DATA SCIENCE III BSC CS

UNIT-III Algorithms - Machine learning algorithms – Modeling process – Types – Supervised –

Unsupervised - Semi-supervised

Machine Learning Algorithms

Machine Learning algorithms are the programs that can learn the hidden patterns from
the data, predict the output, and improve the performance from experiences on their own.
Different algorithms can be used in machine learning for different tasks, such as simple linear
regression that can be used for prediction problems like stock market prediction, and the
KNN algorithm can be used for classification problems.

Types of Machine Learning Algorithms

Machine Learning Algorithm can be broadly classified into three types:

➢ Supervised Learning Algorithms

➢ Unsupervised Learning Algorithms
➢ Reinforcement Learning algorithms

The below diagram illustrates the different ML algorithm, along with the categories:
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Supervised Machine Learning

Supervised learning is the types of machine learning in which machines are trained using
well "labelled" training data, and on basis of that data, machines predict the output. The labelled
data means some input data is already tagged with the correct output.

In supervised learning, the training data provided to the machines work as the supervisor that
teaches the machines to predict the output correctly. It applies the same concept as a student
learns in the supervision of the teacher.

Supervised learning is a process of providing input data as well as correct output data to the
machine learning model. The aim of a supervised learning algorithm is to find a mapping
function to map the input variable(x) with the output variable(y).

In the real-world, supervised learning can be used for Risk Assessment, Image classification,
Fraud Detection, spam filtering, etc.

How Supervised Learning Works?

In supervised learning, models are trained using labelled dataset, where the model learns
about each type of data. Once the training process is completed, the model is tested on the basis
of test data (a subset of the training set), and then it predicts the output.

The working of Supervised learning can be easily understood by the below example and
diagram:

Suppose we have a dataset of different types of shapes which includes square, rectangle, triangle,
and Polygon. Now the first step is that we need to train the model for each shape.
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If the given shape has four sides, and all the sides are equal, then it will be labelled as a Square.

If the given shape has three sides, then it will be labelled as a triangle.

If the given shape has six equal sides then it will be labelled as hexagon.

Now, after training, we test our model using the test set, and the task of the model is to identify
the shape.

The machine is already trained on all types of shapes, and when it finds a new shape, it classifies
the shape on the bases of a number of sides, and predicts the output.

Steps Involved in Supervised Learning:

First Determine the type of training dataset

Collect/Gather the labelled training data.

Split the training dataset into training dataset, test dataset, and validation dataset.

Determine the input features of the training dataset, which should have enough knowledge so
that the model can accurately predict the output.

Determine the suitable algorithm for the model, such as support vector machine, decision tree,
etc.

Execute the algorithm on the training dataset. Sometimes we need validation sets as the control
parameters, which are the subset of training datasets.

Evaluate the accuracy of the model by providing the test set. If the model predicts the correct
output, which means our model is accurate.

Types of supervised Machine learning Algorithms:

Supervised learning can be further divided into two types of problems:

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1. Regression

Regression algorithms are used if there is a relationship between the input variable and
the output variable. It is used for the prediction of continuous variables, such as Weather
forecasting, Market Trends, etc. Below are some popular Regression algorithms which come
under supervised learning:

➢ Linear Regression
➢ Regression Trees
➢ Non-Linear Regression
➢ Bayesian Linear Regression
➢ Polynomial Regression

2. Classification

Classification algorithms are used when the output variable is categorical, which means there
are two classes such as Yes-No, Male-Female, True-false, etc.

➢ Spam Filtering,
➢ Random Forest
➢ Decision Trees
➢ Logistic Regression
➢ Support vector Machines

Advantages of Supervised learning:

With the help of supervised learning, the model can predict the output on the basis of
prior experiences.

In supervised learning, we can have an exact idea about the classes of objects.

Supervised learning model helps us to solve various real-world problems such as fraud
detection, spam filtering, etc.

Disadvantages of supervised learning:

Supervised learning models are not suitable for handling the complex tasks.

Supervised learning cannot predict the correct output if the test data is different from the training
dataset.

Training required lots of computation times.

In supervised learning, we need enough knowledge about the classes of object.

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Unsupervised Machine Learning

In the previous topic, we learned supervised machine learning in which models are
trained using labeled data under the supervision of training data. But there may be many cases in
which we do not have labeled data and need to find the hidden patterns from the given dataset.
So, to solve such types of cases in machine learning, we need unsupervised learning techniques.

What is Unsupervised Learning?

As the name suggests, unsupervised learning is a machine learning technique in which

models are not supervised using training dataset. Instead, models itself find the hidden patterns
and insights from the given data. It can be compared to learning which takes place in the human
brain while learning new things. It can be defined as:

Unsupervised learning is a type of machine learning in which models are trained using
unlabeled dataset and are allowed to act on that data without any supervision.

Unsupervised learning cannot be directly applied to a regression or classification problem

because unlike supervised learning, we have the input data but no corresponding output data. The
goal of unsupervised learning is to find the underlying structure of dataset, group that data
according to similarities, and represent that dataset in a compressed format.

Example: Suppose the unsupervised learning algorithm is given an input dataset containing
images of different types of cats and dogs. The algorithm is never trained upon the given dataset,
which means it does not have any idea about the features of the dataset. The task of the
unsupervised learning algorithm is to identify the image features on their own. Unsupervised
learning algorithm will perform this task by clustering the image dataset into the groups
according to similarities between images.
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Why use Unsupervised Learning?

Below are some main reasons which describe the importance of Unsupervised Learning:

Unsupervised learning is helpful for finding useful insights from the data.

Unsupervised learning is much similar as a human learns to think by their own experiences,
which makes it closer to the real AI.

Unsupervised learning works on unlabeled and uncategorized data which make unsupervised
learning more important.

In real-world, we do not always have input data with the corresponding output so to solve such
cases, we need unsupervised learning.

Working of Unsupervised Learning

Working of unsupervised learning can be understood by the below diagram:

Here, we have taken an unlabeled input data, which means it is not categorized and
corresponding outputs are also not given. Now, this unlabeled input data is fed to the machine
learning model in order to train it. Firstly, it will interpret the raw data to find the hidden patterns
from the data and then will apply suitable algorithms such as k-means clustering, Decision tree,
etc.

Once it applies the suitable algorithm, the algorithm divides the data objects into groups
according to the similarities and difference between the objects.
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Types of Unsupervised Learning Algorithm:

The unsupervised learning algorithm can be further categorized into two types of problems:

Clustering: Clustering is a method of grouping the objects into clusters such that objects with
most similarities remains into a group and has less or no similarities with the objects of another
group. Cluster analysis finds the commonalities between the data objects and categorizes them as
per the presence and absence of those commonalities.

Association: An association rule is an unsupervised learning method which is used for finding
the relationships between variables in the large database. It determines the set of items that
occurs together in the dataset. Association rule makes marketing strategy more effective. Such as
people who buy X item (suppose a bread) are also tend to purchase Y (Butter/Jam) item. A
typical example of Association rule is Market Basket Analysis.

Unsupervised Learning algorithms:

Below is the list of some popular unsupervised learning algorithms:

➢ K-means clustering
➢ KNN (k-nearest neighbors)
➢ Hierarchal clustering
➢ Anomaly detection
➢ Neural Networks
➢ Principle Component Analysis
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Independent Component Analysis

Apriori algorithm

Singular value decomposition

Advantages of Unsupervised Learning

Unsupervised learning is used for more complex tasks as compared to supervised learning
because, in unsupervised learning, we don't have labeled input data.

Unsupervised learning is preferable as it is easy to get unlabeled data in comparison to labeled

data.

Disadvantages of Unsupervised Learning

Unsupervised learning is intrinsically more difficult than supervised learning as it does not have
corresponding output.

The result of the unsupervised learning algorithm might be less accurate as input data is not
labeled, and algorithms do not know the exact output in advance.

Types of Machine Learning

Machine learning is the branch of Artificial Intelligence that focuses on developing
models and algorithms that let computers learn from data and improve from previous
experience without being explicitly programmed for every task. In simple words, ML
teaches the systems to think and understand like humans by learning from the data.
we will explore the various types of machine learning algorithms that are
important for future requirements. Machine learning is generally a training system to learn
from past experiences and improve performance over time. Machine learning helps to
predict massive amounts of data. It helps to deliver fast and accurate results to get
profitable opportunities.

Types of Machine Learning

There are several types of machine learning, each with special characteristics and
applications. Some of the main types of machine learning algorithms are as follows:
1. Supervised Machine Learning
2. Unsupervised Machine Learning
3. Semi-Supervised Machine Learning
4. Reinforcement Learning
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1. Supervised Machine Learning

Supervised learning is defined as when a model gets trained on a “Labelled Dataset”.
Labelled datasets have both input and output parameters. In Supervised Learning algorithms
learn to map points between inputs and correct outputs. It has both training and validation
datasets labelled.

Let’s understand it with the help of an example.

Example: Consider a scenario where you have to build an image classifier to differentiate
between cats and dogs. If you feed the datasets of dogs and cats labelled images to the
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algorithm, the machine will learn to classify between a dog or a cat from these labeled images.
When we input new dog or cat images that it has never seen before, it will use the learned
algorithms and predict whether it is a dog or a cat. This is how supervised learning works,
and this is particularly an image classification.
There are two main categories of supervised learning that are mentioned below:
• Classification
• Regression
Classification
Classification deals with predicting categorical target variables, which represent discrete
classes or labels. For instance, classifying emails as spam or not spam, or predicting whether a
patient has a high risk of heart disease. Classification algorithms learn to map the input
features to one of the predefined classes.
Here are some classification algorithms:
• Logistic Regression
• Support Vector Machine
• Random Forest
• Decision Tree
• K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
• Naive Bayes
Regression
Regression, on the other hand, deals with predicting continuous target variables, which
represent numerical values. For example, predicting the price of a house based on its size,
location, and amenities, or forecasting the sales of a product. Regression algorithms learn to
map the input features to a continuous numerical value.
Here are some regression algorithms:
• Linear Regression
• Polynomial Regression
• Ridge Regression
• Lasso Regression
• Decision tree
• Random Forest
Advantages of Supervised Machine Learning
• Supervised Learning models can have high accuracy as they are trained on labelled data.
• The process of decision-making in supervised learning models is often interpretable.
• It can often be used in pre-trained models which saves time and resources when developing
new models from scratch.
Disadvantages of Supervised Machine Learning
• It has limitations in knowing patterns and may struggle with unseen or unexpected patterns
that are not present in the training data.
• It can be time-consuming and costly as it relies on labeled data only.
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• It may lead to poor generalizations based on new data.

Applications of Supervised Learning
Supervised learning is used in a wide variety of applications, including:
• Image classification: Identify objects, faces, and other features in images.
• Natural language processing: Extract information from text, such as sentiment, entities,
and relationships.
• Speech recognition: Convert spoken language into text.
• Recommendation systems: Make personalized recommendations to users.
• Predictive analytics: Predict outcomes, such as sales, customer churn, and stock prices.
• Medical diagnosis: Detect diseases and other medical conditions.
• Fraud detection: Identify fraudulent transactions.
• Autonomous vehicles: Recognize and respond to objects in the environment.
• Email spam detection: Classify emails as spam or not spam.
• Quality control in manufacturing: Inspect products for defects.
• Credit scoring: Assess the risk of a borrower defaulting on a loan.
• Gaming: Recognize characters, analyze player behavior, and create NPCs.
• Customer support: Automate customer support tasks.
• Weather forecasting: Make predictions for temperature, precipitation, and other
meteorological parameters.
• Sports analytics: Analyze player performance, make game predictions, and optimize
strategies.
2. Unsupervised Machine Learning
Unsupervised Learning Unsupervised learning is a type of machine learning technique
in which an algorithm discovers patterns and relationships using unlabeled data. Unlike
supervised learning, unsupervised learning doesn’t involve providing the algorithm with
labeled target outputs. The primary goal of Unsupervised learning is often to discover hidden
patterns, similarities, or clusters within the data, which can then be used for various purposes,
such as data exploration, visualization, dimensionality reduction, and more.
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Let’s understand it with the help of an example.

Example: Consider that you have a dataset that contains information about the purchases you
made from the shop. Through clustering, the algorithm can group the same purchasing
behavior among you and other customers, which reveals potential customers without
predefined labels. This type of information can help businesses get target customers as well as
identify outliers.
There are two main categories of unsupervised learning that are mentioned below:
• Clustering
• Association
Clustering
Clustering is the process of grouping data points into clusters based on their similarity. This
technique is useful for identifying patterns and relationships in data without the need for
labeled examples.
Here are some clustering algorithms:
• K-Means Clustering algorithm
• Mean-shift algorithm
• DBSCAN Algorithm
• Principal Component Analysis
• Independent Component Analysis
Association
Association rule learning is a technique for discovering relationships between items in a
dataset. It identifies rules that indicate the presence of one item implies the presence of another
item with a specific probability.
Here are some association rule learning algorithms:
• Apriori Algorithm
• Eclat
• FP-growth Algorithm
Advantages of Unsupervised Machine Learning
• It helps to discover hidden patterns and various relationships between the data.
• Used for tasks such as customer segmentation, anomaly detection, and data exploration.
• It does not require labeled data and reduces the effort of data labeling.
Disadvantages of Unsupervised Machine Learning
• Without using labels, it may be difficult to predict the quality of the model’s output.
• Cluster Interpretability may not be clear and may not have meaningful interpretations.
• It has techniques such as autoencoders and dimensionality reduction that can be used to
extract meaningful features from raw data.
Applications of Unsupervised Learning
Here are some common applications of unsupervised learning:
• Clustering: Group similar data points into clusters.
• Anomaly detection: Identify outliers or anomalies in data.
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• Dimensionality reduction: Reduce the dimensionality of data while preserving its essential
information.
• Recommendation systems: Suggest products, movies, or content to users based on their
historical behavior or preferences.
• Topic modeling: Discover latent topics within a collection of documents.
• Density estimation: Estimate the probability density function of data.
• Image and video compression: Reduce the amount of storage required for multimedia
content.
• Data preprocessing: Help with data preprocessing tasks such as data cleaning, imputation
of missing values, and data scaling.
• Market basket analysis: Discover associations between products.
• Genomic data analysis: Identify patterns or group genes with similar expression profiles.
• Image segmentation: Segment images into meaningful regions.
• Community detection in social networks: Identify communities or groups of individuals
with similar interests or connections.
• Customer behavior analysis: Uncover patterns and insights for better marketing and
product recommendations.
• Content recommendation: Classify and tag content to make it easier to recommend
similar items to users.
• Exploratory data analysis (EDA): Explore data and gain insights before defining specific
tasks.

3. Semi-Supervised Learning

Semi-Supervised learning is a machine learning algorithm that works between

the supervised and unsupervised learning so it uses both labelled and unlabelled data. It’s
particularly useful when obtaining labeled data is costly, time-consuming, or resource-
intensive. This approach is useful when the dataset is expensive and time-consuming. Semi-
supervised learning is chosen when labeled data requires skills and relevant resources in order
to train or learn from it.
We use these techniques when we are dealing with data that is a little bit labeled and the rest
large portion of it is unlabeled. We can use the unsupervised techniques to predict labels and
then feed these labels to supervised techniques. This technique is mostly applicable in the case
of image data sets where usually all images are not labeled.
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Let’s understand it with the help of an example.

Example: Consider that we are building a language translation model, having labeled
translations for every sentence pair can be resources intensive. It allows the models to learn
from labeled and unlabeled sentence pairs, making them more accurate. This technique has led
to significant improvements in the quality of machine translation services.
Types of Semi-Supervised Learning Methods
There are a number of different semi-supervised learning methods each with its own
characteristics. Some of the most common ones include:
• Graph-based semi-supervised learning: This approach uses a graph to represent the
relationships between the data points. The graph is then used to propagate labels from the
labeled data points to the unlabeled data points.
• Label propagation: This approach iteratively propagates labels from the labeled data
points to the unlabeled data points, based on the similarities between the data points.
• Co-training: This approach trains two different machine learning models on different
subsets of the unlabeled data. The two models are then used to label each other’s
predictions.
• Self-training: This approach trains a machine learning model on the labeled data and then
uses the model to predict labels for the unlabeled data. The model is then retrained on the
labeled data and the predicted labels for the unlabeled data.
• Generative adversarial networks (GANs): GANs are a type of deep learning algorithm
that can be used to generate synthetic data. GANs can be used to generate unlabeled data
for semi-supervised learning by training two neural networks, a generator and a
discriminator.
Advantages of Semi- Supervised Machine Learning
• It leads to better generalization as compared to supervised learning, as it takes both
labeled and unlabeled data.
• Can be applied to a wide range of data.
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Disadvantages of Semi- Supervised Machine Learning

• Semi-supervised methods can be more complex to implement compared to other
approaches.
• It still requires some labeled data that might not always be available or easy to obtain.
• The unlabeled data can impact the model performance accordingly.
Applications of Semi-Supervised Learning
Here are some common applications of semi-supervised learning:
• Image Classification and Object Recognition: Improve the accuracy of models by
combining a small set of labeled images with a larger set of unlabeled images.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): Enhance the performance of language models and
classifiers by combining a small set of labeled text data with a vast amount of unlabeled
text.
• Speech Recognition: Improve the accuracy of speech recognition by leveraging a limited
amount of transcribed speech data and a more extensive set of unlabeled audio.
• Recommendation Systems: Improve the accuracy of personalized recommendations by
supplementing a sparse set of user-item interactions (labeled data) with a wealth of
unlabeled user behavior data.
• Healthcare and Medical Imaging: Enhance medical image analysis by utilizing a small
set of labeled medical images alongside a larger set of unlabeled images.
4. Reinforcement Machine Learning
Reinforcement machine learning algorithm is a learning method that interacts with the
environment by producing actions and discovering errors. Trial, error, and delay are the most
relevant characteristics of reinforcement learning. In this technique, the model keeps on
increasing its performance using Reward Feedback to learn the behavior or pattern. These
algorithms are specific to a particular problem e.g. Google Self Driving car, AlphaGo where a
bot competes with humans and even itself to get better and better performers in Go Game.
Each time we feed in data, they learn and add the data to their knowledge which is training
data. So, the more it learns the better it gets trained and hence experienced.
Here are some of most common reinforcement learning algorithms:
• Q-learning: Q-learning is a model-free RL algorithm that learns a Q-function, which maps
states to actions. The Q-function estimates the expected reward of taking a particular action
in a given state.
• SARSA (State-Action-Reward-State-Action): SARSA is another model-free RL
algorithm that learns a Q-function. However, unlike Q-learning, SARSA updates the Q-
function for the action that was actually taken, rather than the optimal action.
• Deep Q-learning: Deep Q-learning is a combination of Q-learning and deep learning. Deep
Q-learning uses a neural network to represent the Q-function, which allows it to learn
complex relationships between states and actions.
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Let’s understand it with the help of examples.

Example: Consider that you are training an AI agent to play a game like chess. The agent
explores different moves and receives positive or negative feedback based on the outcome.
Reinforcement Learning also finds applications in which they learn to perform tasks by
interacting with their surroundings.
Types of Reinforcement Machine Learning
There are two main types of reinforcement learning:

Positive reinforcement
• Rewards the agent for taking a desired action.
• Encourages the agent to repeat the behavior.
• Examples: Giving a treat to a dog for sitting, providing a point in a game for a correct
answer.

Negative reinforcement
• Removes an undesirable stimulus to encourage a desired behavior.
• Discourages the agent from repeating the behavior.
• Examples: Turning off a loud buzzer when a lever is pressed, avoiding a penalty by
completing a task.

Advantages of Reinforcement Machine Learning

• It has autonomous decision-making that is well-suited for tasks and that can learn to make a
sequence of decisions, like robotics and game-playing.
• This technique is preferred to achieve long-term results that are very difficult to achieve.
• It is used to solve a complex problems that cannot be solved by conventional techniques.
Disadvantages of Reinforcement Machine Learning
• Training Reinforcement Learning agents can be computationally expensive and time-
consuming.
• Reinforcement learning is not preferable to solving simple problems.
• It needs a lot of data and a lot of computation, which makes it impractical and costly.
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Applications of Reinforcement Machine Learning

Here are some applications of reinforcement learning:
• Game Playing: RL can teach agents to play games, even complex ones.
• Robotics: RL can teach robots to perform tasks autonomously.
• Autonomous Vehicles: RL can help self-driving cars navigate and make decisions.
• Recommendation Systems: RL can enhance recommendation algorithms by learning user
preferences.
• Healthcare: RL can be used to optimize treatment plans and drug discovery.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): RL can be used in dialogue systems and chatbots.
• Finance and Trading: RL can be used for algorithmic trading.
• Supply Chain and Inventory Management: RL can be used to optimize supply chain
operations.
• Energy Management: RL can be used to optimize energy consumption.
• Game AI: RL can be used to create more intelligent and adaptive NPCs in video games.
• Adaptive Personal Assistants: RL can be used to improve personal assistants.
• Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): RL can be used to create immersive
and interactive experiences.
• Industrial Control: RL can be used to optimize industrial processes.
• Education: RL can be used to create adaptive learning systems.
• Agriculture: RL can be used to optimize agricultural operations.

Machine Learning Modeling

Today’s data-driven organizations use machine learning (ML) modeling to identify
patterns and relationships within data and make predictions and decisions with unparalleled
accuracy. Once trained, ML models can be deployed to analyze new data. In this article, we
outline the steps involved in machine learning modeling, explore types of ML models, and share
how this technology is being implemented in modern businesses.

What is Machine Learning Modeling?

Machine learning modeling is the process of creating and training an algorithm (or
model) to make predictions or decisions based on patterns and relationships within a data set.

The process of creating an ML model varies depending on the application, but it typically
includes the following steps:

1. Data collection—The first step is to gather relevant data to train and evaluate the model.
Strategic data selection is vital to the success of the model.
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2. Data preprocessing—The data must be cleaned and prepared, including removing duplicates,
resolving missing values, normalizing or scaling features, and splitting the data into training and
testing sets.
3. Feature engineering—Feature engineering uses domain knowledge to transform data into
features (variables) that ML algorithms can understand to improve the model's performance.
4. Model selection here are many different types of ML models. Choosing a model depends on the
type of problem to be solved (classification, regression, clustering, etc.), available data, and
various other factors.
5. Model training—The model is trained on the collected and prepared data by feeding it input
features and corresponding target variables.
6. Model evaluation—It’s important to assess the model's performance using evaluation metrics
appropriate to the problem. This step ensures that the model will effectively generalize to new
data. Machine learning modeling is an iterative process, so if the model isn’t performing as
expected, adjustments are critical.
7. Model optimization—Optimization involves improving the model's performance by tuning it’s
hyperparameters—configurations set before training.
8. Deployment—Once a model is built, tested, and optimized, it’s ready to be deployed to make
predictions or take action on new data.
9. Operations—Models in production need to be governed and monitored to ensure results and
predictions can be trusted.

Machine learning modeling

Different kinds of machine learning modeling techniques are suited to address different types of
problems. Selecting the best type of model is the key to using machine learning effectively and
efficiently.

Supervised learning

In this technique, labeled data sets train the model to produce a set of desired outputs. Since
some of the input data is already tagged with the correct output, the training data acts as a
supervisor, providing the model with the instruction required to correctly predict the output.
Real-world applications of supervised learning algorithms include spam filtering, image
recognition, and fraud detection.

Unsupervised learning

As the name suggests, models are not supervised using a training data set with unsupervised
learning. Instead, this ML modeling technique trains the model on unlabeled data without any
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specific desired output. These models are designed to discover patterns, structures, or
relationships within the data, such as grouping objects together with common characteristics.
Ecommerce recommendation engines and customer segmentation are two common applications
of unsupervised learning models.

Semi-supervised learning

A hybrid approach combines elements of supervised and unsupervised learning. With semi-
supervised learning, the model is trained on a data set that contains a small amount of labeled
data and a large amount of unlabeled data. The labeled examples provide a level of supervision,
while the unlabeled examples help train the model to discover hidden patterns or improve the
model's performance. Semi-supervised learning plays an important role in web content
classification and is used by internet search engines to label and rank search results.

Reinforcement learning

Reinforcement learning involves requiring the algorithm to train itself through a series of trial-
and-error experiments. This modeling technique does not rely on training data. Instead, the
algorithm learns by interacting with its environment, receiving feedback from the environment
based on its actions. Common examples of reinforcement learning include autonomous driving
systems and the segmentation of medical images such as CT scans.

Deep learning

Deep learning is a type of machine learning that uses multiple layers of neural networks to
simulate the way the human brain processes information. Deep learning uses these neural
networks to ingest vast amounts of data from multiple data sources and learn without the aid of
human intervention. Many artificial intelligence (AI) applications and services are driven by
deep learning technology, including voice-enabled television remotes, facial recognition
programs, and virtual assistants.

Reference link:

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