describes the rule system used in oral language. Three different
rule systems are included when discussing form: phonology, morphology and syntax.
 Phonology: Concerned with the sound system of a language and the rules that govern
the sound combinations. For instance, tone (rising and falling of voice at word levels),
length or duration of the sounds. The sound elements in the English language are
called phonemes. Only the initial phoneme prevents the words, pear and bear, from
being identical
 Morphology: It is concerned with the rule system governing the structure of words
and the construction of word forms from the basic elements of meaning. An example
of how morphemes (unit of meaning) can change a basic word into similar words with
many different meanings: The word friend is composed of one free morpheme that
has meaning. One or more bound morphemes may be added, making friendly,
unfriendly, friendless, friendliness and friendship. There are rules for combining
morphemes into words that must be followed (disfriend, for example, has no
meaning, hence not to be used.)
 Syntax: Concerned with the system/rules governing the order and combination of
words to form sentence and the relationship among elements within the sentence.
Syntax rule determine where words are placed in a sentence. For example, the same
words used in different combination may be meaningless. “The boy hit the ball”
becomes meaningless in “the hit the boy ball”.
Content of language. This refers to the intent and meaning of language and its rule system.
Semantics is considered when discussing content.

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 Semantics: It is concerned with the system governing the meanings of words and
sentences. Different arrangements can mean very different things: “The boy hit the
ball” is not the same as “the ball hit the boy”.
 The inability to produce correct phonology, morphology and syntax will definitely
result into semantic problems in that the content will be lost.
Function of language: When language is used in various social context, another set rules,
pragmatics is followed
 Pragmatics: It is the combination of language components (phonology, morphology,
syntax and semantics) in functional and socially appropriatecommunication.
Pragmatics talks about how language is used. The purpose and setting of
communication as well as the people one is communicating with determine the
language to use. Some vital words are not used freely in society as such calls for
idiomatic expressions. It is also expected that, when children speak to adults, it is
helpful if they use polite, respectful language; when they speak to their friends; they
will most likely use less formal spoken language, demonstrate more relaxed body
language and take turns while talking (Owens, 1984).
Characteristics/identification of Individuals with Communication Disorders
Characteristics of communication disorders are sub-divided into physical, social/emotional
and academically. Through observation of the various characteristics the child can easily be
identified. Identification can easily be made through assessment of competencies at various
levels of language or speech production. This assessment may yield meaningful information
on a particular communication disorder affecting the child.
 Does not respond when spoken to.
 Looks carefully at speaker’s mouth when listening.
 Lacks attention in class.
 Lacks social skills and is withdrawn from peers.
 Tends to “react,” rather than discuss, thus is seen as behavioural problem.
 Does not contribute to class discussions and does not respond to questions.
 Shows some characteristics of speech problems such as unusual voice quality, lack of
fluency, and articulation problems.
 Answer questions inappropriately.
 Developed language later than his peers.
 Performs better on visual task than on verbal task.
 Have immature speech patterns and grammatical errors.
 Has difficulty following oral instructions.
 Exhibits problems with word finding and formulating sentences.

PHYSICAL AND HEALTH IMPAIRMENT

Meaning of Physical impairment
Physical disorders are confined to fine and gross motor disabilities. If there are no defects in
any part of the body, it should be possible for a person to perform gross and fine motor skills.
A physical disorder according to Kirk, Gallagher and Anastasiow (2000) is a condition that

42
interferes with a child’s ability to use his/her body. The disorder could be the result of
amputation. There is no physical disorder if artificial devices are worn by the person and
he/she is able to perform activities.
Classification of Physical Disorders
Though many types exist, they can be put under two major conditions. These are
neurological and musculoskeletal conditions (Kirk, Gallagher & Anastasiow, 2000).
 Neurological disorders are conditions caused by damage to the central nervous system
(the brain and the spinal cord and network of nerves). The resulting neurological impairment
limits muscular control and movement. The neurological conditions include cerebral palsy,
epilepsy, spinal cord injury and spina bifida.
1.Cerebral palsy refers to a disorder of movement caused by damage (usually because of
insufficient oxygen getting to the brain) to the motor control centres of the brain. Cerebral
palsy is divided into several categories; according to muscle tone and quality of motor
involvement (Heward & Olansky, 1996). Affected children may also be described as
having mixed cerebral palsy, consisting of more than one type, particularly if their
impairments are severe. Children with cerebral palsy may experience different types of
movement disorders involving muscle tone which may be too stiff or loose resulting in
involuntary movement. The condition may also affects muscle tone, interferes with
voluntary movement and control of muscles, and delays gross and fine motor development
(Kirk, Gallagher & Anastasiow, 2000). Cerebral palsy therefore affects muscles control
which can cause problems in movement in both arms and may be legs.
2.Epilepsy also calledseizure disorders or convulsive disorders is a condition where the
individual has recurrent seizures resulting from sudden, excessive, spontaneous, and
abnormal discharge of neurons in the brain. Seizures can be accompanied by changes in the
person's motor or sensory functioning and can also result in loss of consciousness.
Generally, two types of seizures (epilepsy) are found frequently in school age children.
They are Grand mal and Petit mal.
Grand mal: The characteristics exhibited in grand mal include the following. The seizure
is preceded by an aura where upon the victim falls on the ground heavily due to the
position of the muscles. All the muscles get into a position of rigid spasm (Avoke, 1997).
Also, there is the tonic stage which last for only about 60 seconds leading to the tonic
stage. The victim usually experiences movement of trunk, jaws and tongue. It is also at
this stage that saliva begins to come out of the victim’s mouth in the form of foam (Hunt
& Marshall, 2003). Other characteristics include biting of tongue and teeth. This stage
only last briefly and the victim subsequently falls into coma.
Petit mal: In Petit mal, seizures often disappear as the child grows older. However, one-
third to one-half of children are likely to have or eventually develop grand mal seizures
(Hunt & Marshall, 2002). Also, the seizures are very brief, and usually last between 15
and 30 seconds. The episodes are sometimes difficult to recognise. The child loses
consciousness but there is always no accompany physical changes. In other words, the
child may appear to be just blinking his/her eyes, staring into space for a few seconds.
3. Spinal cord injury (SCI): A traumatic disorder resulting in a functional deficit that
usually leads to severe and permanent paralysis. After the initial slur to the spinal cord,
additional structure and function are lost through an active and complex secondary

43
 process. Since there is not effective treatment for SCI, several strategies including
cellular, pharmacological and rehabilitation therapies have been approached in animal
models.
4. Spina bifida is a defect in the backbone. This is as a result of the failure of the spine to
close during the first month of pregnancy. Children suffering from spina bifida are
characterised with spines that did not properly close during development, these cause the
spinal cord to protrude from the weak point. These result in disconnection of nerves that
connect to the brain. The defect usually results in limited or no muscle control of the
affected area (Hunt & Marshall, 2002). It is also characterised by waddling styles of
walking that includes standing on the toes, falling, difficulty in standing and climbing
stairs. Children suffering from spina bifida may have combination of associated
problems. Most of them have difficulty controlling the urinary tract and bowel system
because they are at the end of the affected spinal cord. Quite apart, they end up having
problems controlling body waste and have malformations of urinary tract systems at birth
(Okyere & Adams, 2003).

 Musculoskeletal disorders are impairments that affect the muscles, bones and joints.
Individuals with these conditions usually have trouble controlling their movements, but the
cause is not neurological. These conditions include muscular dystrophy, arthritis, cleft lip and
cleft palate, polio and clubfoot.
Muscular Dystrophy affects movement. It is a muscle disease, which is characterised
by progression muscle weakness.
Arthritis is a group of disorders that involve the joint. System includes swollen joints
and stiff joints fever and pain in the joints.
Clubfoot is an ankle or foot deformity: twisting inward.
Cleft lip and cleft palate are openings in the lip or and roof of the mouth,
respectively.
Health Impairment
Children with health impairment have conditions that are related to medication. These
conditions may require ongoing medical attention (Kirk, Gallagher & Anastasiow, 2000).
Some of the conditions are chronic while others are intermittent or temporal. Chronic ones
seriously affect academic or school performance and social acceptance. The reason for this is
that the illness does not allow the child to stay longer in schools. His/her absence from school
does not allow him/her to form relation with the peers. Individuals with Disability Education
Act describes a person with health disorders as individuals with limited strength, vitality, or
alertness, due to chronic or acute health problems such as heart condition, tuberculosis,
rheumatic fever, sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, epilepsy, lead poisoning, leukaemia, or
diabetes which adversely affect educational performance.
Types of Health Impairment
Health impairments are of several types. They include metabolic disorders and
cardiopulmonary conditions.
Metabolic disorders are problems encountered in metabolism that is the breakdown of food
substance in the body. An example of metabolic disorder is diabetes. Early symptoms include
weight loss, headaches and thirst.

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Cardiopulmonary conditions are diseases found in the heart, lung and blood. Asthma is a
lung disease usually characterised by difficulty in breathing. Cystic fibrosis is another disease
said to be genetic. Children with this disease experience difficulty breathing.
Characteristics of Individual with Physical Disorder
The characteristic is dependent on the part of the body, which has a defect.
 Individuals with cerebral palsy experience problems in voluntary movement and
delays in gross and fine motor development.
 Epilepsy causes person to lose control of the muscles temporally. During major crisis
the person experiences sudden jerking motions.
 Children with musculoskeletal conditions generally have physical limitations. They
may encounter difficulties holding pencil to write.
Other possible signs or characteristics of Physical Disability and Health Impairment
 Limited vitality and energy.
 Many school absences.
 Need for physical accommodations to participate in school activities.
 Physical presence but mental absence.
 Poor motor coordination
 Frequent falls.
 Speech difficult to understand.
 Using a stick to walk
 Difficulty in sitting, standing walking.
 Joint pains
 Jerks in walking.
 Deformity in neck, hand, finger, waist, legs.

AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS

As a spectrum of disorders four categories of disorders can be identified. They are:
 Autism is a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal
communication and social interaction, generally evident before age 3, that adversely
educational performance. (American Psychiatric Association, 2006; Bowler&
McConkey, 2006)
Autism can also be defined as a complex developmental disability that typically appears
during the first three years of life and is the result of a neurological disorder that affects the
normal functioning of the brain, impacting development in the areas of social interaction and
communication skills. Autism is one of the Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD), a
category of neurological disorders characterised by “severe and pervasive impairment in
several areas of development." Autism is four times more prevalent in boys than girls and
knows no racial, ethnic, or social boundaries. Family income, lifestyle, and educational levels
do not affect the chance of autism's occurrence.

Both individuals and adults with autism typically show difficulties in verbal and non-verbal
communication, social interactions, and leisure or play activities. The disorder makes it hard

45
for them to communicate with others and relate to the outside world. In some cases,
aggressive and/or self-injurious behaviour may be present. Persons with autism may exhibit
repeated body movements (hand flapping, rocking), unusual responses to people or
attachments to objects and resistance to changes in routines. Individuals may also experience
sensitivities in the five senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste.
Its prevalence rate makes autism one of the most common developmental disabilities. Yet
most of the public, including many professionals in the medical, educational, and vocational
fields, are still unaware of how autism affects people and how they can effectively work with
individuals who are autistic. Compared with other conditions autism is relatively rare.
 Asperger’s syndrome - this is at the mild end of the spectrum of disorders. It
describes people who have significant challenges in social functioning but do not have
significant delays in language development or intellectual functioning (Bade-White,
Obrzut & Randall, 2009). Heward (2013) report that people with this disorder may
display deficits in nonverbal behaviour related to social interaction for example, facial
expression eye gazing, gestures, body posture, and judging personal space. They are
however reported to have average or above average intelligence. According to
Fombonne, (2009) the ratio of individuals with autism to those with Asperger’s
syndrome is about 3/4:1.
 Childhood disintegrative disorder - this share behavioural characteristics with
autism but the condition does not begin till after age 2 and sometimes not until the
child has reached age 10. Medical complications are very common with this group.
 Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified - Pervasive
Developmental Disorder (PDD - NOS) also called "Atypical Autism." Individuals
with this disorder have many of the same characteristics of Autism, but not all the
criteria associated with Autism. Such individuals may have significant impairment in
socialisation with difficulties in either communication or restrictive interests.
IDENTIFICATION
The diagnosis of autism is often made by a psychiatrist who focuses on communication skills,
social interactions, and repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behaviour. Parents and/or
teachers can fill out behaviour checklists. Two instruments, both of which are standardised,
are together generally considered the “gold standard” for diagnosing autism: The Autism
Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) and the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised.
Meant to be used together, the ADOS involves observing the child in several semi-structured
play activities and the ADI-R is used to interview caregivers about the child’s functioning in
language/communication, reciprocal social interaction, and restricted, repetitive, and
stereotyped behaviours.
Most children with autism can be diagnosed by the age of 3 years and sometimes earlier.
Asperger syndrome can sometimes take longer to diagnose because the symptoms do not
appear as severe. Evidence shows that parents often start to notice the differences in their
child with autism well before formal diagnosis, which is usually after the age of 3.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS
Impaired Social Interaction
Many of the social interaction problems that individuals with autism exhibit involve deficits
in social responsiveness. Autistic babies or toddlers don’t respond normally to being picked
up or cuddled. They do not show a differential response to parents, siblings, or their teachers
and even strangers. They might not smile in social situations, or they might smile or laugh
when nothing appears funny. Their eye gaze often differs significantly from that of others;
they sometimes avoid eye contact with others or look out of the corners of their eyes. They
might show little or no interest in other people but be preoccupied with objects. They might
not learn to play normally. These characteristics persist and prevent the child from
developing attachments to their parents or friendships with their peers.
Impaired Communication
Most children with autism lack communicative intent, or the desire to communicate for social
purposes. As many as 50% are thought to be mute; they use no, or almost no, language.
Those who develop speech typically show abnormalities in intonation, rate, volume, and
content of their oral language. Their speech sounds “robotic,” or they might exhibit echolalia,
parroting what they hear. They might reverse pronouns (e.g., confuse you and I or refer to
themselves as he or she rather than I or me). Using language as a tool for social interaction is
particularly difficult.
Repetitive and Stereotyped Patterns of Behaviour
Many people with autism display stereotyped motor or verbal behaviours: repetitive,
ritualistic motor behaviours such as twirling, spinning objects, flapping the hands, and
rocking. Another characteristic frequently seen in autism and related disorders is extreme
fascination or preoccupation with objects and a very restricted range of interests. Children
with autism might play ritualistically with an object for hours at a time or show excessive
interest in objects of a particular type. They can become upset by any change in the
environment or any change in routine; some individuals with autism seem intent on the
preservation of sameness and have extreme difficulty with change or transition (Hallahan,
Kauffman, Pullen, 2014).
Impaired Cognition
Children with autism are thought to display difficulty in coding and categorisation of
information, relying on literal translations, and they seem to remember things by their
location in space rather than concept comprehension (Schuler, 1995).
Despite their cognitive deficits, some individuals with autism have such extraordinary skills.
These individuals are referred to as autistic savants. They show remarkable ability or
apparent talent in particular splinter skills—skills that exist in apparent isolation from the
rest of the person’s abilities. An autistic savant might have extraordinary capabilities in
playing music, drawing, or calculating.
Abnormal Sensory Perceptions
Some people with autism are either hyperresponsive or hyporesponsive to particular stimuli
in their environment (Ben-Sasson et al., 2009). For example, some experience
hypersensitivity to visual stimuli, such as being overly sensitive to fluorescent lights, and
others can be overly sensitive to touch. Interestingly, some people with autism are totally the
opposite of hyperresponsive. They are very unresponsive to auditory, visual, or tactile

47
stimuli. Some have a combination of hypersensitivity and hyposensitivity, for instance, being
oblivious to loud noises such as a fire alarm but overreacting to someone whistling at a great
distance.
Some people with autism experience a neurological mixing of the senses, or synaesthesia.
Synaesthesia occurs when the stimulation of one sensory or cognitive system results in the
stimulation of another sensory or cognitive system.

LEARNERS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

Definition
The number of students identified as having learning disabilities has grown in the last few
years. This is because many of the individuals formerly identified as mild or moderate
intellectually disabled have been put in this category. Because this category is fraught with
definitional and identification problems, it is very important that educators be very careful in
labeling a student learning disabled. Not all individuals with learning problems have learning
disabilities but all individuals with learning disabilities have learning problems. The term
learning disability was coined by one Samuel Kirk in 1963 as a compromise because of the
confusing variety of labels that were being used to describe the individual with relatively
normal intelligence who was having learning problems. The most widely accepted definition
is one produced by the National Joint Committee of Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) in the
USA. It states that:
Learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of
disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of
listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities.
These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to
central nervous system dysfunction and may appear across the life span.
Problems in self-regulatory behaviours, social perception, and social
interaction may exist with learning disabilities but do not in themselves
constitute a learning disability.
Although learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other
handicapping conditions (for example, sensory impairment, mental
retardation, serious emotional disturbance,) or with extrinsic influences
(such as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction)
they are not the result of those conditions or influences (1991, p.1).

The NJCLD (2011) reiterated that ‘learning disabilities (LD) represents a valid, unique, and
heterogeneous group of disorders [that] are neurobiologically based, involve cognitive
processes, and affect learning’ (p.1).
A second definition with a slightly different view is the one accepted by the Canadian
Association for Individuals with Learning Disabilities (CACLD) in 1984.
Specific learning disabilities are a chronic condition of presumed neurological origin which
selectively interferes with the development, integration, and/or demonstration of verbal
and/or non-verbal abilities. Specific learning disabilities exist as a distinct handicapping
condition in the presence of average to superior intelligence, adequate sensory and motor

48
systems, and adequate learning opportunities. The condition varies in its manifestations and
in degree of severity. Throughout life the condition can affect self-esteem, education,
vocation, socialization, and/or daily living activities.

The common elements of all definitions of learning disabilities are that:

1. It is an intrinsic or neurological dysfunction. (That is, learning disabilities are due to
factors within the individual, not to external factors such as education or environment.
Biological and neurological causes, of course, are very difficult to diagnose.)
2. It is a heterogeneous group of disorders. (Individuals with learning disabilities exhibit a
wide variety of problems.)
3. There is a discrepancy between performance and potential. The student will have difficulty
in one or several academic subjects in spite of appearing to be average in intelligence. How
potential is measured or whether it can be measured is controversial because no clear
definition of intelligence has been determined. It is easier to measure performance.
4. There are developmental imbalances (Intra-individual differences): The student may
function very well in some areas of development, but not in others. She/he may be very good
verbally but be unable to spell. That is, the student may seem very bright in some academic
pursuits, but very poor in others.
5. There is usually an exclusion clause which accepts that individuals with learning
disabilities can have other disabilities but excludes that the other disabilities are the primary
cause of the students' difficulties.

IDENTIFICATION
There are the two ways of identifying learning disabilities. They are:
Achievement ability discrepancy (this is the traditional approach) and Response to
intervention (RTI).
Achievement–Ability Discrepancy
The key element in these regulations was that to be identified as learning disabled, the student
needed to exhibit a “severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability.” In
other words, a child who was achieving well below his potential would be identified as
learning disabled.
Response to Intervention or Response to Treatment
RTI involves three tiers of progressively more intensive instruction, with monitoring of
progress in each of the tiers. Tier 1 involves instruction (which is supposed to be evidence
based) that typically occurs in the general education classroom by the general education
teacher. Those students who do not respond favourably move to Tier 2, in which they receive
small-group instruction several times a week. Those not responding favourably to the small-
group instruction are referred for evaluation for special education (Tier 3).
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS
People with learning disabilities exhibit a great deal of both inter-individual and intra-
individual variation.
Inter-individual Variation
In any group of students with learning disabilities, some will have problems in reading, some
will have problems in math, some will have problems in spelling, some will be inattentive,

49
and so on. One term for such inter-individual variation is heterogeneity. This heterogeneity
makes it a challenge for teachers to plan educational programmes for the diverse group of
children they find in their classrooms.
Intra-individual Variation
Children with learning disabilities tend to exhibit variability within their own profiles of
abilities. For example, a child in class 2 can read class three textbook but unable to do class 1
mathematics. Such uneven profiles account for references to specific learning disabilities.

Common Characteristics of Persons with Learning Disabilities

Below are some of the most common characteristics of persons with learning disabilities.
Academic Achievement Problems
Academic deficits are the hallmark of learning disabilities. In reality, if an academic problem
does not exist, a learning disability does not exist.
Reading (Dyslexia)
Reading poses the most difficulty for most students with learning disabilities. Students with
reading disabilities are likely to experience problems with three aspects of reading: decoding,
fluency, and comprehension (Hallahan et al., 2005). Decoding is the ability to convert print
to spoken language and is largely dependent on phonological awareness and phonemic
awareness. Phonological awareness is the understanding that speech consists of small units
of sound, such as words, syllables, and phonemes (Pullen, 2002; Troia, 2004). Phonemic
awareness is particularly important (Blachman, 2001; Boada & Pennington, 2006).
Students who have difficulty decoding invariably have problems with fluency. Reading
fluency refers to the ability to read without effort and smoothly. Reading rate and the ability
to read with appropriate expression are components of reading fluency.
Problems with reading fluency are a major reason why students have difficulties with reading
comprehension (Good, Simmons, & Kame’enui, 2001). Reading comprehension refers to
the ability to gain meaning from what one has read. In other words, reading too slowly or in a
halting manner interferes with the ability to comprehend text.
Writing and Written Language
People with learning disabilities mostly have problems in one or more of the following areas:
handwriting(Dysgraphia), spelling, and composition (Hallahan et al., 2005). These children
are sometimes very slow writers, and their written products are sometimes illegible. Spelling
can be a significant problem because of the difficulty in understanding the correspondence
between sounds and letters. Students with learning disabilities frequently have difficulties in
the more creative aspects of composition (Graham & Harris, 2011). Students with learning
disabilities use less complex sentence structures;
Spoken Language (Aphasia)
Many students with learning disabilities have problems with the mechanical and social uses
of language. Mechanically, they have trouble with syntax (grammar), semantics (word
meanings) and phonology.
The social uses of language are commonly referred to as pragmatics. Students with learning
disabilities are not very good conversationalists. They cannot engage in the mutual give-and-
take that conversations between individuals require. For instance, conversations of
individuals with learning disabilities are frequently marked by long silences because they do

50
not use the relatively subtle strategies that their non-disabled peers do to keep conversations
going. They are not skilled at responding to others’ statements or questions and tend to
answer their own questions before their companions have a chance to respond. They tend to
make task-irrelevant comments and make those with whom they talk uncomfortable.
Math (Dyscalculia)
Mathematics disabilities may be just as prevalent as reading disabilities (Kunsch, Jitendra, &
Sood, 2007). The types of problems these students have include difficulties with computation
of math facts as well as word problems (Fuchs et al., 2011); trouble with maths is often due to
the inefficient application of problem-solving strategies.
Perceptual, Perceptual-Motor, and General Coordination Problems
Studies indicate that some children with learning disabilities exhibit visual and/or auditory
perceptual disabilities (see Hallahan, 1975, and Willows, 1998). A child with visual
perceptual problems might have trouble solving puzzles or seeing and remembering visual
shapes; for example, she might have a tendency to reverse letters (e.g., mistake a /b/ for a /d/).
A child with auditory perceptual problems might have difficulty discriminating between two
words that sound nearly alike (e.g., fit and fib) or following orally presented directions.
Teachers and parents have also noted that some students with learning disabilities have
difficulty with physical activities involving motor skills. The problems may involve both fine
motor and gross motor skills. Fine motor skills often involve coordination of the visual and
motor systems.

LEARNERS WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER

Attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) is a chronic neurological condition. This brain
condition makes it difficult for children to control their behaviour in school and social
settings (Learner & Johns, 2012). American Psychiatric Association (2000, p.85) report that
‘the essential feature of attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder is a persistent pattern of
inattention and/ or hyperactivity – impulsivity that is more frequent and severe than is
typically observed in individuals at a comparable level of development’.
Two terms are normally used to refer to the condition they are: ADHD and ADD. The latter
is an acronym for Attention Deficit Disorder. Learner and Johns (2012) points out that both
terms refer to the same disorder. However, it must be noted that the former term is the most
used in the literature and by professionals such as physicians and psychologists.
According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manuel of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) (2013) the
conditions below must persist before a person can be diagnosed as ADHD.
1. Severity – the symptoms must be more frequent and severe
than are typical of other at similar developmental levels.
2. On set- the symptoms must be present prior to age 12
3. Duration- six or more symptoms of inattention and/ or
hyperactivity- impulsivity must have persisted for at least six
months. In the case of people aged 17 however only five
symptoms are necessary for diagnosis.
4. Setting: the symptoms are present in two or more settings and
must show evidence that they interfere with or reduce the
quality of, social, school or work functioning.

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 5. Exclusion: the symptoms do not happen only during the course
of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder. Nor are the
symptoms best better explained by another mental disorder.
IDENTIFICATION
Authorities stress the importance of using several sources of information before arriving at a
conclusion that an individual has ADHD. Most authorities agree that there are four important
components to assessing whether a student has ADHD: a medical examination, a clinical
interview, teacher and parent rating scales, and behavioural observations. The medical
examination is necessary to rule out medical conditions, such as brain tumours, thyroid
problems, or seizure disorders, as the cause of the inattention and/or hyperactivity (Barkley &
Edwards, 2006).
The clinical interview of the parent(s) and the child provides information about the child’s
physical and psychological characteristics, as well as family dynamics and interaction with
peers. Although the interview is essential to the diagnosis of ADHD, clinicians need to
recognise the subjective nature of the interview situation. Some children with ADHD can
look “normal” in their behaviour when in the structured and novel setting of a doctor’s office.

In an attempt to bring some quantification to the identification process, researchers have

developed rating scales to be filled out by teachers, parents, and, in some cases, the child.
Some of the most reliable and popular are the Conners-3 (Conners, 2007) and the ADHD
Rating Scale-IV (DuPaul, Power, Anastopoulos, & Reid, 1998). Raters are asked how often
(never or rarely, sometimes, often, very often) the individual does not pay attention to details,
is easily distracted, interrupts others, fidgets, and so forth. Whenever possible, the clinician
should observe the student. This can be done in the classroom; clinicians who specialise in
diagnosing and treating children with ADHD sometimes have specially designed observation
rooms in which they can observe the child performing tasks that require sustained attention.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS

ADHD according to DSM IV is characterised by:
 Inattention - this refers to the child’s inability to concentrate or focus on a given task.
The symptoms of inattention are:
 Fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in
schoolwork or other activities.
 Has difficulty sustaining attention in task or play activities.
 Does not follow through with instruction and fails to finish schoolwork,
chores or duties in the work place (not due to oppositional behaviour or
inability to understand instruction).
 Has difficulty organising tasks and activities
 Avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental
effort.
 Loses things necessary for tasks or activities.
 Is easily distracted by external stimuli.
 Is forgetful in daily activities.

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 Hyperactivity – this refers to a behaviour ‘that is described as constant, driving motor
activity in which a child races from one endeavour or interest to another’ (Heward,
2013). The symptoms of hyperactivity are:
 Fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat.
 Leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining in seat is
expected.
 Runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate.
 Has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activity quietly.
 Is often ‘on the go’ or acts as if ‘driven by a motor’.
 Talks excessively.
Impulsiveness – This is the tendency to respond quickly without thinking through the
consequences of an action. The symptoms of impulsiveness are:
 Blunts out answers before questions have been completed.
 Has difficulty awaiting turn.
 Interrupts or intrudes on others.

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 UNIT FOUR
CAUSES OF DISABILITIES

LEARNERS WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY

A common way of categorising causes of disabilities is according to the time when they
occur: prenatal (before birth), perinatal (at the time of birth), and postnatal (after birth).
Prenatal Causes
We can group prenatal causes into (1) chromosomal disorders, (2) inborn errors of
metabolism, (3) developmental disorders affecting brain formation, and (4) environmental
influences.
Chromosomal Disorders
The nucleus of each human cell contains 46 chromosomes which are thread like structures
that come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair coming from each parent. In this manner each
parent contributes 50 percent of the offspring’s genes. When the gametes are formed, the 46
chromosomes do not always divide evenly. Instead of a person having 23 pairs or 46 single
chromosomes the person ends up having more or less number of chromosomes resulting in
chromosomal abnormalities. Some of these abnormalities include Down syndrome,
Klinefelter syndrome, Turner syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, Williams syndrome, Angelman
syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome and Tay-Sachs disease.
Down Syndrome
Down syndrome is not inherited and it involves an anomaly at the 21st pair of chromosomes.
Down syndrome is also referred to as trisomy 21 because the 21st set of chromosomes is
rather triplet. Down syndrome is the most common form of intellectual disability that is
present at birth (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Kim, 2006). A person born with this syndrome, has
a round face, flattened skull, an extra fold over the eyelids, protruding tongue which may
cause articulation problems, short limbs and retardation of motor and mental abilities, short
and broad hands with a single palmar crease, heart defects, and susceptibility to upper
respiratory infections (Taylor, Richards, & Brady, 2005).
The likelihood of having a child with Down syndrome increases with the age of the mother
and father (Beirne Smith et al., 2006). Methods are available for screening for Down
syndrome and some other birth defects. These methods include the following:
 Maternal serum screening (MSS): A blood sample is taken from the mother and
screened for the presence of certain elements that indicate the possibility of spina
bifida (a condition in which the spinal column fails to close properly) or Down
syndrome. If the results are positive, the physician can recommend a more accurate
test, such as amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling.
 Amniocentesis: The physician takes a sample of amniotic fluid from the sac around
the foetus and analyses the foetal cells for chromosomal abnormalities. In addition,
the amniotic fluid can be tested for the presence of proteins that may have leaked out
of the foetus’s spinal column, indicating the presence of spina bifida.
 Chorionic villus sampling (CVS): The physician takes a sample of villi (structures
that later become the placenta) and tests them for chromosomal abnormalities. One
advantage of CVS is that it can be done earlier than amniocentesis.
 Nuchal translucency sonogram: Fluid from behind the foetus’s neck is analysed; this

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 can also be done earlier than amniocentesis. A greater than normal amount of fluid
indicates the possibility of Down syndrome.

Fragile X Syndrome
It is the most commonly known hereditary cause of intellectual disabilities. It is associated
with the X chromosome in the 23rd pair of chromosomes. Fragile X occurs less often in
females because they have an extra X chromosome, giving them better protection if one of
their X chromosomes is affected. People with Fragile X syndrome may have a number of
physical features, such as a large head; large, flat ears; a long, narrow face; a prominent
forehead; a broad nose; a prominent, square chin; large testicles; and large hands with no
tapering fingers. Although this condition usually results in moderate intellectual disabilities,
the effects are highly variable; some people have less severe cognitive deficiencies and some,
especially females, score in the normal range of intelligence (Dykens, Hodapp, & Finucane,
2000).
Prader-Willi Syndrome
Most people with Prader-Willi syndrome have inherited a chromosomal abnormality from
their father, with a minority having inherited the condition from their mother (Percy, Lewkis,
& Brown, 2007). Prader-Willi syndrome has two distinct phases. Infants are lethargic and
have difficulty eating but after one year of age they become obsessed with food. Prader-Willi
is the leading genetic cause of obesity. Although a vulnerability to obesity is usually their
most serious medical problem. People with Prader-Willi are also at risk of other health
problems, including short stature due to growth hormone deficiencies; heart defects; sleep
disturbances, such as excessive daytime drowsiness and sleep apnea (cessation of breathing
while sleeping); and scoliosis (curvature of the spine). People affected by this syndrome have
mild intellectual disability (Taylor et al., 2005).
Williams Syndrome
Williams syndrome is caused by the absence of material on the seventh pair of chromosomes.
People with Williams syndrome have intellectual disabilities in the mild to moderate range
(Mervis & Becerra, 2007). In addition, they often have heart defects, an unusual sensitivity to
sounds, and elfin facial features.
Klinefelter Syndrome
Klinefelter syndrome is a condition that occurs in men who have an extra X chromosome in
most of their cells. As babies, many XXY males have weak muscles and reduced strength.
They may sit up, crawl, and walk later than other infants. After about age four, XXY males
tend to be taller and may have less muscles control and coordination than other boys of their
age.
The syndrome can affect different stages of physical, language and social development. The
most common symptom is infertility. Since they often do not make as much of the male
hormone testosterone as other boys, teenagers with Klinefelter's syndrome may have less
facial and body hair and may be less muscular than other boys. As teens, XXY males may
have larger breasts, weaker bones, and a lower energy level. They may have trouble using
language to express themselves. They may be shy and have trouble fitting in. About 95 to 99
percent of XXY males are infertile because their bodies do not make enough sperm.

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With early treatment, most boys grow up to have normal sex lives, successful careers and
normal social relationships. Treatments include educational services; physical, speech and
occupational therapy; and medical treatments including testosterone replacement
Turner Syndrome
This is a disorder in females which results in either an X Chromosome becoming missing
making the person XO instead of XX or the second X chromosome is partially deleted
(Bramswig, 2001; Frigs & Davenpart, 2003). Girls with this syndrome are usually short in
stature and have webbed neck and do not develop secondary sex characteristics such as breast
during puberty. They are usually infertile due to non-development of female hormones. They
have difficulty in mathematics but their verbal ability is often smoothed (Santrack, 2004).
Angelman syndrome
Most people with Angelman syndrome have deletions on chromosome 15 in maternally
related regions. The disorder is characterised by physical, motoric and behavioural features.
Physical features include a wide mouth, prominent lower jaw. Motor problems are related to
diverse jerky, sometimes rhythmic movement. Some children experience particular
difficulties with inadequate control of chewing and swallowing which creates feeding
problems. Most children with Angelman Syndrome have severe to profound levels of
intellectual disability. Spoken language is absent in 75 – 80% of children with Angelman
Syndrome.
Inborn Errors of Metabolism
Inborn errors of metabolism result from inherited deficiencies in enzymes used to metabolize
basic substances in the body, such as amino acids, carbohydrates and vitamins (Plus, 2007).
One of the most common of these is phenylketonuria (PKU). PKU involves the inability of
the body to convert a common dietary substance phenylalanine to tyrosine; the consequent
accumulation of phenylalanine results in abnormal brain development. Babies are routinely
screened for PKU before they leave the hospital. Babies with PKU are put on a special diet.
Milk, eggs, and the artificial sweetener aspartame are restricted because they contain
significant amounts of phenylalanine. Those who stop the diet are at risk for developing
learning disabilities or other behavioural problems, and women with PKU who go off the diet
are at very high risk of giving birth to children with PKU.
Another condition isDiabetes. Diabetes refers to a situation where there is the continuous
presence of increased glycogen in the body and disturbances of the metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats and protein as a result of poor insulin secretion (Okyere & Adams, 2003).
It is the leading cause of blindness in individuals between 20 – 74 years. Other problems
associated with this disease include nerve damage in the legs and at times in the internal
organs. Individuals with this problem are prone to psychological problems such as
depression. During the adolescent period they have problems adjusting to life transitions.
Maternal diabetes can also cause spina bifida (Liptak, 2007) and also LD as it can lead to
neurological damage.
Developmental Disorders of Brain Formation
A number of conditions can affect the structural development of the brain and cause
intellectual disabilities. Some of these are hereditary and accompany genetic syndromes, and
some are caused by other conditions such as infections. Two examples of structural
development affecting the brain are microcephalus and hydrocephalus. In microcephalus, the

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head is abnormally small and conical in shape. The intellectual disability that results usually
ranges from severe to profound. No specific treatment is available for microcephaly, and life
expectancy is short (National Institute of Neurological Disorders & Stroke, 2008).
Hydrocephalus results from an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid inside or outside the
brain. The blockage of the circulation of the fluid results in a build-up of excessive pressure
on the brain and enlargement of the skull. The degree of intellectual disability depends on
how early the condition is diagnosed and treated. Two types of treatment are available:
surgical placement of a shunt (tube) that drains the excess fluid away from the brain to
abdomen or the insertion of a device that causes the fluid to bypass the obstructed area of the
brain.
Environmental Influences
A variety of environmental factors can affect a woman who is pregnant and thereby affect the
development of the foetus she is carrying. One example is maternal malnutrition. If the
mother-to-be does not maintain a healthy diet, foetal brain development might be
compromised. The harmful effects of a variety of substances, from obvious toxic agents, such
as cocaine and heroin, to more subtle potential poisons, such as tobacco and alcohol is noted.
In particular, foetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) include a range of disorders in
children born to women who have consumed excessive amounts of alcohol while pregnant.
One of the most severe of those disorders is foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Children with
FAS are characterised by a variety of abnormal facial features and growth retardation, as well
as intellectual disabilities. Other hazards to the foetus are radiation and X-ray. For example,
physicians are cautious not to expose pregnant women to X-rays unless absolutely necessary,
and the public has become concerned over the potential dangers of radiation from improperly
designed or supervised nuclear power plants. Infections in the mother-to-be can also affect
the developing foetus and result in intellectual disabilities. Rubella (German measles), in
addition to being a potential cause of blindness, can also result in intellectual disabilities.
Rubella is most dangerous during the first trimester (3 months) of pregnancy.
Perinatal Causes
A variety of problems occurring while giving birth can result in brain injury and intellectual
disabilities. For example, if the child is not positioned properly in the uterus, brain injury can
result during delivery. One problem that sometimes occurs because of difficulty during
delivery is anoxia (complete deprivation of oxygen). Low birthweight (LBW) can result in a
variety of behavioural and medical problems, including intellectual disabilities. Because most
babies with LBW are premature, the two terms—LBW and premature—are often used
synonymously. LBW is usually defined as 5.5 pounds or lower, and it is associated with: poor
nutrition, teenage pregnancy, drug abuse, and excessive cigarette smoking. LBW is more
common in mothers living in poverty. Infections such as syphilis and herpes simplex can be
passed from mother to child during childbirth. These venereal diseases can potentially result
in intellectual disabilities.

Postnatal Causes
Postnatal causes of intellectual disabilities can be under: biological postnatal causes and those
psychosocial postnatal causes.

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Biological postnatal causes
They include infections, malnutrition, and toxins. Meningitis and encephalitis are two
examples of infections that can cause intellectual disabilities. Meningitis is an infection of the
covering of the brain that may be caused by a variety of bacterial or viral agents.
Encephalitis, an inflammation of the brain, results more often in intellectual disabilities and
usually affects intelligence more severely. One of the toxins, or poisons, that’s been linked to
intellectual disabilities is lead. Although lead in paint is now prohibited, infants still become
poisoned by eating lead-based paint chips, particularly in impoverished areas. The effect of
lead poisoning on children varies; high lead levels can result in death.
Psychosocial postnatal causes
Children who are brought up in poor environmental circumstances are at risk for intellectual
disabilities. It should be obvious that extreme cases of abuse, neglect, or under stimulation
can result in intellectual disabilities. However, most authorities believe that less severe
environmental factors, such as inadequate exposure to stimulating adult-child interactions,
poor teaching, and lack of reading materials, also can result in mild intellectual disability.
LEARNERS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
Genetic Factors
The two common types of studies use to examine the genetic basis of learning disabilities are
familiarity studies and heritability studies. Familiarity studies examine the degree to which a
certain condition, such as a learning disability, occurs in a single family (i.e., the tendency for
it to “run in a family”). Researchers have found that about 35% to 45% of first-degree
relatives (the immediate birth family: parents and siblings) of individuals with reading
disabilities have reading disabilities (Schulte-Korne et al., 2006), and the risk for having
reading disabilities goes up for children who have both parents with reading disabilities (W.
H. Raskind, 2001). The same degree of familiarity has also been found in families of people
with speech and language disorders (Schulte-Korne et al., 2006) and spelling disabilities
(Schulte-Korne, Deimel, Muller, Gutenbrunner, & Remschmidt, 1996; Schulte-Korne et al.,
2006).
The tendency for learning disabilities to run in families may also be due to environmental
factors. For example, it’s possible that parents with learning disabilities will pass on their
disabilities to their children through their child-rearing practices.
A more convincing method of determining whether learning disabilities are inherited is
heritability studies that compare the prevalence of learning disabilities in identical
(monozygotic, from the same egg) versus fraternal (dizygotic, from two eggs) twins.
Researchers have found that identical twins are more concordant than are fraternal twins for
reading disabilities, speech and language disorders, and math disabilities (DeFries, Gillis, &
Wadsworth, 1993; DeThorne et al., 2006; Lewis & Thompson, 1992; Reynolds et al., 1996;
Shalev, 2004). In other words, if an identical twin and a fraternal twin each has a learning
disability, the second identical twin is more likely to have a learning disability than the
second fraternal twin.
Toxins
Toxins are agents that can cause malformations or defects in the developing foetus. foetal
alcohol syndrome (FAS), foetal alcohol spectrum disorders, and lead can cause learning

58
disabilities. Authorities have also speculated that some people may be exposed to levels of
these substances that are not high enough to result in intellectual disabilities/mental
retardation but are high enough to cause learning disabilities.
Medical Factors
Several medical conditions can cause learning disabilities. For example, premature birth
places children at risk for neurological dysfunction and learning disabilities, and paediatric
AIDS can result in neurological damage resulting in learning disabilities.

LEARNERS WITH SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL OR BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS

There are four major causes of emotional or behavioural disorders:
1. Biological disorders and diseases
2. Pathological family relationships
3. Undesirable experiences at school
4. Negative cultural influences
Biological Factors
Behaviours and emotions may be influenced by genetic, neurological, or biochemical factors,
or by combinations of these. Certainly, a relationship exists between body and behaviour, and
it would therefore seem reasonable to look for a biological causal factor of some kind for
certain emotional or behavioural disorders (Cooper, 2005; Forness & Kavale, 2001). For
example, prenatal exposure to alcohol can contribute to many types of disability, including
emotional or behavioural disorders. But only rarely is it possible to demonstrate a relationship
between a specific biological factor and an emotional or behavioural disorder.
For most children with emotional or behavioural disorders, no real evidence shows that
biological factors alone are at the root of their problems. For those with severe and profound
disorders, however, evidence often suggests that biological factors contribute to their
conditions. Moreover, increasing evidence shows that medications are helpful in addressing
the problems of many or most students with emotional or behavioural disorders if they
receive state-of-the-art psychopharmacology (Konopasek & Forness, 2004).
All children are born with a biologically determined behavioural style, or temperament.
Although children’s inborn temperaments may be changed by the way they are reared.
Emotional and behavioural disorders are, in essence, social phenomena, whether they have
biological causes or not. The causes of emotional and behavioural disorders are seldom
exclusively biological or psychological. Once a biological disorder occurs, it nearly always
creates psychosocial problems that then also contribute to the emotional or behavioural
disorder.
Family Factors
Very good parents sometimes have children with very serious emotional or behavioural
disorders, and incompetent, neglectful, or abusive parents sometimes have children with no
significant emotional or behavioural disorders. The relationship between parenting and
emotional or behavioural disorders is not simple, but some parenting practices are definitely
better than others. Educators must be aware that most parents of youngsters with emotional or
behavioural disorders want their children to behave more appropriately and will do anything

59
they can to help them. These parents need support—not blame or criticism—for dealing with
very difficult family circumstances.
School Factors
Some children already have emotional or behavioural disorders when they begin school;
others develop such disorders during their school years, perhaps in part because of damaging
experiences in the classroom. Children who exhibit disorders when they enter school may
become better or worse according to how they are managed in the classroom. School
experiences are no doubt of great importance to children. A child’s temperament and social
competence can interact with the behaviours of classmates and teachers in contributing to
emotional or behavioural problems.
A very real danger is that children who exhibit problem behaviour will become trapped in a
spiral of negative interactions, in which they become increasingly irritating to and irritated by
teachers and peers. Teachers must eliminate whatever contributions they might be making to
their students’ misconduct (Kauffman, Pullen, Mostert, & Trent, 2011).
Cultural Factors
Many environmental conditions affect adults’ expectations of children and children’s
expectations of themselves and their peers. Adults communicate values and behavioural
standards to children through a variety of cultural conditions, demands, prohibitions, and
models. Several specific cultural influences come to mind: the level of violence in the media
(especially television and motion pictures), the use of terror as a means of coercion, the
availability of recreational drugs and the level of drug abuse, changing standards for sexual
conduct, religious demands and restrictions on behaviour, and the threat of nuclear accidents,
terrorism, or war. Peers are another important source of cultural influence, particularly after
the child enters the upper elementary grades.

AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS

Neurological Basis of Autism Spectrum Disorders
A neurological basis for autism spectrum disorders is suggested by the fact that people with
autism have a high incidence of brain seizures and cognitive deficits. Post-mortem studies
and neurological imaging studies; e.g., positron emission tomography scans, computerised
axial tomographic scans, and magnetic resonance imaging) have implicated a number of
areas of the brain. In fact, because so many areas are affected, many authorities now think
that autism is better conceived as a disorder of neural networks rather than as being due to an
abnormality in one specific part of the brain. In addition, research suggests that the brain cells
of individuals with autism exhibit deficient connectivity that disrupts the cells’ ability to
communicate with each other.
Theories vary, but some believe that the abnormal brain growth may be linked to elevated
levels of growth hormones (Mills et al., 2007). Interestingly, another hormone-based theory
of autism has drawn considerable attention among scientists as well as the popular media.
Some researchers have claimed that those who, before birth, have high levels of androgen (a
hormone that is responsible for controlling the development of male characteristics) in their
mothers’ amniotic fluid are more likely to exhibit autistic traits as children. Based on these
findings, some have come to refer to persons with autism as having an extreme male brain
(EMB).

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Genetic Basis of Autism Spectrum Disorders
Scientific evidence for autism having a hereditary component is very strong (Sutcliffe, 2008).
Studies have shown that when a child is diagnosed with autism, the chances are 15% that his
younger sibling will be also be diagnosed with autism. This percentage is 25 to 75 times
higher than in the population as a whole (Sutcliffe, 2008). When a monozygotic (identical,
one egg) twin has autism, the chances are much greater that the other twin will also have
autism than is the case with dizygotic (fraternal, two eggs) twins. Furthermore, even if they
are not diagnosed as autistic, family members of those with autism are more likely to exhibit
autistic-like characteristics at a subclinical level, such as a lack of close friends, a
preoccupation with narrow interests, and a preference for routines (Stone, McMahon, Yoder,
& Walden, 2007; Volkmar & Pauls, 2003).
In addition to a direct hereditary cause of autism spectrum disorders, evidence now shows
that sporadic genetic mutations are involved in some cases. Researchers have found that tiny
gene mutations—spontaneous deletions and/or duplications of genetic material— that can
result in autism are sometimes passed down to children from one or both parents (Autism
Genome Project Consortium, 2007; Sebat et al., 2007).

LEARNERS WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT

Hearing impairment with respect to the type (conductive, sensorineural, and mixed) as well
as the location of the hearing impairment (outer, middle, or inner ear).
Hearing Impairment and the Outer Ear
Problems of the outer ear are not as serious as those of the middle or inner ear, several
conditions of the outer ear can cause a person to be hard of hearing. In some children, for
example, the external auditory canal does not form, resulting in a condition known as atresia.
Children may also develop external otitis, or “swimmer’s ear,” an infection of the skin of
the external auditory canal. Tumours of the external auditory canal are another source of
hearing impairment.
Hearing Impairment and the Middle Ear
Abnormalities of the middle ear are generally more serious than problems of the outer ear.
They occur because the mechanical action of the ossicles is interfered with in some way.
Unlike inner-ear problems, most middle-ear hearing impairments are correctable with
medical or surgical treatment. The most common problem of the middle ear is otitis media—
an infection of the middle-ear space caused by viral or bacterial factors. It is linked to
abnormal functioning of the eustachian tubes. If the eustachian tube malfunctions because of
a respiratory viral infection, for example, it cannot do its job of ventilating, draining, and
protecting the middle ear from infection. Otitis media can result in temporary conductive
hearing impairment, and even these temporary losses can make the child vulnerable for
having language delays.
Hearing Impairment and the Inner Ear
A person with inner-ear hearing impairment can have additional problems, such as sound
distortion, balance problems, and roaring or ringing in the ears. Causes of inner-ear disorders
can be hereditary or acquired. Genetic or hereditary factors are a leading cause of deafness in
children. Scientists have identified mutation in the connexin-26 gene as the most common

61
cause of congenital deafness. Acquired hearing impairments of the inner ear include those
due to bacterial infections (e.g., meningitis, the second most frequent cause of childhood
deafness), prematurity, viral infections (e.g., mumps and measles), anoxia (deprivation of
oxygen) at birth, prenatal infections of the mother (e.g., maternal rubella, congenital syphilis,
and cytomegalovirus), Rh incompatibility (which can now usually be prevented with proper
prenatal care of the mother), blows to the head, side effects of some antibiotics, and excessive
noise levels. In addition, repeated exposure to environmental factors such as loud music,
gunshots, or machinery can result in gradual or sudden hearing impairment.

LEARNERS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT

Causes Affecting Children and Adults
The most common visual problems among children and adults are the result of errors of
refraction. Myopia (near sightedness), hyperopia (far sightedness), and astigmatism (blurred
vision) are examples of refraction errors that affect central visual acuity. Although each can
be serious enough to cause significant impairment (myopia and hyperopia are the most
common impairments of low vision), wearing glasses or contact lenses usually can bring
vision within normal limits.
Myopia results when the eyeball is too long. In this case, the light rays focus in front of,
rather than on, the retina. Myopia affects vision for distant objects, but close vision may be
unaffected. When the eyeball is too short, hyperopia (farsightedness) results. Here, the light
rays focus behind, rather than on, the retina. Hyperopia affects vision for close objects, but
far vision may be unaffected. If the cornea or lens of the eye is irregular, the person is said to
have astigmatism. Here, the light rays from an object is blurred or distorted.
Among the most serious impairments are those caused by glaucoma, cataracts, and diabetes.
These conditions occur primarily in adults, but each, particularly the latter two, can occur in
children.
Glaucoma is actually a group of eye diseases that causes damage to the optic nerve. It is
referred to as the “sneak thief of sight” because it often occurs with no symptoms. Glaucoma
can be detected through an eye exam and occurs more frequently in older people. Cataracts
are caused by a clouding of the lens of the eye, which results in blurred vision. In children,
the condition is called congenital cataracts, distance and colour vision are seriously affected.
Diabetes can cause diabetic retinopathy, a condition that results from interference with the
blood supply to the retina.
Causes Primarily Affecting Children
The three common causes of blindness in children are cortical visual impairment, retinopathy
of prematurity, and optic nerve hypoplasia (Zimmerman, 2011). Cortical visual impairment
(CVI). CVI results from widespread damage to parts of the brain responsible for vision. The
damage or dysfunction can be the result of a variety of causes, such as a head injury or
infection. Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) results in abnormal growth of blood vessels
in the eye, which then causes the retina to detach. Optic nerve hypoplasia (ONH) involves
underdevelopment of the optic nerve. The underdevelopment is often associated with brain
abnormalities, such that the child is also at risk for problems such as speech and cognitive
disabilities. The exact cause or causes of ONH are still unknown.

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Retinitis pigmentosa is a hereditary condition that results in degeneration of the retina. It can
start in infancy, early childhood, or the teenage years. Retinitis pigmentosa usually causes the
field of vision to narrow (tunnel vision) and also affects one’s ability to see in low light (night
blindness). Included in the “prenatal” category are infectious diseases that affect the unborn
child, such as syphilis and rubella.
Strabismus and nystagmus are caused by improper muscle functioning. Strabismus is a
condition in which one or both eyes are directed inward (crossed eyes) or outward. Left
untreated, strabismus can result in permanent blindness because the brain will eventually
reject signals from a deviating eye. Most cases of strabismus can be corrected with eye
exercises or surgery. Nystagmus is a condition in which rapid involuntary movements of the
eyes occur, usually resulting in dizziness and nausea. Nystagmus is sometimes a sign of brain
malfunctioning and/or inner-ear problems.

LEARNERS WITH COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Causes of speech impairments
A cleft palate: Cleft palate is a condition in which the two plates of the of the skull that form
the hard palate (roof of the mouth) are not completely joined. This can cause speech
impairment.
Loss or absence of teeth: The teeth play a major role in speech sound production. Some
letter requires the lips and/or tongue to make contact with teeth for proper pronunciation of
the sounds. Lack of teeth will obviously affect the way certain speech sounds are pronounced
(Hallahan &Kauffman, 2000).
Enlarged adenoids: The adenoid is a mass of tissues that is located at the mysterious (far
end) meeting point between your nasal passage way and your throats, which you cannot see
by opening your mouth. If the adenoid is enlarged, it can increase the likelihood that a child’s
voice will have a nasal quality (speaking from nose), or sound like he or she is plugging
(blocking) the nose while speaking (Hallahan &Kauffman, 2000). This can make a child’s
voice sound hoarse (rough) or muffled (less clear) and affect the resonance. This can in turn
lead to academic problems, especially in children who are learning to read.
Malocclusion: A malocclusion is a misalignment or incorrect relation between the teeth of
the two dental arches when they approach each other as the jaws close. Malocclusion is a
problem in the way the upper and lower teeth fit together in chewing or biting. In other
words, malocclusion may also be referred to as an irregular bite, or cross bite, or overbite.
Malocclusion may be seen as crooked, crowded, or protruding teeth. It may affect a person’s
appearance, speech, and/or ability to eat.
Causes of language disorders
Factors that can contribute to language disorders in children include:

 Cognitive limitations (intellectual disability) (as a result of brain damage)

 Hearing impairment
 Behavioural disorder

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  Structural abnormalities of the speech mechanism (proper coordination of
articulation, syllable-formation, and correct breathing)
 Environmental deprivation (some children live in environment that are not conducive
for learning language, some parents use baby talk in communicating with their young
children (Hardman, Drew, & Egan, 1999).
 Lack of stimulation (a child who has little stimulation at home and few chances to
speak, listen, explore and interact with others will probably have little motivation for
communication).
 Serious brain damage (brain damage can lead to aphasia). Aphasia is the loss of the
ability to process and use language. Children with mild aphasia may have difficulty
retrieving certain words and may take more time to communicate (Heward, 2003).
 Lack of role modelling for the child to learn language causing a delay or deprivation.
Other causes Communication disorders include:
Physical disability: More involved disabilities, such as severe cerebral palsy (damage to the
motor control areas of the brain) (Porretta, 2005) that appears in infancy or early childhood
and permanently affect body movement and muscle coordination including the mouth.
Developmental disability: Some children (not all) with a developmental disability may be
slower to learn to talk and may need extra assistant. They may however overcome the
problem as they grow (Heward, 2006)
Hearing impairment: Full or partial hearing impairment may cause difficulty in speech and
language development. Because the child has hearing problems, his or her understanding of
speech sounds and oral language may be affected thus affecting effective communication.
Learning disability: Children with learning disabilities may have communication problems.
Many have difficulty with receptive or expressive language (Heward, 2003).
Autism: Children with autism will also have communication disorders. Many of these
children have difficulties with social skills and their behaviour and conversation skills may
be limited or inappropriate. Often there is an associated language disorders for lack of
interaction with people (Heward, 2006).

LEARNERS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND OTHER HEALTH

IMPAIRMENTS
Causes and Types of Cerebral Palsy (CP)
Anything that can damage the brain during its development can cause CP. Before birth,
maternal infections, chronic diseases, physical trauma, or maternal exposure to toxic
substances or X-rays, for example, can damage the brain of the foetus. During the birth
process, the brain can be injured, especially if labour or birth is difficult or complicated.
Premature birth, hypoxia, high fever, infections, poisoning, haemorrhaging, and related
factors can cause harm after birth. Anything that results in oxygen deprivation, poisoning,
cerebral bleeding, or direct trauma to the brain can be a possible cause of CP.
Although CP occurs at every social level, it is more often seen in children born to mothers in
poor socioeconomic circumstances. Children who live in such circumstances have a greater

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risk of incurring brain damage because of factors such as malnutrition of the mother, poor
prenatal and postnatal care, environmental hazards during infancy, and low birthweight.
The important point about CP is that the brain damage affects strength and the ability to move
parts of the body normally but don’t necessarily mean that the person’s intelligence or
emotional sensitivity has been affected by the damage affecting muscle control.
Seizure Disorder (Epilepsy)
Causes and Types
Seizures are caused by damage to the brain. The most common immediate causes include
lack of sufficient oxygen (hypoxia), low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia), infections, and
physical trauma. In many cases, the causes are unknown. Some types of seizures may be
progressive; that is, they may damage the brain or disrupt its functioning in such a way that
having a seizure increases the probability of having another. It is important to note that with
proper medication, most people’s seizures can be controlled. Seizures may be caused by a
variety of conditions, including high fever, poisoning, trauma, and other conditions
mentioned previously; but in many cases, the causes are unknown.

LEARNERS WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER

Research indicates that ADHD most likely results from neurological dysfunction rather than
actual brain damage. Evidence also points to heredity as playing a very strong role in causing
the neurological dysfunction, with teratogenic and other medical factors also implicated to a
lesser degree.
Several teams of researchers have found relatively consistent abnormalities in five areas of
the brain in people with ADHD: the prefrontal lobes, frontal lobes, basal ganglia
(specifically, the caudate and the globus pallidus), cerebellum, and corpus callosum.
Prefrontal, Frontal Lobes are responsible for executive functions which involve the
ability to regulate one’s own behaviour.
Basal Ganglia consist of several parts: the caudate and the globus pallidus are the
structures that are abnormal in persons with ADHD. The basal ganglia are responsible
for the coordination and control of motor behaviour.
Cerebellum is responsible for the coordination and control of motor behaviour.
Although it’s relatively small, it contains more than half of all the brain’s neurons
attests to its complexity.
Corpus Callosum consists of millions of fibres that connect the left and right
hemispheres of the brain. Being responsible for communication between the
hemispheres, it’s important for a variety of cognitive functions.
Neurotransmitters Involved: Dopamine and Norepinephrine
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that help in the sending of messages between neurons in the
brain. Abnormal levels of two neurotransmitters— dopamine and norepinephrine—are
involved in ADHD.

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Hereditary Factors
Evidence for the genetic transmission of ADHD comes from at least three sources: family
studies, twin studies, and molecular genetic studies.
Family Studies Generally, studies indicate that if a child has ADHD, the chance of
his or her sibling having ADHD is about 32% (Barkley, 2006b). Children of adults
with ADHD run a 57% risk of having ADHD (Biederman et al., 1995). Parents of
children with ADHD are two to eight times more likely to also be ADHD than are
parents of non-ADHD children (Faraone & Doyle, 2001).
Twin Studies consistently show that if an identical twin (monozygotic, from the same
egg) and a fraternal twin (dizygotic, from two eggs) each have ADHD, the second
identical twin is much more likely to have ADHD than the second fraternal twin
(Nikolas & Burt, 2010).
Molecular Genetic Studies Molecular Genetic research (the study of the molecules
DNA, RNA, and protein) on ADHD is consistent with the idea that several genes
contribute to ADHD.

Toxins and Medical Factors

Toxins have been shown to be related to ADHD. Some children with ADHD have higher
levels of lead in their blood than non-ADHD children (Nigg, Nikolas, Knottnerus, Cavanagh,
& Friderici, 2010).
Complications at birth and low birth weight are associated with ADHD. Smoking during
pregnancy is associated with having babies of low birthweight. Smoking by mothers-to-be
puts their children who are already genetically predisposed (based on their dopamine-related
genes) at an even greater risk of being diagnosed with ADHD.

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 UNIT 5
ASSESSMENT IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
Assessment is the backbone of special education. Special education starts with assessment
and ends with assessment. The beginning is the idea that students with special needs are
identified, their specific educational needs are brought to light, and then they are put on a
programme which is also assessed periodically to determine its worth. Finally, it is
assessment that brings to light whether intended goals have been achieved and if it has then,
the provision of special education services is curtailed.

Definition of Assessment
Assessment can be conceptualised as a systematic process of collecting information,
interpreting this information using relevant tools and techniques and, using the information
obtained to make educational decisions. Consequently, McLaughlin and Lewis (1990)
defined Educational Assessment as the systematic process of gathering educationally relevant
information to make legal and instructional decisions about the provision of special education
and other related services.
The importance of assessment cannot be over-emphasized. Through assessment the type of a
child’s learning needs is identified and intervened. McLaughlin and Lewis regard assessment
as a systematic process of gathering educationally relevant information to make legal and
instructional decisions about the provision of special services.

The Three Key Issues in McLaughlin and Lewis’s Definition

1. Systematic Process
This means that assessment involves systematic planning and it is a process. By systematic
planning, it means assessment begins with proper planning which is sequentially approached.
It involves selection of appropriate tools (instruments that are technically adequate). It goes
through a step-by-step process. Each step is evaluated before the next stage. By process it
meansassessment has a beginning and an end. The beginning of assessment is usually marked
by an identification of strengths and weaknesses. The end marks the achievement of set goals.
Once a child’s needs are identified, decisions are made regarding:
 The nature of the child’s exceptionality, and
 The need for special education services.
2. Educationally relevant information
This implies that assessment in special education involves collecting data that can be used to
determine eligibility, placement, the type of services and the educational areas the child
would need intervention. This therefore means that it is only information that is educationally
relevant that is of concern to special educators. This is because it is this information that will
help to determine what and how to teach the child.
3. Legal and instructional issues
Parents have rights for due process. As a rule, there should be parental concern before a child
is assessed. Parents have the right to know who is conducting the assessment, place for
assessment, type of instruments, and where the child is going to be placed to receive
services.Government responsibilities for the provision of services, logistics, funding and
making laws that protect the child with special needs are important.Instructional decisions
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must consider basic needs such as, medical, educational, speech and language or audiological
services, resource room support, physiotherapy, employable skills etc.

Purposesof Assessment in Special Education

Assessment can be done for various reasons including the ability to:
1. Identify individuals who are at-risk to development disabilities
2. Provide information on the nature of a disability
3. Provide information on the strengths and weaknesses of a child
4. Identify individuals who should be referred to other centres for more thorough
evaluation
5. Monitor the progress being made by a child while on a programme
6. Determine appropriate educational placement for a child
7. Identify the needs of the child.
8. Know how a child is performing in relation to peers.

Principles of Assessment in Special Education

Principles are rules or guidelines that help individuals to know how certain things are done.
The significance of assessment necessitates that for effective assessment practice, certain key
principles should guide its process. These according to McLaughlin and Lewis (1990) are
that:
Assessment should focus on educational needs. Since assessment is to help make relevant
educational decision, it needs to reflect the educational needs of the child in order to direct
assessors to achieve the desired goals. Educational needs go beyond academic concerns to
include the following.
i. Academic problems e.g., inability to read, do maths, articulate ideas verbally etc.
ii. Social problems e.g., inability to make friends and/or initiate conversation.
iii. Emotional needs e.g., inattentiveness, restlessness, impulsiveness among others.
iv. Physical needs e.g., fine and gross motor problems.
v. Communication needs e.g., speech and language problems.
1. Assessment should be non-discriminatory. Non-discriminatory here means there should
not be any biases. There should be no biases on the grounds of race, sex, religion, ethnicity,
creed and so forth. The key word to watch out for when carrying out any assessment is
fairness. Assessment cannot be efficient and trustworthy if it is loaded with discrimination.
Once discrimination sets in, it renders the results useless. To ensure this, it must take the
cultural background of the child into focus, it must use appropriate language that is
understandable to the child, or choose the appropriate medium that the child can operate, and
use suitable tools that can help arrive at the true profiles of the child.
2. Assessment must be comprehensive and multidisciplinary. Assessment becomes
comprehensive if it takes all the individual needs into account. Thus, all domains of the child
should be assessed. This can be achieved if the academic, social, physical, sensory abilities,
emotional and behavioural needs are assessed. It is important to have information on all
aspects of life. Multidisciplinary implies the inclusion of professionals of different disciplines
3. Assessment technique should be technically adequate. There should be evidence of
reliability and validity in the techniques used for gathering information. What this means is

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that techniques (tools) selected should not only yield consistent results when the individual is
tested under various conditions, but also, they should measure what they are supposed to
measure. This gives results that are dependable. A technically competent person should
conduct the assessment.
4. Assessment must look beyond the child. There is no doubt that certain environmental
conditions, including the home and the school, influence an individual’s behaviour.
Assessment must focus on the child’s, school and other conditions that have an effect on the
child. In the home the quality of parents and siblings’ relationships and support cannot be
played down. In the school teacher personality and competence in instructional techniques
have remarkable influences on growth and development. In assessing therefore, aside the
child, efforts should be made to assess the impact the child’s environment has on his/her
behaviour.
5. Assessment should be continuous. It should be done throughout the child’s educational
life. Once assessment starts, it should go on and on until the problem identified does no
longer exist.
6. Assessment results should be properly recorded and reported. While collecting
information, targeted behaviour should be instantly recorded the moment they manifest.
When this is done distortions are avoided. In reporting results, relevant information should be
reported. It must be reported in simple language, straight and to the point so that those who
are to use it can read, interpret and understand.
7. Assessment should protect parental and student’s rights
Throughout the assessment parental and student’s rights must be ensured. Parental
rights include: Parental concern must be received before referral can be done. They
have the right to review school records that concern their child's identification,
assessment and placement. They have a right to the explanation of their child's
assessment results. They have to be part of IEP team or the multidisciplinary team
that will draw the programme for their child.
Student's rightsinclude:Right to a comprehensive assessment and evaluation of his or
her educational needs before being given special education services, annual
evaluation of his or her progress on the programme and a comprehensive re-
evaluation of progress which should be done every three years.

Steps in Assessment in Special Education

According to McLaughlin and Lewis (1990), educational assessment is performed to
gather data upon which to base decision. The actual assessment process is a step-by-step
procedure beginning with the identification and referral of a student, including efforts to
solve the learning needs by modification of obvious factors and the clarification of the
presenting problems.
1. Screening
Screening is the process of assessing a large number of children for the purpose of identifying
those who need more thorough evaluation to determine whether or not they actually have
problems.Screening deals with the use of a variety of instruments (techniques) toidentify
individuals who have at risk conditions.The techniques include both formal and informal
tests. It is the quick surveying of many children to identify those who need special services.

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It is to satisfy a curiosity or suspicion (whether the suspected problem exist, is real or not) so
that further thorough investigation is done.Observation, interview or test can be used for
screening. Professionals and non-professionals can do screening. Teachers and nurses are
professionals but parents are non-professionals. Teachers use tests to identify children with
academic needs. Nurses can screen for information on health needs while parents screen for
information on physical, social and emotional needs.
2. Pre-referral.
This involves all the activities that the teacher or the multidisciplinary team become
concerned with towards helping the child come out of his/her problem after screening. Before
referring a child for a comprehensive evaluation, the teacher needs to clearly target the
child’s learning or behavioural problems. Once the teacher has documented the area of
difficulty, he can systematically implement strategies for correction.
3. Referral
Referral is a process of asking more qualified professionals to help know more about the
nature of a problem. That is, soliciting assistance from a more competent person for a client.
The need for referral becomes necessary especially when the screening agent realises his/her
incompetence to conduct more intense assessment (evaluation). The sole aim for referral is to
obtain information on a child’s exceptionality. Teachers and parents make referrals to experts
such as medical personnel and psychologists. In making referrals teachers must seek
permission from parents.
4. Evaluation (comprehensive evaluation).
This transcends screening. The entire professionals (experts from the multidisciplinary team)
are needed to carry out the assessment on the child to ensure non-discrimination. It also
involves the use of instruments (formal or informal) appropriate to the needs of the child. It is
done in the child’s own language to elicit optimum results.
5. Team Conferencing.
This occurs after evaluation where the experts present their findings at a meeting. A
meeting is held to discuss three (3) issues namely:
i. The nature of the child’s disability (Eligibility) - This is the process of determining
whether or not a child has handicapping condition and needs special education and /or
related services. This is a legal decision and is made by comparing the child’s
assessment results to the criteria used. Parents help in making decisions on eligibility.
ii. An Individualised Education Plan (IEP) to overcome or ameliorate the child’s
conditions. This is a written document, which spells out the type of programme for
helping a child to overcome his/her problem. A team of experts prepares it. Parents’
concernsare sought in the determination of the programme appropriate for the child.
iii. The type of educational placement that will suitably meet the needs of the child (that
is whether regular education or special school). This talks about the most appropriate
learning environment for a child with a disability. That is the educational
environment, where the child has to be placed to receive services. Placement is based
on the child’s needs, the concern of the parents and suitability of the place. The
child’s needs (interest) is at the highest. Principally, two major environments are
considered when decisions on placement are being undertaken. They are:

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 i. Most restrictive environment, which include special schools, hospitals and
homebound centres. This is segregation.
ii. Least restrictive environment, which embraces regular schools, and/or regular
schools plus other services such as resource room and consultation.
6. Monitoring of progress
This refers to all the ways the teacher needs to assess the progress of the child to ensure
his/her success. It involves keeping eye on the child or checking on the child’s performance
by collecting data to see whether there is progress or not.
7. Evaluation of IEP
This is where the whole programme is weighed to examine if it has benefited the child. This
is done to see whether the programme being run for the child is suitable or not. Usually,
evaluation is done at a predetermined interval (most often annually). The evaluation results
focus on certain decisions such as modification of the programme, sustaining (continuing) of
the programme and doing away with (getting rid of) the programme if it appears that success
has not been made. Factors that account for success or failure will be identified and how to
overcome them planned.

Placement Options in Special Education

Educational placement for exceptional learners depends on two factors:
(1) how much the atypical student differs from typical students and
(2) what resources are available in the school and community.
Various educational placement options exist for individuals with disabilities to meet their
educational needs. Some of these placement options are less restrictive and others, more
restrictive. The idea is that the regular classroom is the considered to be the “normal” and
the ideal place to education a child. Placements close to the regular classroom is considered
Less Restrictive while placements farther from the regular classroom is considered to be
More restrictive.
Less restrictive environments
Regular school/class
It is ordinary or neighbourhood school where most individuals start their formal education.
Some refer to it as general education. In Ghana, the Ghana Education Service (GES) has been
posting most teachers trained in the colleges of education to this type of educational setting.
The current ideology of inclusive education which is to educate individuals with and without
disabilities in the same educational setting finds expression in the regular school. The United
Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (1994) finds this
educational environment ideal in developing the potentialities of all individuals with special
educational needs including those with learning disabilities.
Regular school plus consultation
In this type of placement, the individual remains in the regular class, but the classroom
teacher does consultation. The individual is not removed from the classroom; rather, the
teacher seeks information from others on instructional strategies and materials to help the
individual with special educational needs. It is very effective especially for individuals with
mild learning difficulties and those who do not require dated services. It ensures the
individual remains with the peers throughout the school day to participate in school and

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classroom activities. In this era when inclusive education is being advocated for, if teachers
will be prepared to consult others for help, it could be a means to achieving inclusive
practice.

Regular school plus resource room service

Resource room service is one of the arrangements to facilitate mainstreaming. In a resource
room, individuals are assessed and once their needs are identified, instructions are planned to
meet them. Lerner (2000) regards resource room as an educational setting that provides
assessment services and remedial instruction to students with disabilities on a regularly
scheduled basis for a portion of the school day. In practice, individuals who receive their
services in a resource room spend a portion of their time in regular school. In the University
of Cape Coast, there is a Child Development Resourced and Referral Unit (CDRRU) located
in the Department of Educational Foundations. It is a resource room to cater for individuals
with moderate to severe learning difficulties.Some of the options are characterized by 'pull-
out'.
More Restrictive Environments
Special Class/Unit
In this type, the individual with disability is put in a separate class within the school (Lerner,
2000). and may follow the concept of integration. The class is usually equipped with
relevant teaching and learning materials with highly structured instructional procedure. A
special class can be categorical (e.g., for only individuals with reading or mathematical
difficulties) or non-categorical to include different types of disabilities.
Separate School
This is more of a special school for the individual with disability. It practices the segregation
concept of special education. The school can be public or private. If individuals are separated,
teachers and care givers are categorically trained to meet their educational needs.
Hospital/ Home-bound facility
In this option, the person with disability receives help in a homeexcluded from school such
as the residential facility or hospital. The hospital placement is usually considered especially
where there is medical implication. Like the residential option, teachers may be sent to the
home or hospital facility to give services to them.

Individualised Education Programme

The individualized education programme (IEP) is a legal document that describes the
educational services a student receives. IEPs vary greatly in format and detail from one child
to another and from one school to another. Guides for help in writing IEPs are available (e.g.,
Gibb & Dyches, 2007).
Features of the Individualized Education Programme (IEP)
1. A statement of the child’s present levels of academic achievement and functional
performance. On many IEP forms, this is called the PLOP (present level of
performance). In some cases, the PLOP is now listed as the PLAAFP (present level of
academic achievement and functional performance).
2. A statement of measurable annual goals, including academic and functional goals. The
law states clearly that the goals should enable the child to access the general education

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 curriculum.A description of how the child’s progress toward meeting the annual goals
will be measured (short term goals) and when periodic reports on the progress the child
is making toward meeting the annual goals will be provided.
3. A statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and
services the child will receive including appropriate accommodations. The services must
be based on peer-reviewed research.
4. Time to begin and end the programme: The programme normally starts at the
beginning of the school year and ends at the end of the school year.
5. Time for evaluation: When the programme will be evaluated, how it will be evaluated
and how often it will be evaluated will be clearly stated.

Composition of the IEP Team

1. The following individuals must be a part of the IEP team:
2. The parents of a child with a disability.
3. A minimum of one regular education teacher.
4. A minimum of one special education teacher or special education provider of the child.
5. A Special Education Needs Coordinator (SENCo)
6. Educational or School psychologist
7. Other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise regarding the child, including
related services personnel as appropriate.
8. The child with a disability, whenever appropriate.

When writing an IEP, the team should develop a document that is clear, useful, and legally
defensible. The relationships among IEP components must be clear and explicit in order to
maintain the focus of the individualized program—special, individually tailored instruction to
meet unique needs.

INSTRUMENT FOR ASSESSMENT

The selection of an assessment, whether formal or informal, is largely dependent on the type
of information the assessor is interested in. Generally, two types of techniques are used; these
are formal and informal assessment techniques.
FormalAssessment
An assessment strategy is termed as formal assessment if it involves the use of standardized
or norm-referenced tests and as a result, has structured procedures with specific guidelines for
administration, scoring and the interpretation of the scores
(Okyere & Adams, 2003). With such measures, directions for administration, scoring and
interpretation of the tests are clearly specified and as such has to be strictly adhered to.An
example of formal assessment measure is a norm - referenced test.
Aim of formal assessment
The principal aim of formal assessment is to compare a child performance to a normative
group. This is to determine whether differences exit. To achieve this basis of comparison,
there is the need to make sure that the individuals who will be assessed will have the same
characteristics as the group on whom the test was normed. Some of the characteristics in
question are, age, in the same class and socio economic back ground.

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Characteristics of formal assessment
The characteristics of formal assessment are that it:
 Deals with paper and pencil test. This implies that it involves written examination.
 Has a standard procedure for administration, scoring and interpreting the scores.
 Isreliability and validity has been determined. Therefore, it provides information that
is reliable dependable and trustworthy,
 Has items that produce required information; this is because of its validity.
 Reports scores in standard ways for example, Percentile and grade equivalents
 Is administered by professionals who have been trained in its administration, scoring
and interpretation of the scores. For example, school psychologist and special
educationists.
Advantages of formal assessment
 They can be used to compare individuals with their peers.
 They are objective as standardized procedures are used for administration scoring and
interpretation.
 It eliminates the elements of subjectivity and biases from the testing situation.
 It provides information that is trust worthy and dependable as genuine reflections of
individuals are portrayed.
 Due to its validity and reliability, it can be used for selection and placement decisions.
Disadvantages of formal assessment
 It does not identify specific strengths and weaknesses as it samples general areas of
the curriculum.
 It does not provide information that can be used for planning instructional
programmes.
 It penalizes individuals with impaired sensory and cognitive functioning.
 The testing procedure may cause anxiety in pupils thereby affecting their
performance.
 They can be culturally bias
 They cannot be done by anybody at anywhere and at any time.

Types of Formal Assessment

Standardised Achievement Tests:
This test allows for comparison of student’s knowledge over the content and particular skill
levels between students and with those of other students in the relatively same group. For
instance, if we want to compare the performance scores in mathematics of all primary six
pupils in District A with District B in Ghana, we need to use a normal referenced test. Some
popular commercially standardised achievement tests are:
i. California Achievement Test (CAT);
ii. Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (ToBs)
iii. Test of Academic Proficiency (TAP);
iv. Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT)
v. Standard Achievement Test (SAT).

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These tests are normed, which means that the results are compared across ages and grades
statistically so that a mean average for each grade and age are created which are the grade
equivalent and age equivalent that are assigned to individuals.

Aptitude test
An aptitude test is good for measuring knowledge that a student already has when entering
classroom or grade level and is essential for the teacher to know beforehand the student’s
level of performance and success in the class.

Intelligent Test
This is part of a battery of tests used to evaluate the aggregate or global capacity of an
individual in dealing effectively with the environment. The most commonly used are the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and Standford Binet Intelligence Scale.

Individual Achievement Tests

These are useful for assessing students’ academic abilities. They are designed to measure
both pre-academic and academic behaviours. They also can measure tasks from the ability to
match pictures to letters to more advanced literacy and mathematical skills. They are helpful
in assessing special needs. Some types of individual achievement test include; Peabody
Individual Achievement Test (PIAT), Woodcock Johnson Test of Achievement and Brigance
Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills.

Informal Assessment
Informal assessment is a type of assessment which does not follow any strict procedure and
can be done by anybody at anywhere. This means that there are no guidelines for and
interpretation of scores. Also, it can be done for example in a play field. In addition to this, it
can be done by anybody for example teachers, parents and peers.
Aims of Informal Assessment
Informal assessment is aimed at:
 Determining the strengths and weaknesses that a child has
 Determining areas of the curriculum that emphasis must be put
 Finding out environmental factors that influence learning
 Identifying skills the child has mastered or not mastered
Characteristics of informal assessment
 It does not follow any strict procedure for administration, scoring and interpretation of
scores.
 It reports scores without using any strict or laid down procedure.
 It is not necessarily a paper and pencil test.
 The child to be assessed need not be present before the assessment is done
 It reliability and validity is not assured.
 It can be administered by anybody. No special training is required.

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Advantages of Informal Assessment
 It samples specific areas of the curriculum and thereby identifying individual’s
strengths and weaknesses.
 It provides information that can be used for planning instructional programmes.
 It favours all categories of individuals since it involves non-test methods.
 It can be done by anybody at anywhere.
 It enables assessors to identify difficulties that individuals are facing thereby
providing information on what to teach next.
 There are many ways by which it can be done.
Disadvantages of Informal Assessment
 It cannot be used to compare individuals with their peers.
 It cannot be used for placement decisions.
 The results it provides lack validity and reliability.
 It introduces elements of subjectivity and biases into the testing situation as it does not
follow any laid down procedure.

Types of Informal Assessment

Observation
Observation involves looking at and listening to an action portrayed by a person in a given
environment. This enables us to describe the behaviour as accurately as possible. In
observing we watch a person closely in order to gather information about a person's
behaviour. In so doing we will be able to better understand the person and know how to help
him or her. According to McLaughlin and Lewis (1990), teachers can use observation to
gather information on classroom conduct problems, academics, and social and self-help
skills.There are two forms of observations. They are direct observation and indirect
observation. With the direct observation the assessor is present with the person being
observed while indirect observation involves the assessor engaging other people to do the
observation for him.
Interview
Interviews can be viewed as on oral process. It is a face-to-face conversation between two or
more people. The aim of interviews is to gather information. The person doing the interview
is known as the interviewer and the person being interviewed is known as the interviewee.
For an interview to be effective, rapport must be established through the assurance of
confidentiality and expression of empathetic understanding by the interviewer.
Task Analysis
Tasks analysis is the process of breaking down a major task in to sub-tasks. Task analysis is
used in two ways. It can be used:
 As a teaching strategy: for teaching, the teacher is interested in sequencing and
teaching all the essential components of a task.
 As an assessment technique: here the assessor will be interested in finding out if the
test taker can accomplish the entire minor tasks that come together to form the main
task.

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Task analysis helps one to know what the learner can and cannot do thereby providing one
with specific information as to where to start instruction.
Work Sample Analysis
Work sample analysis is a process of obtaining a sample of the child's work (permanent
product). This is then examined to determine areas of successful performance and areas
where the pupil may need help. It involves the analysis of a child's permanent product to
determine consistency of errors that the child makes. There are two approaches to work
sample analysis. They are error analysis and response analysis.
Error analysis
This focuses on the identification of patterns of errors in a child's permanent product. It helps
the assessor to specifically identify the particular errors the child commits. Knowing this will
help teachers know what to teach the child. This technique therefore focuses on only errors
committed.
Response analysis
This type of work sample analysis focuses on both the correct and incorrect responses
committed by a child. The permanent product of a child is examined for patterns, consistent
errors, frequency, duration and rate.
Portfolio Assessment
Portfolio assessment also involves a collection of a child's permanent product that he/she has
done over the years (e.g. craft, essay, projects, art work, etc.) to determine the progress the
child is making.
The main difference is that work sample analysis is concerned with identifying the pattern of
errors in the child's permanent product while portfolio assessment is concerned with
identifying the progress the child has made over time.
Criterion Referenced Test (CRT)
Criterion referenced tests compare a child's performance with the specific subject goals.These
tests are concerned with determining how far a child has mastered a content area in the
curriculum. The scoring is therefore "pass" or "fail" or "mastered" or "not mastered".Many
placement tests are CRT measures. Ghana Education Service personnel often carry out these
measures. Teacher made tests used in assessing pupils in classrooms can also be considered
'as CRT measures and these are based upon what has been taught.The results of the teacher
made criterion - referenced test helps the teacher identify the strengths and weakness of the
child. Secondly, the information obtained will enable the teacher know where to beginning
instruction.
Curriculum-Based Assessment (CBA)
This is concerned with finding out what the child has learnt as far as the broad goals of the
curriculum are concerned. The CBA is important because:
 They may or may not be a paper and pencil tests. This enables varied categories of
individuals with special needs to be assessed.
 Techniques such as observation, interview or criterion reference test or any other
informal assessment measure can be used to do a curriculum based assessment.
 It enables the teacher to have information about the child's academic, social and
emotional disposition.

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Checklist and Rating Scale
Checklist consists of structured questions concerning curriculum objectives, development or
behaviour patterns of pupils. It can be completed by anyone who knows the child and can
give a picture about a child's problem.
Rating scales do not demand a yes or no answer, rather, a description or a statement is
presented and informants express their agreement with the descriptions by selecting one of a
series of ratings. Rating scales are used for several purposes in education and the most
common is grading, for example A, B. C, D, E, etc.
Ecological Assessment
The word "ecological"' means the environment or the surrounding. In this type of assessment,
one is concerned with other factors outside the child which can have an influence on the
child. This assessment technique is directly related to the principle that states that assessment
must go beyond the child. This assessment focuses on environmental factors like:
 Peer influence
 Parental influence
 Mass media influence
 Teacher influence
 Community influence

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 UNIT 6

STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING IN AN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM

COLLABORATIVE TEACHING
Collaborative teaching is a method of teaching where both mainstream and special education
teachers mutually work together in their effort to help students with learning difficulties to
achieve the same goals (Jones et al., 2008). Collaborative teaching should be the approach
that every school should use (Moore et al., 2010). Collaboration requires sharing of ideas
between the teachers. The teachers have their own strengths in ensuring the success of
inclusive education. Johnstone (2010) stated that for this strategy to work, the mainstream
teachers focus on academic field whereas special education teachers are knowledgeable in
skills and specific processes in dealing with students with special needs. According to
Obiakor (2012) and Naraian (2010), inclusive education was found to be successful with
collaboration with various parties involved. Collaborative teaching is important in providing
quality learning to students with special needs (Milteniene & Venclovaite, 2012). To ensure
that the needs of students are met and to ensure good student performance are achieved,
teachers must deal with challenges in using teaching content and appropriate teaching
approaches in the classroom while collaborating with other professional.
PEER TUTORING AND COOPRATIVE LEARNING
Peers may serve as powerful natural supports for students with disabilities in both academics
and social areas (Maheady, Harper & Mallette, 2001). They often have more influence on
their classmates’ behaviour than the teacher does. Peer support programmes may range from
simply creating opportunities for students with disabilities to interact socially with peers
without disabilities to highly structured programmes of peer-mediated instruction. Peer
mediated instruction involves a structured interaction between two or more students under the
direct supervision of a classroom teacher. The instruction may use peer and cross-age tutoring
and/or cooperative learning. Peer and cross-age tutoring emphasize individual student
learning, whereas cooperative learning emphasizes the simultaneous learning of students as
they seek to achieve group goals. Although they are often an underrated and underused
resource in general education, peers are very reliable and effective in implementing both
academic and social programmes with students who have disabilities (Gillies & Ashman,
2000). In addition, cooperative learning is beneficial to all students, from the highest
achievers to those at risk of school failures. It builds self-esteem, strengthens peer
relationship and increases the acceptance of students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms.
The effectiveness of peers, however, is dependent on carefully managing the programme so
that students both with or without disabilities will benefit. It is important for teachers to
carefully select, train and monitor the performance of students working as peer tutors.
Cooperative learning appears to be most effective when it includes goals for the group as a
whole as well as for individual members (Eggen & Kauchak, 2004; McDonnell, et al., 2003;
Vaughn, et al., 2005).

DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
Differentiated instruction (DI) means matching students’ approaches to learning with the
most appropriate pedagogy, curriculum goals, and opportunities for displaying knowledge

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gained (Spencer-Waterman, 2014). Tucker (2011) views differentiation as the practice of
modifying and adapting instruction, materials, content, students’ project, and product and
assessment to meet the learning needs of individual students. DI means giving students
multiple options for taking in information (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). Differentiated
instruction is an approach that enables teachers to plan strategically to meet the needs of
every student. It is an educational theory that employs multiple teaching approaches in the
same classroom to accommodate the variety of aptitudes, needs, personalities, and
experiences of individual students (Mulder, 2014). Differentiated instruction is inquiry-based,
interest-based, learner-oriented and activity-intensive (Chamberlin & Power, 2010; Smit &
Humpert, 2012; Tomlison, 1999). Looking at a typical classroom as a collection of learners
of different ability levels, readiness, interest, one can infer that teacher who do not
differentiate instruction teach only a fraction of their students (Chamberlin & Power, 2010;
Koeze, 2007). Thus, implementing DI enables educators to meet the needs of individual
students in their different skill levels in the same classroom (Smit & Humpert, 2012;
Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). Furthermore, differentiation suggests that teachers can craft
lessons in ways that tap into multiple student interests to promote heightened learner interest
and test scores (Fitzgerald, 2016; Lauria, 2010)
To differentiate instruction, the teacher observes and understands the individual differences
among students, and use the information to plan instruction (Koeze 2007; Landrum &
Mcduffie, 2010; Onyishi, 2017; Thakur, 2014; Walton, 2017). Differentiation, therefore, is an
instructional approach that provides learners with multiple options, alternatives, and avenues
to what they learn, how they can learn, and how they express what they have learned.
Teachers are expected to teach all the pupils by providing differentiated instruction in
content, process, product, and learning environment. DI provides teachers with the
opportunity to accommodate different challenges and abilities in the classroom (Abdullah et
al., 2014; Chamberlin & Powers, 2010; Flaherty & Hackler, 2010; Thakur, 2014). Studies
(Garba, 2015; Kreitzer, 2016; Vaughn & Linan, 2003) have shown that differentiated
instruction has improved the learning achievement of students. Differentiated instruction
engages students, stimulates their interest and provides gratifying experiences (Wiselby,
2014). This could be based on research finding that shows that children learn best using their
preferred learning style and yet some teachers ignore this fact and they do not allow learners
to learn using their preferred learning style (Smit & Humpert, 2012; Benneth, 2003). Through
the differentiating process, the teacher offers diverse ways in which learners can access the
curriculum (Thakur, 2014; Walton, 2017).

UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a research-based framework for guiding educational
practice. UDL focuses on planning instruction to meet the varied needs of students. It is not a
special education initiative rather, UDL acknowledges the needs of all learners at the point of
planning and first teaching, thereby reducing the amount of follow-up and alternative
instruction necessary. UDL involves the use of effective teaching practices and the
intentional differentiation of instruction from the outset to meet the needs of the full
continuum of learners. Teachers who employ UDL attend to how information is represented
as well as choices for student engagement, action, and expression. In other words, as they

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plan, general education teachers consider different ways of stimulating students’ interest and
motivation for learning, different ways to present information and content, and different ways
that students can express what they know—all based on students’ needs and strengths (CAST
2013).
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) addresses the variability found in students’ learning
(Roa & Meo, 2016). Variability exists in most classrooms as students possess diverse
abilities, cultural backgrounds, experiences, and languages (Meyer et al., 2014). Some
students are visual learners, while others are auditory learners. Given these differences, all
students benefit from a multimodality approach to learning. UDL provides Principles and
Guidelines for developing curricula to minimize barriers to learning for students with or
without disorders. The UDL framework is designed to allow all students to become expert
learners (Hartmann, 2015). The UDL framework is grounded on these three principles:
Representation – using a variety of methods to present information, provide a range of
means to support
Action and Expression – providing learners with alternative ways to act skilfully and
demonstrate what they know
Engagement – tapping into learners’ interests by offering choices of content and tools;
motivating learners by offering adjustable levels of challenge.

DIRECT INSTRUCTION
Direct instruction applies to various forms of explicit and active teaching that convey the
curriculum to students in a reasonably structured and systematic manner. Direct instruction is
characterised by precise learning objectives, clear demonstrations, explanations and
modelling by the teacher, followed by guided practices and independent practice by students.
Teaching take place at a brisk pace and learning is assessed regularly. Re-teaching and
remediation are provided when necessary. This approach has proved to be effective in raising
achievement levels in basic academic skills for all students especially those with learning
difficulties and intellectual disabilities (Ellis 2005; White, 2005).
In a typical Direct instruction session, the students are taught in small groups based on
ability. Usually, they are seated in a semicircle facing the teacher, who gain and holds their
attention and follows the teaching steps clearly set out in the script. The scripted presentation
ensures that all steps in the teaching sequence are followed and that all questions and
instructions are clear. Lessons are designed so that there is very high rate of participation and
responding by children in the group. The teacher gives immediate feedback, correction and
encouragement (Westwood, 2007).

PLAY-BASED LEARNING STRATEGY

Play-based learning is a child-centred approach where young children are engaging in
learning through play (Ontario Ministry of Education {OME}, 2010). Play and learning are
seen to have strong links with each other “especially in the areas of problem solving,
language acquisition, literacy, numeracy, and social, physical, and emotional skills” (OME,
2010, p. 13). Teachers and Early Childhood Educators (ECEs) are expected to provide
learning experiences for young children that are “meaningful, relevant, and respectful” either
through “whole-class instructions, small group, independent, or at learning centres” (OME,

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2010, p. 8). Teachers and ECEs are co-educators working collaboratively in order to provide
their students a high-quality play-based learning environment (OME, 2010). Educators
should ensure that they are balancing between teacher and child directed learning in order to
foster creativity and support experiential learning (Samuelsson & Johansson, 2006; OME,
2010). The teacher and ECE should provide children with a literacy rich environment,
materials to explore with, and foster connections to real-life experiences (Pyle & Bigelow,
2015).
Learning through play promotes social interactions and self-regulation (OME, 2010; Lynch,
2015). Play provides children with more time to interact with their peers and understand how
to regulate their behaviours when engaging in certain situations (OME, 2010). As the Ontario
Ministry of Education (2010) states, “self-regulation allows children to have positive social
interactions and sets a pattern of behaviour that will benefit them through their lives” (p. 7).
Self-regulation will allow students to master skills that can be utilized within and outside of
school (Martlew et al., 2011). Within academic learning, teachers can teach and meet
curriculum expectations through methods of classroom set up or guidance during play (Pyle
& Bigelow, 2015; Lynch, 2015). For example, contributing key ideas to children’s play and
constructing the classroom to fit both the children’s and teacher’s interests (Pyle & Bigelow,
2015).

EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIFIC CATEGORIES

LEARNERS WITH INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

In general, the focus of educational programmes varies according to the degree of the
student’s intellectual disability or how much support the student requires. For example, the
lesser the degree of intellectual disability, the more the teacher emphasizes academic skills;
the greater the degree of intellectual disability, the more the teacher stresses self-help,
community living, and vocational skills. In practice, however, all students who are
intellectually disabled, no matter the severity level, need some instruction in academic, self-
help, community living, and vocational skills.
A major issue facing special educators is how to ensure that students with intellectual
disabilities have access to the general education curriculum, as dictated by the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), while still being taught functional skills. It has been
recommended that individuals with ID should learn academic and functional skills
(functional academics). Teachers are expected to teach academics in the context of daily
living skills. The child with intellectual disabilities is taught reading to learn to function
independently. In functional reading, the child learns academics to do such things as read a
newspaper, read the telephone book, read labels on goods at the store, and fill out job
applications. Instructional programming for students with severe to profound intellectual
disabilities often includes systematic instruction and instruction in real-life settings with real
materials.
Systematic Instruction
Systematic Instruction includes the use of instructional prompts, consequences for
performance, and strategies for the transfer of stimulus control. Students who are
intellectually disabled often need to be prompted or cued to respond in the appropriate

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manner. The prompts can be verbal, gestural, or physical, or teachers may use modelling. A
verbal prompt can be a question such as “What do you need to do next?” or a command such
as “Put your socks in the top dresser drawer.” A gestural prompt might involve pointing to
the socks and/or the dresser drawer while stating the question or the command. With respect
to consequences, research has consistently shown that students who are positively reinforced
for correct responses learn faster.
Instruction in Real-Life Settings with Real Materials
Instruction can take place in the classroom, under simulated conditions, or in real-life
settings. Research indicates that instruction of daily living skills for students with intellectual
disabilities is generally more effective when conducted in the actual settings where students
will use these skills (McDonnell, 2011). Because it’s easier to hold instruction in classrooms
than in real-life settings, the teacher might start out with instruction in the classroom and then
supplement it with instruction in real-life situations. For example, the teacher might use
worksheets and photos of various shopping activities in class or set up a simulated store with
shelves of products and a cash register (Morse & Schuster, 2000). The teacher could then
supplement these classroom activities with periodic visits to real grocery stores. Likewise, the
use of real cans of food and real money is preferable in teaching students to read product
labels and to make change.

Adaptation (Accommodation Strategies)

In teaching children with intellectual disability the focus is on those with mild conditions.
With this category, classroom instruction is the primary area in which adaptations are made.
One major approach is habilitation. Habilitation is the student's ability to acquire skills that
are important for daily life. In teaching the intellectual disability you need patience,
understanding and tactfulness to achieve success. You also need to know that a intellectual
disability child has limited intellectual capacity and therefore you must not set unattainable or
unrealistic goals for him.
To succeed in teaching the intellectual disability, you need to repeat the lesson over and over
before it will be fully grasped by the retarded child. The child cannot assimilate too much
information at one time so you must use your discretion to know how much a particular child
can learn at any given time.
Recognise every effort made by the child and show appreciation by the use of reinforcement.
Another technique or strategy in adapting the learning environment is the use of task
analysis. In task analysis, you analyse a given task to determine what skills are needed
before the student can be taught that skill. To develop a task analysis, you often have to
observe someone who is performing the task and record each step. For example, eating from
a plate can be broken into:
1. Stretching the hand to reach and touch the food, without missing it.
2. Taking a bit or piece of the food with the fingers, spoon or fork.
3. Lifting it to the mouth (with fingers or in a spoon) without spilling or missing.
4. Open the mouth to take or cut a sizeable or manageable piece of the food.
5. Chewing the food (if applicable) and swallowing, without soiling self.
6. Returning the plate for a repeat performance.

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Each sub-skill may need several exercises and practice as there may be a problem of either
fine and gross-motor control, or eye-hand coordination. Each sub-skill must also be mastered
before the next is introduced. The successful performance of each step should be rewarded to
ensure continuous interest.
Another adaptation approach is modeling, a method in which you demonstrate or use another
individual who actively performs the behaviour to be learned. After repeated demonstration,
the child imitates the model. To facilitate child's imitation and mastering of the modeled skill,
you must provide reinforcement and feedback.
Teaching Functional Academics
Children with mild retardation need special help to acquire the basic skills. One approach that
is very helpful is the unit approach (Lewis & Doorlag, 1995). Instruction in several basic
skills areas is integrated around a central theme of interest and value to the child. In the unit
approach, you present functional academics in a meaningful context. First, an important life
theme is selected, then basic skills are presented, and practice opportunities related to the
theme are provided. For example, you can use functional reading to design an activity.
Activities can focus on reading for information or reading as a leisure past time. You can let
children read:
 Signs commonly found in buildings and in the community (e.g. Women, Men, Stop,
Do not enter).
 Menus at regular restaurant(e.g. fufu, banku, rice and stew etc).
 Schedules for classes, television, buses, trains.
 The phonebook.
 Advertisements for consumer goods.
 Direction for building.
 Labels on food, medicine and clothing.
Additionally, many daily life activities can be used to practice handwriting, spelling, and
written expression. The following examples emphasize writing as a means of communication:
 Making shopping list or the list of things to do.
 Leaving a note for a friend or family member.
 Writing down a telephone number.
The skill area of mathematics also offers numerous opportunities for functional practice.
Computation ability is often required in every day life, particularly in tasks involving time,
money, and measurement. For example;
 Making a purchase.
 Selecting and preparing food.
 Using measurement, as in reading a person's weight or height.
 Using time, using calendar etc.
It must be pointed out that functional task often requires more than one basic skill. For
example, in planning and cooking a meal, several skills are needed: reading (labels cooking
and preparation directions); Writing skills; (shopping list); Math skill (measuring
ingredients).

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Improving General Work Habits
Children with intellectual disability, have difficulty in beginning a task as well as completing
a given task.
Work habits are behaviours a person exhibits when presented with a task to perform. Many
work behaviours apply to all types of tasks e.g. begin work promptly, stay on the task and
complete the task. The teacher can help the intellectual disability child develop and improve
his work habits in three ways. First, attendance and punctuality. Second, work completion,
and finally working with others.
Attendance and Punctuality
If you believe that poor attendance and lateness to school will make your students perform
poorly academically, then as a teacher you will try to teach them to be regular and punctual.
No doubt, attendance and punctuality are key ingredients in successful job performance.
To teach the work habits, the following strategies can be adopted:
Communicate to the student that attendance and punctuality are important. One way to do
it is to incorporate those behaviours into the class rules. For example, when bell rings, be in
your seat. When students are aware of the expectations, then appropriate work behaviors can
be rewarded.
To reinforce students attending class and arriving on time;
 Keep record of attendance punctuality.
 At the end of each week, allow students with good records to participate in a special
free-time activity.
 Have students keep a log of their own attendance and punctuality. This can be done in
the form of a journal or group or even with a time clock.
 Present a certificate or award to students with good attendance.
 Begin gradually by rewarding students who come to school each day for a week.
 Encourage punctuality by scheduling a favourite activity at the beginning of the class
period.
 Use individuals contracts for students.

Work Completion
The second important work behaviour critical for school and job success is task completion.
To encourage task completion;
 Task should be brief.
 Task should be sequentially presented.
 Task should be the kind in which success is possible.
 Task should be applied to objects, problems and situations in the learner's life
environment.
It must be pointed out that when students are given tasks, they should first be told that they
are expected to finish their work. Then, task completion should be reinforced by the teacher.
Ways to encourage and reward work completion.
 Make free-time activities contingent on work completion, e.g. if you finish your work,
then you may go to play.
 Have students record the number of tasks they complete each day. They can graph the

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 data and see how they progress from day to day.
 Break the work into several short tasks and reward these students after completion of
each task.

Working with Others

Another important aspect of work habit is working with others. In many situations at school
and out of school including jobs, people must work closely with one another. Children with
intellectual disability have problems working with others, however, they can be helped to
practice this skill at any age. Let us consider the following:
 Design special projects to be completed by teams of students eg. Preparing group art
work .
 Provide instruction in groups.
By helping children with intellectual disability learn functional academics skills, and work
habits you are providing them with important tools that they will need for the rest of their
lives.

LEARNERS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

Cognitive training
Cognitive training is an approach designed to address problems associated with being an
inactive learner with strategy deficits. It involves three components: (a) changing thought
processes, (b) providing strategies for learning, and (c) teaching self-initiative. Whereas
behaviour modification focuses on modifying observable behaviours, cognitive training is
concerned with modifying unobservable thought processes, prompting observable changes in
behaviour. It’s particularly appropriate for students with learning disabilities because of its
focus on problems of metacognition and motivation.
Cognitive training involves: self-instruction, self-monitoring, scaffolded instruction, and
reciprocal teaching.
Self-Instruction
The purpose of self-instruction is to make students aware of the various stages of problem-
solving tasks while they are performing them and to bring behaviour under verbal control.
The five-step strategy that the students learned to use involved;
1. saying the problem out loud,
2. looking for important words and circling them,
3. drawing pictures to help explain what was happening,
4. Writing the math sentence,
5. Writing the answer.
Furthermore, students are prompted to use the following self-instructions:
1. Problem definition: “What do I have to do?”
2. Planning: “How can I solve this problem?”
3. Strategy use: “The five-step strategy will help me look for important words.”
4. Self-evaluation: “How am I doing?”
5. Self-reinforcement: “Good job. I got it right.”

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Self-Monitoring
When self-monitoring, students keep track of their own behaviour, often through use of two
components: self-evaluation and self-recording (Hallahan, Kneedler, & Lloyd, 1983).
Students evaluate their own behaviour and then record whether the behaviour occurred.
Students can be taught to self-monitor a variety of academic behaviours.
Scaffolded Instruction
In scaffolded instruction, teachers provide assistance to students when they are first learning
tasks, and then gradually reduce assistance so that eventually students do the tasks
independently.
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal teaching involves an interactive dialogue between the teacher and students in
which the teacher–student relationship is similar to that of an expert (teacher) and an
apprentice (student). The teacher gradually relinquishes her role as the sole instructor and
allows the students to assume the role of co-instructor for brief periods.
Instructional Approaches for Academics
Students with learning disabilities experience academic problems in one or more areas, such
as reading, writing, math, and content areas such as science and social studies. Although we
discuss each separately, some rules of thumb are evident across these areas. Special education
instruction is precisely controlled in pace or rate, intensity, relentlessness, structure,
reinforcement, teacher–pupil ratio, curriculum, and monitoring or assessment (Kauffman &
Hallahan, 2005).
Instructional Approaches for Reading
The five essential components of effective reading instruction: phonological awareness
training, phonics instruction, fluency instruction, vocabulary instruction, and comprehension
instruction. In addition, the most successful reading instruction is explicit and systematic.
Phonological awareness involves knowing that speech consists of small units of sound, such
as words, syllables, and phonemes. Phonemic awareness, a component of phonological
awareness, involves knowing that words are made up of sounds, or phonemes. Teaching
students with reading disabilities to manipulate phonemes in words is highly effective in
helping them acquire reading skills.
Phonics instruction involves learning the alphabetic system, that is, the pairing of letters and
words with their sounds. Effective phonics instruction is explicit, systematic, with
opportunities for practice.
Reading fluency refers to the ability to read effortlessly and smoothly. Successful
interventions for problems with reading fluency typically involve having the student read
aloud. An especially effective technique is repeated readings, whereby students repeatedly
(several times a week) read the same short passages aloud until they are reading at an
appropriate pace with few or no errors.
The following points may also be considered:
 Begin at a student's level of language development.
 Children are motivated to read if the material interests them.
 Try a variety of instructional approaches if necessary, in order to find the ones that
match individual styles and interests.

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  Teach one skill at a time, both in isolation and immediately in context and ensure that
students attain mastery before you teach the next skill.
 Motivate the student to learn the material.
 Prepare the student for the material by presenting new concepts and vocabulary.
 Guide the student in reading the story by asking questions that give purpose or goal
for the reading.
 Develop or strengthen skills to the material through drills or workbook activities.
 Assign work for children to apply the skills acquired during the lesson.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of the lesson.

Instructional Approaches for Writing

The ability to read and write are closely linked. Students who exhibit reading disabilities also
often have problems with writing. Effective writing instruction for students with learning
disabilities involves teaching students explicit and systematic strategies for planning,
revising, and editing compositions (Graham & Harris, 2011). Self-regulated strategy
development (SRSD) approaches writing as a problem-solving task that involves planning,
knowledge, and skills. Within SRSD are several strategies focused on different aspects of
writing.
 Spend fifteen to twenty minutes daily on direct handwriting instruction and supervise
practice session closely.
 Make sure the paper is clearly lined.
 Use implements most suitable for particular children.
 Provide writing samples for the student to trace.
 Omit unnecessary loops and curls from letter forms.
 Teach lower-case first (e.g. a, b, c...) and emphasize correct letter formation, slant and
space.
 Display model letter forms in the classroom.
 Have pupils evaluate their own work for correct letter formation and uniform spacing.

Instructional Approaches for Math

Students with learning disabilities need more structure and teacher direction. Some other
principles are that the teacher should sequence the instruction to minimise errors, but when
errors occur, they should be immediately rectified. The instruction should include cumulative
review of concepts and operations, and the students’ progress should be closely monitored.
The direct instruction and peer tutoring can also be used.

LEARNERS WITH SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL OR BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS

Students with emotional or behavioural disorders typically have low grades and other
unsatisfactory academic outcomes. Educators have described several conceptual models of
education. All credible conceptual models have two objectives: (1) controlling misbehaviour
and (2) teaching students the academic and social skills they need. The models do not focus
on one objective to the exclusion of the other, and they recognise the need for integrating all
the educational, psychological, and social services these students require.

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Balancing Behavioural Control with Academic and Social Learning
Behavioural control strategies are an essential part of educational programmes for students
with externalising problems (Colvin, 2004). Without effective means of controlling disruptive
behaviour, it’s extremely unlikely that academic and social learning will occur. Excellent
academic instruction will certainly reduce many behaviour problems as well as teach
important academic skills (Kauffman et al., 2011; Kerr & Nelson, 2010; Lane & Menzies,
2010). Nevertheless, even the best instructional programmes would not eliminate the
disruptive behaviours of all students. Teachers of students with emotional or behavioural
disorders must have effective control strategies, preferably involving students as much as
possible in self-control. In addition, teachers must offer effective instruction in academic and
social skills that will allow their students to live, learn, and work with others. Teachers must
also allow students to make all the choices they can—manageable choices that are
appropriate for the individual student (Kauffman et al., 2011).
Importance of Integrated Services
Children and youths with emotional or behavioural disorders tend to have multiple and
complex needs as a result of family and school problems. They need special education, a
variety of family-oriented services, psychotherapy or counselling, community supervision,
training related to employment, and so on. No single service agency can meet the needs of
most of these children and youths, but it is clear that school plays an important role
(Kauffman & Landrum, 2009). Integrating these needed services into a more coordinated and
effective effort is now seen as essential.
Workable Strategies
Successful strategies at all levels, from early intervention through transition, balance concern
for academic and social skills and provide integrated services. These strategies include the
following elements:
• Systematic, data-based interventions. Interventions are applied systematically and
consistently and are based on reliable research.
• Continuous assessment and progress monitoring. Teachers conduct direct, daily assessment
of performance, with planning based on this monitoring.
• Practice of new skills. Skills are not taught in isolation but are applied directly in everyday
situations through modelling, rehearsal, and guided practice.
• Treatment matched to problems. Interventions are designed to meet the needs of individual
students and their particular life circumstances and are not general formulas that ignore the
nature, complexity, cultural context, and severity of the problem.
• Multicomponent treatment. Teachers and other professionals use as many different
interventions as are necessary to meet the multiple needs of students (e.g., social skills
training, academic remediation, medication, counselling or psychotherapy, and family
treatment or parent training).
• Programming for transfer and maintenance. Interventions promote transfer of learning to
new situations; quick fixes nearly always fail to produce generalized change.
• Sustained intervention. Many emotional or behavioural disorders are developmental
disabilities and will not likely be cured but demand life-long support.

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Adapting the Learning Environment
Three major areas of adaptation include, class behaviour, social skills and academic
instruction.
 Teachers must assume that students with behavioural disorders can learn the
appropriate behaviours expected of all students.
 In adapting the learning environment, you need first to identify the behaviours of
interest, collect data on their current status, design intervention programme and then
collect additional data to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention.
 There are three possible instructional goals. Let us consider them.
 increase the occurrence of appropriate behaviours
 decrease the occurrence of inappropriate behaviours
 teach new behaviour that is presently absent from students repertoire.

Teaching Study Skills

Students with poor study habits are at disadvantaged in the regular classroom. Such children
have difficulty maintaining attention in class.
Maintaining Attention
Students with classroom behaviour problems often spend a great deal of instructional time
engaging in off-tasks behaviour, their attention is not directed toward the appropriate
classroom activity. The following strategies may help to improve their on-task behaviour.
 Before presenting important verbal information to students, use cues to alert them,
such as, 'listen' 'ready' or 'it's time' to begin the lesson.
 Establish a standard way of beginning a lesson and use the signal word or phrase only
at times when you wish to obtain everyone's attention.
 Make reinforcers contingent on attending behaviour.
 When presenting new information to students seat them in a semicircular or u-shaped
formation to make sure that all students can maintain visual contact with the teacher.
 Provide clear directions, i.e, simplify directions.
 Monitor whether students are attending to the lesson.
 Use physical proximity to encourage attention.
 Provide students with individual work areas in which there are few distractions.
Organisational Skills
Some students lack the ability to plan ahead. They are unorganised and use class time poorly.
The following strategies may help:
 Develop schedule that divides the class period into short segments.
 Make a list of activities to be finished during each time period.
 State directions for assignments and classroom work clearly and concisely.
 Present directions for assignments and class work both verbally and in writing.
 Group students together for completing assignments.
Increasing Accuracy
Inaccurate responses occur for many responses. Rapid reason state is a common one. To help
hasty students increase the accuracy of their work, you can try the following:
 Provide reinforcement for accurate responses.

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  Carefully design materials to achieve high rates of student success.
 Teach students strategies for taking tests and examinations.
 Encourage students to think before they speak.
 Use cognitive behaviour modification technique to help students learn to direct their
own problem solving.
For example:
1. Problem definition (what is it I should do)
2. Focusing attention (I have to concentrate and do what I am supposed to do)
3. Coping statements (Even though I made a mistake I can continue more slowly)
4. Self-reinforcement (Great! I did it. That was good).

Controlling Disruptive Behaviour

One of the most common concerns of classroom teachers is the students who disrupts the
instructional process. Those who exhibit inappropriate behaviours indicate poor social skills
or poor general work habits. The following will help you.
Tardiness - students who arrive late
 Reward students for arriving on time
 Help students analyse the skills or steps required to arrive on time, e.g. determine time
to leave for home.
 Place a sign-in sheet at the door so that students can record their names.
 Schedule activities that students enjoy at the start of the class period.
 Set up contract with students.
 Encourage parents to give watches to their children.
 Assign peer tutors.
Verbal Outburst
 When students talk out in class they disrupt the orderly flow of classroom activities.
Use the following suggestions:
 Establish clearly stated classroom rules regarding students' verbal interactions.
 State specifically circumstances under which students are permitted to talk.
 Reinforce students who are good models for others.
 Set up a system, in which a loss of points results if students talk out.
 Have students record the number of times they talk each day. They can graph data
each day for a week and compute weekly total.
Moving About the Classroom
A familiar conduct problem is the active student who moves about in the classroom at
inappropriate times. The following suggestions may be of help.
 Find out whether students fully understand the class rules.
 Record the amount of time the student is out of his seat.
 Have students to record their own in seat behaviour.
 Provide frequent reinforcement for appropriate behaviour.
Social Relationships
Many students have difficulty getting along with others. This type of behaviour is
characterised by aggressive behaviours or withdrawals. The following can help improve the
social relationship in the classroom.

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  Use role play - to help students practice non-aggressive responses.
 Teach students acceptable responses to verbal or physical attacks.
 Reinforce students who substitute appropriate non-aggressive responses for the
aggressive behaviour they previously exhibited.
 Encourage social interactions of withdrawn students with reinforcers.
 Pair withdrawn students with a peer tutor, cross age tutor or adult.
Models for Managing Behavioural Disorders
There are several models. These include:
(a) Medical Model - this is used if the condition is medically-oriented
(b) Psychodynamic Model - This is linked directly to Sigmund Freud's notions. It is believed
that drives, tension, emotions and other deep seated conflicts create conditions that make a
person's behaviour maladaptive. If this is the situation, psychotherapy is used.
(c) Humanistic Model - This arises when the person is not in touch with himself/herself. To
be able to assist, counselling is recommended. The individual is helped to identify the
potentials available to him/her. The counsellor is not to use authoritarian methods during the
counselling session(s).
(d) Behavioural Model: It is assumed that the maladaptive behaviour was learned. The
solution is to help him unlearn the learned behaviour.

LEARNERS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS

Educational Programming Principles for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Most agree that educational programming for students with autism spectrum disorders should
include (1) direct instruction of skills, (2) instruction in natural settings, and (3) behaviour
management, when needed, using functional assessment and positive behavioural
intervention and support.

Direct Instruction of Skills

Effective instruction for students with autism spectrum disorders usually requires a highly
structured, directive approach that uses basic principles of behavioural psychology for
analysing tasks and how best to teach them. Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) is a highly
structured approach that focuses on teaching functional skills and continuous assessment of
progress. ABA emphasizes positive reinforcement or rewarding of desired behaviours and
punishing inappropriate behaviours. Today, many professionals avoid or de-emphasize the
use of punishment, and research suggests that this has not resulted in a decrease in
effectiveness (Sallows & Graupner, 2005).
Instruction in Natural Settings
Education of students with autism spectrum disorders should be in natural settings and in
natural interactions where individuals without disabilities are educated. Teachers are
expected to make better instructional use of the natural interactions by which children with
autism spectrum disorders normally learn language and other social skills.
Behaviour Management
Some students with autism spectrum disorders, sometimes display highly inappropriate
behaviours, such as biting, hitting and screaming. A combination of functional behavioural

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assessment (FBA) and positive behavioural intervention and support (PBIS) may reduce
or eliminate these behaviours. FBA involves determining the consequences, antecedents, and
setting events that maintain such behaviours (Horner, Albin, Sprague, & Todd, 2000).
Consequences refer to the purpose the behaviour serves for the person. Antecedents refer to
what triggers the behaviour. Setting events take into account the contextual factors in which
the behaviour occurs. PBIS involves finding ways to support positive behaviours of students
rather than punishing negative behaviours. It focuses on the total environment of the student,
including instruction.
Most educational strategies tend to focus on a particular area of problems such as Picture
Exchange Communication System (PECS) and Pivotal response teaching (PRT). PECS
involves the use of pictures to help students initiate and maintain functional communication.
For students who are more verbal but who have problems with interpreting social cues and
interaction, teachers can use social stories. PRT is also based on the assumption that some
skills are critical, or pivotal, for function in other areas. Thus, by focusing intervention on
these pivotal skills, the effects of the intervention can more easily spread to other skill areas.
It involves motivation, self-management, initiations and responding to multiple cues.

LEARNERS WITH COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Helping children overcome speech and language disorders is not the responsibility of any
single professional. Rather, identification is the joint responsibility of the classroom teacher,
the speech-language pathologist, and parents. The teacher can carry out specific suggestions
for individual cases. By listening attentively and empathetically when children speak,
providing appropriate models of speech and language for children to imitate, and encouraging
children to use their communication skills appropriately, the classroom teacher can help not
only to improve speech and language, but also to prevent some disorders from developing in
the first place.
Facilitating the Social Use of Language
Primary role of the classroom teacher is to facilitate the social use of language. The fact that a
student has a language or speech disorder does not necessarily mean that the teacher or
clinician must intensify efforts to teach the student about the form, structure, or content of
language. Language must be taught as a way of solving problems by making oneself
understood and making sense of what other people say. The classroom should be a place in
which almost continuous opportunities exist for students and teachers to employ language
and obtain feedback in constructive relationships.

Language is the basic medium through which most academic and social learning occurs in
school. School language is more formal than the language many children use at home and
with playmates. It is structured conversation, in which listeners and speakers or readers and
writers must learn to be clear and expressive, to convey and interpret essential information
quickly and easily. Without skill in using the language of school, a child is certain to fail
academically and virtually certain to be socially unsuccessful as well.
Question-Asking Strategies
Teachers can use alternative question-asking strategies to help students think through
problems successfully. Teachers often ask students too many questions in areas of their

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identified weaknesses, thereby inadvertently curtailing the students’ use of expressive
language. When students fail to answer higher-order questions because these are beyond their
level of information or skill, the teacher should reformulate the problem at a simpler level.
After students solve the intermediate steps, the teacher can return to the question that was too
difficult at first.

Teachers must learn to clarify the problems at hand and must also give unambiguous
feedback to students’ responses to their questions. The teacher’s role is not merely to instruct
students about language but also to teach them how to use it. More specifically, the teacher
must help students learn how to use language in its proper context. The teacher’s own use of
language is a key factor in helping students learn effectively, especially if students have
language disorders.

Language disorders can change with a child’s development. Just because a child has receptive
or expressive language within the normal range at one age does not mean that it will be
within the same range at a later age.

Teaching Literacy: Reading and Written Expression

Students with language and speech problems are at significant risk for reading disability. In
particular, students who have poor phonological awareness are typically unable to learn how
to decode without intervention. It therefore critical for the classroom teacher, speech-
language pathologist, and special education teacher to work together to provide explicit and
systematic intervention in reading for children with language impairments.

Students with language impairment also have difficulty with written expression. As students’
progress through the grades, written language takes on increasing importance. The
interactions teachers have with students about their writing—the questions they ask to help
students understand how to write for their readers—are critical to overcoming disabilities in
written language. Metacognitive training and strategy training are typically appropriate for
use with students who have language disorders (Mercer & Pullen, 2009).

LEARNERS WHO ARE HEARING IMPAIRED

Formidable problems faced by the educator who works with students who are deaf or hard of
hearing is of course communication. The controversy about how individuals who are deaf
should converse is referred to as the oralism–manualism debate. Oralism favours teaching
people who are deaf to speak; manualism advocates the use of some kind of manual
communication. Manualism was the preferred method until the middle of the 19th century,
when oralism began to gain predominance. Professionals recommend both oral and manual
methods in what is referred to as a total communication or simultaneous communication
approach. However, many within the Deaf community advocate for a bicultural-bilingual
approach.
Oral Approaches: The Auditory-Verbal Approach and the Auditory-Oral Approach
The auditory-verbal approach is the use of audition to improve speech and language
development. Most children with hearing impairment who have residual hearing can rely on

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amplification technology, such as hearing aids and cochlear implants, and stresses that this
amplification technology should be instituted as early as possible.
The Auditory-Oral Approach stresses the use of visual cues, such as speechreading and
cued speech. Sometimes inappropriately called lipreading. Speechreading involves teaching
children to use visual information to understand what is being said to them. Speechreading is
a more accurate term than lipreading because the goal is to teach students to attend to a
variety of stimuli in addition to specific movements of the lips. For example, proficient
speech readers read contextual stimuli so that they can anticipate certain types of messages in
certain types of situations. They use facial expressions to help them interpret what is being
said to them. Even the ability to discriminate the various speech sounds that flow from a
person’s mouth involves attending to visual cues from the tongue and jaw as well as the lips.
For example, to learn to discriminate among vowels, the speechreader concentrates on cues
related to the degree of jaw opening and lip shaping.
Cued speech is a way of augmenting speechreading. In cued speech, the individual uses
handshapes to represent specific sounds while speaking.
Total Communication/Simultaneous Communication
Total communication involves the simultaneous use of speech with one of the signing
English systems. These signing systems are approaches that professionals have devised for
teaching people who are deaf to communicate. Fingerspelling, the representation of letters of
the English alphabet by finger positions, is also used occasionally to spell out certain words.
The Bicultural-Bilingual Approach
Bicultural-bilingual approach contains these three features (Schirmer, 2001):
1. Sign language is considered the primary language, and English is considered the secondary
language.
2. People who are deaf play an important role in the development of the programme and its
curriculum.
3. The curriculum includes instruction in Deaf culture.
Bilingual education for students who are deaf can be structured so that sign language is
learned first, followed by English, or the two can be taught simultaneously.
Technological Advances
Technological advances have made it easier for persons with hearing impairment to
communicate with and/or have access to information from the hearing world. This
technological explosion has primarily involved five areas: hearing aids, captioning,
telephones, computer-assisted instruction, and the Internet.

LEARNERS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT

Lack of sight can severely limit a person’s experiences because it is a primary means of
obtaining information from the environment is not available. Making the situation even more
difficult, educational experiences in the typical classroom are frequently visual. In this era of
inclusion, the visually impaired are expected to be educated in the regular classroom and
teachers are expected to make some important modifications. The visual impaired have to
rely on other sensory modalities to acquire information. The student with little or no sight
will possibly require special modifications in four major areas: (1) braille, (2) use of

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remaining sight, (3) listening skills, and (4) O & M training. The first three pertain directly to
academic education, particularly reading; the last refers to skills needed for everyday living.
Expectations for teachers working with the visually impaired
 Feel comfortable using vision words, such as “look,” “see,” and “watch.”
 Use the students’ name when calling them.
 Read out loud what you are writing on the board.
 Encourage independence; students who are visually impaired need to learn to do as
much as possible for themselves.
 Include students who are visually impaired in as many class activities as possible.
 Give explicit directions; avoid the words here and there because they may not give
enough information.
 Fill in experiential gaps when you discover them.
 Allow extra time when needed, for tactual exploration, when appropriate, slower
visual/braille reading, etc.
 Provide extra storage space for special equipment/materials. Encourage the use of
aids/devices (not aides).
In teaching children with visual impairment the following points can be considered:
 Eliminate unnecessary obstacles.
 Keep doors completely closed or open.
 Provide guides, orientation and mobility practice.
 Repeat information you write on the chalkboard.
 Inform children when changes are done to classroom arrangements.
 Provide tape recorded material.
 Use heavy black marking pen.
 Write chalkboard instruction on a piece of paper for his or her use.
 Ask others to read material to the pupil.
 Provide magnifying glass.
 Call pupils by name.
 Allow child to use Braille if possible.
 Talk directly to the child.
 Say when you are arriving and leaving the classroom.

LEARNERS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND OTHER HEALTH

IMPAIRMENTS
Although many children with seizure disorders have other disabilities, some do not.
Consequently, both general and special education teachers can expect to encounter children
who have seizures. Besides obtaining medical advice about management of the child’s
particular seizure disorder, teachers should know first aid for epileptic seizures.
Seizures are primarily a medical problem and require primarily medical attention. The
responsibilities of educators are:

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1. General and special education teachers need to help dispel ignorance, superstition, and
prejudice toward people who have seizures and provide calm management for the occasional
seizure the child may have at school.
2. Special education teachers who work with students with severe intellectual disability or
teach children with other severe developmental disabilities need to be prepared to manage
more frequent seizures as well as to handle learning problems.
Some children who do not have intellectual disability but have seizures exhibit learning and
behaviour problems. Brief seizures might require the teacher to repeat instructions or allow
the child extra time to respond. Frequent major convulsions might prevent even a bright child
from achieving at the usual rate.
Many students with epilepsy have no learning problems at all. However, some do have
learning disabilities, and children with epilepsy have emotional or behavioural disorders more
often than those without epilepsy. If children with epilepsy do have problems in school, their
school adjustment can be improved dramatically if they are properly assessed, placed,
counselled, taught about seizures, and given appropriate work assignments. The quality of
life of children with epilepsy is related to the same risk factors that affect quality of life for
others with disabilities, including problems with executive function, problems with adaptive
behaviour, low IQ, psychosocial difficulties, low family income, and early age of onset
(Sherman, Slick, & Eyrl, 2006).

Educational and Social Implications

Some children with spinal cord injuries can walk independently, some need braces, and
others have to use wheelchairs. Lack of sensation and ability to control bodily functions
depend on the nature of the injury.
Some children will have acute medical problems that might lead to repeated hospitalizations
for surgery or treatment of infections. Lack of sensation in certain areas of the skin can
increase the risk of burns, abrasions, and pressure sores. The child might need to be
repositioned periodically during the school day and monitored carefully during some
activities that involve risk of injury.

Because the student with spina bifida has deficiencies in sensation below the defect, he may
have particular problems in spatial orientation, spatial judgment, sense of direction and
distance, organization of motor skills, and body image or body awareness. Lack of bowel and
bladder control in some children will require periodic catheterisation.

Educating students with physical disabilities is not so much a matter of special instruction.
Design adaptations in buildings, furniture, household appliances, and clothing can make it
possible for someone with a physical disability to function as efficiently as a person without
disabilities in a home, school, or community. Adapted physical education is now a special
educational feature of all school programmes that make appropriate adaptations for students
with disabilities.
The objectives of educators and other professionals who work with children and youths with
physical disabilities should include autonomy and self-advocacy. Children with physical
disabilities typically want to be self-sufficient, and they should be encouraged and taught the

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skills they need to take care of themselves to the maximum extent possible. This requires
knowledge of the physical limitations created by the disability and sensitivity to the child’s
social and academic needs and perceptions—understanding the environmental and
psychological factors that affect classroom performance and behaviour.
Individualised Planning
The individualised education programmes (IEPs) for these students tend to be particularly
specific and detailed.

Educational Goals and Curricula

Educational goals and curricula cannot be prescribed for children with physical disabilities as
a group because their individual limitations vary so greatly. Even among children with the
same condition, goals and curricula must be determined after assessment of each child’s
intellectual, physical, sensory, and emotional characteristics. A physical disability, especially
a severe and chronic one that limits mobility, may have two implications for education: (1)
The child might be deprived of experiences that children without disabilities have, and (2) the
child might find it impossible to manipulate educational materials and respond to educational
tasks the way most children do.
For children with an impairment that is only physical, curriculum and educational goals
should ordinarily be the same as those for nondisabled children: reading, writing, arithmetic,
and experiences designed to familiarise them with the world around them. In addition, special
instruction might be needed in mobility skills, daily living skills, and occupational skills.

LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL GIFTS AND TALENTS

Highly talented young people suffer boredom and negative peer pressure in heterogeneous
classrooms. Students at all ages and grade levels are entitled to challenging and appropriate
instruction if they are to develop their talents fully.
A wide variety of plans for educating students with special gifts or talents has been devised
for educating students with special gifts or talents. Generally, the plans can be described as
providing enrichment and acceleration.

Enrichment
It is the process whereby the student does more work than it is ordinarily possible. In
enrichment, something is added to the general education programme. Additional experiences
provided to students without placing them in a higher grade. Students who are gifted may
study the same subjects as their peers but in greater detail. Or the curriculum may be
broadened to include areas of study not generally covered. Renzulli and Reis (1991)
developed a model known as school wide enrichment model. In this model, what you need to
do is to:
a. Expose students to a wide variety of disciplines, including field study, topics on different
issues, occupations, persons, places and events that are not ordinarily covered in the regular
curriculum.
b. Design instruction methods and materials purposefully to promote development of thinking
and feeling processes.

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Mentorship
In enrichment, the student is not separated from the peers. He has the opportunity to model
mentors, to participate in holiday camps and field trips.
Acceleration
Acceleration generally is the process of modifying the pace at which a student moves through
the curriculum. This means that if you provide a student with opportunities to move through
the required curriculum at a faster pace, then it means you are accelerating his learning. It
placing the students ahead of their age peers. In acceleration, you are required to include the
following options:
a. Early admission to school: Allow child to enter kindergarten at a younger than normal
age.
b.Grade skipping: Ask the student to move to higher classes quickly.
c. Content acceleration: Ask the students to add one or two subjects to what he is already
learning with peers while he remains in the same class.
d.Curriculum compacting or telescoping: Compress the instructional content and materials
so that the gifted and talented students have more time to work on more challenging
materials.

LEARNERS WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER

Parker (1992) provides the following strategies for teaching children with ADHD.
For students who display inattention
 Seat them in quiet areas, at desks that are far apart, near students who model
appropriate class behaviour, or near peers who study with them.
 Give them more time to complete their work, reduce the amount of work you ask
them to do make sure that you focus on the essentials
 Divide long assignments into smaller parts and ask students to complete each part and
then the whole.
 Require fewer correct answers to receive a passing grade.
 Use cues such as private signals to stay on task in addition to oral and written
instructions simultaneously.
 For students who are impulsive
 Ignore their mildly inappropriate behaviours.
 Reward them promptly when they behave correctly.
 Acknowledge the correct behaviour of other students so that the impulsive
students understand and model that behaviour.
 Correct them gently.
 Supervise them closely when they transit from one activity to another
 Enter into a behaviour contract.

For students with excessive motor activity

 Let them stand while in class.
 Ask them to run errands and use their energy physically and break for a short while
between assignments to allow them and other students to do something physical eg.
A stretch break.

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