DISASTER READINESS

AND RISK REDUCTION

BASIC CONCEPT OF DISASTER AND DISASTER RISK

WEEK 1&2
MODULE 1

Most Essential Learning Competency:

1. Explain the meaning of disaster.
2. Differentiate the risk factor underlying disasters.
3. Describe the effects of disaster to one’s life. DRR11/12-Ia-b-3
4. Analyze disaster from different perspectives (physical, psychological,
sociocultural, economic, political and biological) DRR11/12-Ia-b-6

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Introduction
Disasters are a reality. This is especially true in the Philippines where we are visited by
innumerable typhoons each year with their attendant floods; we are situated in an archipelagic
country that sits over a ring of fire and is leashed to an earthquake belt. Perhaps our most potent
response to it must be awareness, knowledge, and understanding of this reality. Hence, this first
lesson provides you, the learner, with a basic but thorough grounding on the concept of disaster
and how and when an event turns into a disaster.

Learning Competency

Explain the Meaning of Disaster DRR11/12-Ia-b-1

Objectives
 Define disaster;
 Enumerate various effects of disasters;
 Identify destructive typhoons that struck the Philippines in the last 5 years.

Learning Experience
Hazards, Disasters, and Disaster Risk
The term hazard, disaster, and disaster risk are often used interchangeably,
but there are primary differences among them.
A hazard is a threat or harm that has the potential to cause damage (e.g.,
injury, destruction of properties, environmental degradation) to a community. There
are two main types of hazards: natural and man-made. These two differ greatly in
terms of their causes, scope and effects on life, property and the environment.
Disaster is “a sudden, calamitous event, bringing great damage, loss, destruction
and devastation to life and property.” (Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, ADPC, 2012)
The preceding definition of disaster stresses that two elements are affected – life
(whether human or animal) and property. The effects vary – it maybe a minor damage
(like broken windows and doors), major damage (like torn rooftops, collapsed walls), total
destruction (like completely destroyed houses and structures rendering them useless and
inhabitable) and the worst of all, death. The extent of effects also varies. The damages
may be confined to a small area or it reach or encompass an extensive, wide area.
Disaster is “a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society
involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts,
which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own
resources.” (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation, FAO, 2008)

Types of Disasters
The types of disasters are classified according to the hazards that caused them to
happen. These are two main types of disasters: natural and man-made.
Natural Disasters are devastating outcomes that result from natural hazards.
Examples of these are collapse of houses from landslides and incinerated grasslands from
volcanic eruptions.

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 Man-made Disasters, also called technological disasters are destructions from
man-made hazards such as bomb explosions, chemical spills, and even war.

Activity 1: Let’s Tab!

Make a list of all the destructive typhoons/storms that struck the Philippines in the
past 5 years. Include in the list the casualties, damages, and other adverse effects of each
typhoon/storm. Use a table so you can immediately see the data. The table can help facilitate
comparison should you wish to compare the data.
Utilize data from government agencies like the NDRRMC and the PAGASA.

Casualty Other Adverse

Typhoon Name Damages in
Effects
and year it struck estimated amount
(Infrastructure,
agricultural
outputs, etc.)

Activity 2: What I have learned so Far?

Answer the following questions.
1. How do disasters affect people and the environment?
2. What are the effects of disasters on the economy of a community?
3. What is a disaster and how does it differ from hazard?
4. When is a situation considered a disaster?

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 Activity 3: Let’s Reflect!

From the previous activity enumerate and explain the various effects of disaster by writing
at least a paragraph or two.

Rubrics:
10 - if the answer is correct with proper grammar
8 - if the answer is correct with minimal grammatical errors
6 - if the answer is considerable correct with minimal grammatical errors
4 - if the answer is far from the correct answer with minimal grammatical error
2 - if the answer is incorrect with no correct grammar

BASIC CONCEPT OF DISASTER AND DISASTER RISK

Introduction
Now that you have a functional understanding of disaster, you must also develop a
firm grasp of a very crucial factor that has direct bearing on disaster. This factor is termed
“Disaster risk.” Other references call this “risk;” so “disaster risk” and “risk” are
expressions having the same meaning. With this disaster risk, areas have been identified
to be prone to disasters.

Learning Competency
Differentiate Risk Factors Underlying Disasters DRR11/12-Ia-b-2
Objectives

 Explain the meaning of Disaster Risk;

 Enumerate the risk factors which underlie disasters

Learning Experience
Risk is “the probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths,
injuries, property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environment damaged)
resulting from interactions between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable
conditions.” (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation, FAO (2008)
Disaster risk is usually described as a function of the hazard and the vulnerability
context, including the resilience of the societal system under threat. (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nation, FAO (2008)
Disaster Risk is “the probability that a community’s structure or geographic area
is to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of a particular hazard, on account of its nature,
construction and proximity to a hazardous area.” (ADPC, 2012).
The three definitions cited above indicate that there are three elements of disaster
risk.

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1. Exposure: The ‘elements at risk’ from a natural or man-made hazard event. (Quebral,
2016).
2. Hazard: A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that
may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption
or environmental degradation. FAO (2008)
3. Vulnerability: The conditions determined by physical, social, economic and
environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community
to the impact of hazards. FAO (2008)

Man-made hazard

Reduction of the level of vulnerability and exposure is possible by keeping people

and property as distant as possible from hazards. We cannot prevent natural events from
occurring so we should focus on addressing the reduction of vulnerability and exposure.

Disasters can affect anyone and everyone. It does not discriminate between and
among social classes, gender, creed, race, nationality. But there are certain risk factors
which put those affected in a position where they will have graver or longer-lasting post-
disaster stress reactions. These aggravating factors contribute pronounced differences in
the stress reactions of certain individuals with certain characteristics.

The risk factors which underlie disasters according to the ADPC (2012) are:
1. Severity of exposure - those who experience disaster first-hand have the highest
risk of developing future mental problems. Next are those in contact with
victims such as rescue workers and health care practitioners. Of lowest risk are
those most distant like those who have awareness of the disaster only through
news.

2. Gender and Family – the female gender (woman or girl) suffers more adverse
effects. This worsens when children are present at home. Marital relationships
are placed under strain.

3. Age - Adults in the age range of 40-60 are more stressed after disasters but in
general, children exhibit more stress after disasters than adults do. Highly-
stressed parents affect recovery of children.
4. Economic status of country – Evidence indicates that severe mental problems
resulting from disasters are more prevalent in developing countries like the
Philippines. Furthermore, it has been observed that natural disasters tend to

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 have more adverse effects in developing countries than do man-caused disasters
in developed countries.

5. Certain factors are related to a survivor’s background. Recovery is hampered

if survivors:
 We’re not functioning well before the disaster
 have no experience dealing with disasters
 must deal with other stressors after the disaster
 have low self-esteem
 feel uncared for by others
 think they exercise little control over what happens to them
 unable to manage stress

More factors contributory to worse outcomes:

 Death of someone close
 Injury to self or family member
 Life threat
 Panic, horror, or similar feelings
 Separation from family
 Massive loss of property
 Displacement

Activity 1: It’s Worth the Risk!

Give five (5) harmful consequences of risk identified by the Frequently Asked Questions
(FAO.)
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
5. ______________________________

Activity 2: Factor In!

Enumerate the risk factors underlying disaster:

1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
5. ______________________________

Activity 3: Are you In or Out?

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Classify each description under the correct risk factor by writing the letter that corresponds
to your answer.
A. Severity of Exposure
B. Gender and Family
C. Age
D. Economic status of the country
E. Factors relative to victim’s background

Description: Risk Factor:

1. Children experience stress more than adults. ___________________
2. Marital relationships are under strain. ___________________
3. First-hand experience of disaster ___________________
4. Effects in developing countries ___________________
5. Have low self-esteem ___________________

Activity 4
Read the scenario below then answer the question by writing an essay.
What risk factors are reflected from the preceding text? Explain why you consider these
as risk factors.

Gina, an 18-year-old resident of Tacloban City, just got laid off from her job as a
sales clerk in a medium-sized hardware store. She and her siblings could barely
survive each day with their limited resources. Then Typhoon Yolanda struck, killing
her 2 younger sisters. Their home was completely destroyed by the storm surge.
In her barangay alone, 2000 residents were killed, including her children friends
and former playmates.

______
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Rubrics
10 - if the answer is correct with proper grammar
8 - if the answer is correct with minimal grammatical errors
6 - if the answer is considerable correct with minimal grammatical errors
4 - if the answer is far from the correct answer with minimal grammatical error
2 - if the answer is incorrect with no correct grammar

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WEEK2: DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION
NATURE OF DISASTERS AND ITS EFFECTS

Introduction

A natural disaster can bring about many devastating effects. Among

these are deaths, destruction of infrastructures, loss of livelihood and
services and other nonphysical effects like emotional and psychological
effects.

This module is intended to explain the different types of disaster and its
effects to the society. This will provide ideas on what areas can people extend help
to each other and how bigger agencies, on a greater scale, can contribute to
mitigate effects of disasters.

Learning Competencies

1. Describe the effects of disaster to one’s life. DRR11/12-Ia-b-3

2. Analyze disaster from different perspectives (physical, psychological,
sociocultural, economic, political and biological) DRR11/12-Ia-b-6

Objectives

 To enumerate the types of disaster effects

 To view a disaster and its effects from different perspectives/angles

Learning Experience

A disaster can bring about a lot of devastating effects. The effects can be
classified as physical, economic, social or psychological. So, everyone must
be prepared for this unfortunate event.

Lesson 1: Effects of Disaster

The effect of disasters vary, mostly depending on the severity of the exposure of
life, property and the environment to the hazard. Usually, the severity becomes lower in
nearby communities of the affected community, the effects may still be felt and may be
significant.
According to measurable severity, the effects of disasters are primary, secondary,
or tertiary in nature
Primary effects are direct situations arising from disaster itself. For example, when
a strong typhoon hits a village, it can cause primary effects such as flooding, destruction
of houses, damage to property, and loss of life. Usually, a geographical zone can be mapped
to identify areas that are included among the primary effects.
Secondary effects are situations resulting from the primary effects. Among the
secondary effects of a strong typhoon that has hit a village is the disruption of electrical
and water services because of damage to power and water lines.
Tertiary effects are those that are not experienced as a disaster is taking place but
can felt some time after the disaster has occurred. They may also develop from primary or
secondary effects that have become permanent and may change a natural process in the
community. In the same example of the ruined village, flooding is a primary effect that

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 may become a tertiary effect when the location of the village’s river channel changes as
the result of flooding, leaving the old channel dry. This in turn, can give rise to other effects
such as lack of water for crops grown in the village and lack of livelihood due to the
destruction of farmland.

AFFECTED COMPONENTS
Indeed, the effects of disaster can be complex and widespread, depending on the
damage done on those that are affected, namely, the people, the buildings and
infrastructure, the economy, and the environment.

People
After a disaster takes place, the number of casualties is assessed. In most cases
and depending on the severity of a disaster. The actual number cannot be achieved. They may be
missing persons who may be presumed dead. The number of people injured or who have gotten
sick due to the disaster is also considered. In post-disaster assessments, the estimated number of
persons who have been evacuated or relocated is also calculated.
The loss family members, friends, and other loved ones is the most tragic effect
of disaster on people. The pain is exacerbated when loved ones remain even years after the disaster.
Buildings and Infrastructure
Homes, buildings, and other infrastructure are important components that are
considered in the aftermath of a disaster. For people who have been affected by a disaster, the
reestablishment of their homes, workplaces, commercial sites, and similar structures is a priority.
Buildings that are considered affected by disasters are those that have been damaged structurally
or architecturally, have collapsed, or have been leveled to the ground and even buried, rendering
them inhabitable. In like manner, the destruction or damage to public buildings such as schools,
hospitals, churches, and public infrastructure such as roads and bridges can be significantly affect
the devastated community. The damage to public infrastructure immobilizes the community as its
residents cannot easily move from point to point. Any building, field, or ground that has lost its
capacity to serve its designed purpose is tantamount to being useless and is considered a loss.
With the damage to their homes, the people of the affected community do not
just lack shelter from the elements; they have also lost most of their properties, if not all, and have
to practically rebuild their lives as they slowly replace what they have lost.
Economy
Regardless of the severity of a disaster, its effects on the economy of the
affected community are definitely felt. The economy is not a single entity that functions alone. It
involves all sectors of society such as business, transportation, and communication. Hence, when
a disaster strikes a community, its economy is among the first to be affected because of the loss of
livelihood, employment, and even tourism opportunities for the community. For instance, the
damage to agricultural fields that have been scrapped off by flash floods or mudslides may
temporarily paralyze the local economy, especially if agriculture is the primary source of income
in the community. Due to the damage to the fields, there are no crops and livestock to harvest, and
therefore no source of food or income.
With the damage to buildings and public infrastructure comes the loss or delay
of essential services such as electrical power, fuel, sewerage, telecommunications, and water. This
hampers the operations of households, businesses, companies, and schools. The damage to public
infrastructure also disrupts the operations of transport services, and this in turn affects the
movement of people, goods and services. All these have serious implications on the economic life
of a community.

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Environment
Disaster can cause negative effects on the air, soil, water, and ecosystems in a
community. Air quality is compromised when harmful particulates such as volcanic eruptions,
explosions and nuclear plant emissions. These particulates include ash, dust, heavy metals, and
smoke. They do not stay suspended but are deposited into the environment and can contaminate
the ground, bodies of water, and even human, animal, and plant life.
An ecosystem is a complex community involving the interaction of animals,
plants, and microorganisms with the nonliving components of that area. The natural balance of
ecosystems is gravely affected by disasters. For example, an ecosystem that exists on a hillside on
which cattle graze can be damaged and may no longer provide the grass and other plants on which
the cattle feed. Animals may also be displaced by disasters such as wildfires, which force them to
find a new habitat. Plant life is also heavily affected by disasters that strike the areas in which the
plants are grown.

Activity 1: Beauty in Disasters

Watch the video https://youtu.be/ujW8QqdBI4M (Prayer for the Victims of Typhoon

Yolanda). Answer the questions that follow.

1. Based from the video you have watched, what are the effects of the super typhoon
Yolanda to its victims?
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________-
___________________________________________________________
2. What do you think is the most important need of these victims?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
3. What is the role of the government to mitigate/ reduce these effects?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Activity 2: Friendly Advice

Consider you are a friend to the following people. Given their situation
and the fact that they are suffering from the effects of a previous
disaster, what tips or advice or empowering words can you give them to
help them recover.
Note: Your advice should be able to see the case in different
perspectives.

1. Dale Marc is a 16 years old student. He, together with his family, is
currently staying in a basketball court which serves as the evacuation
center for affected families who lost their homes due to an earthquake.
He decided to stop schooling and instead find a job to be able to
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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 ______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

2. Anna is a teacher at Bagong Pag-asa Elementary School. She used to

be a mom of two beautiful kids. She lost them after their community was
stricken by a supertyphoon submerging and washing away homes and
properties. It is very clear to her memory how her two children gripped to
her hands to the best of their effort in order to survive. Unluckily, their
hands slipped and was swept by the flood and drowned. She feels very
helpless and at some point, thinking to end her own life.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

3. Junsei is the newly elected barangay captain of Barangay Takaw-Sunog.

The said barangay is densely populated with many illegal settlers. Illegal
electrical connections, mindless behavior, lack of education are some
defining characteristics of his constituents. He feels that the community
is vulnerable to fire hazards. If he seeks your advice on impending
occurrence of fire, what policies/ordinance would you suggest him that
he can apply to his constituents?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

Lesson 2: Perspectives on Disasters

Most people would look at disasters in the same perspective. As humans, the thing we
notice in the aftermath of a disaster is its effects on fellow humans. However, to evaluate the
overall results of disaster, disaster experts examine them from different points of view.
The physical perspective includes the visible the visible or tangible materials, whether
natural or man-made, which have been affected by a disaster. The altered or removed structures
may change the landscape, zoning and accessibility of an area. For example, cracks or fissures on
movement of people and vehicles in the area may eventually affect zoning, or the value and use of
the properties within the vicinity.
The psychological perspective refers to the people’s emotional, cognitive or intentional
reaction to difficulties. Catastrophic events can cause shock, terror, anxiety, disbelief, nightmares,
trauma, social withdrawal or alienation, or depression to victims. For instance, a person who
witnessed a love one struggling for survival or dying in the process during a disaster may be
traumatized. This traumatic event or situation can cause long-term depression and can affect the
person’s well-being. Any neglect of psychological support could impair efforts toward physical
rehabilitation. This is why the DSWD becomes vital in post-disaster management. This
government agency empowers people and aims to improve their quality of life in the aftermath of
the disaster.
The sociocultural perspective centers on the response of the people, whether victims or
not, to emergency situations and to the kind of assistance they receive. The characteristics of

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affected families such as their religions, customs, attitudes, beliefs and values can influence their
approach to or their recovery from the disaster. For example, a group of people may believe that
the disaster which struck their village is a punishment by Mother Nature for destroying the
environment. This belief may delay or impede relief efforts because it can overpower the need to
be quick in responding to instructions for a fast and organized system of assistance. Another
important aspect of this perspective is the degree of cooperation among the community members.
The level of social support may be made immediately sufficient and available if a community is
united or has a shared vision of recovery. In the Philippines, bayanihan has always been displayed
whenever a disaster strikes a certain region in the country. The term bayanihan refers to the spirit
of unity inherent in Filipinos to help each other especially in times of crisis. Even Filipinos residing
abroad show sympathy and support by participating in relief initiatives.
The economic perspective focuses on the disruption of economic activities in the
community. Disaster, whether small- or large-scale, brings about serious consequences. Disaster
loss is usually assessed in terms of injuries and death, destruction of fixed assets and infrastructure,
and disruption in the flow of goods and services that can obviously affect economic factors such
as gross domestic product (GDP) growth rates, indebtedness levels, and fiscal deficits. In addition
to this is the demand for a considerable humanitarian assistance from various sectors. Media plays
an important role in this context. Through the media, a large number of communities may be
offered to participate in relief endeavors.
The political perspective deals with how government services are used to reduce loss or
damage by preparing for and preventing disasters. This perspective is critical because in some
cases, there exists inequities in societies that create political prejudice in developing plans and
policies related to disaster risk reduction and recovery plans. This is why it is important for
governments to always consider poverty reduction strategies in their platform. Budget constraint
is another important issue. Some governments tend to spend less on prevention and reduction only
to realize that a post-disaster programs become more costly because of miscalculations or
negligence.
The biological perspective takes into consideration the potential for infectious or
communicable diseases after a disaster takes place. In the aftermath of disaster, humans and
animals that have been injured become susceptible to infections. The entry of a virulent organism
in an unbalanced ecosystem becomes easier in a crowded area, especially in evacuation and
distribution centers, where virus transmissions happen through dispersal, direct contact, and
biological agents such as rodents. Where medical services, sanitation facilities, and recovery
programs are scarce or inadequate, deaths and losses may be inevitable. Ultimately, if contagion
is not controlled, the productivity of the population is affected, which will then affect other aspects.

Activity1: Enrichment Activity

Below is a picture of a community greatly affected by Super Typhoon
Yolanda, analyze the picture and list down the harms it brought to the community.
Then tell how did the people respond to the harms that were cited.

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 photo credit: Bantayan

Harms or Hazards People’s response to the hazard/s

Remember
This module introduced you to the concept and nature of disasters. You have learned about
the two main types of disasters-natural and man-made. These disasters cause human, economic,
and environmental impacts, to name a few, that greatly affect a community. You are now aware
that in order to reduce the effects of disasters, they need to be analyzed from the different
perspectives that were mentioned in this module. Furthermore, you have learned that some
anthropogenic activities such as housing and building development, presence and location of
physical structures, and reliable institutional framework for risk prevention and reduction are risk
factors underlying disasters.

Activity 2: What I have Learned So Far

Answer the following questions.
1. How do the disasters affect people and the environment?
2. What are the effects of disasters on the economy of a community?

References

Burton, I. And Kates, R.W. (1964) The perception of natural hazards in resource
management, Natural Resources Journal 3, 412-41

DIWA Senior High School Series: Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Module

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations – FAO (2008) Disaster Risk
Management Systems Analysis: A Guide Book.

Ivars Peterson, “Liquid Sand,” Science News, Vol. 128, 12 October 1985, p. 235.
Committee on Earthquake Engineering, George W. Housner, Chairman,
Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, National Research
Council, Liquefaction of Soils during Earthquakes (Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press, 1985), pp. 25, 27.

Quebral, Villamor S. (2016) Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction

Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Remando, Rolly E.,et.al., Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction,DepEd

Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction

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Rimando, R. E. (2015) Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction
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United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. (n.d.).Terminology-unisdr. Retrieved

from http://www.unidsr.org/we/inform/terminology

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. (n.d.).Terminology-unisdr. Retrieved

from http://www.unidsr.org/we/inform/terminology

http://www.britannica.com/place/Mayon-Volcano

https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/12/27/18/mount-mayon-belches-ash-still-under
moderate-unrest-level

https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jpg/Mayon/32923351-020_caption.html
https://www.reddit.com/r/HistoryPorn/comments/2z0li7/a_pickup_truck_fless_fr
m_the_pyroclastic_flows/
https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs027-00/

https://monstrouslandslides.weebly.com/types-of-landslides.html
https://www.eartheclipse.com/natural-disaster/causes-effects-and-types-of-landslides.html

www.google.com
www.shakeout.org/schools/resources/.
https://www.3dgeography.co.uk/earthquakes
https://www.3dgeography.co.uk/earthquake-worksheets
http://www.shakeout.org/downloads/LACOEScienceResources.pdf
http://www.redcross.org/portal/site/en/menuitem.d8aaecf214c576bf971e4cfe43181aa0/
?vgnextoid=1b08f655c099b110VgnVCM10000089f0870aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default
http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/Liquefaction9.html
http://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/geologic-hazards/ground-subsidence/
https://www.ducksters.com/science/earth_science/tsunamis.php
https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/Prepare-Your-House-Earthquake-Risk/Geologic-
Hazards/Earthquake-Induced-Landslide
https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRrA33v-
9AvSaAqevovoy7y3BrQpX7UYGkGqY6QhwfT0MTX3nXU
https://ptwc.weather.gov/faq.php#1
https://ourealife.wordpress.com/tag/ground-rupture/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=07cN_QG72bY
https://prezi.com/neqkfwu8rpy5/potential-earthquake-hazards-and-its-effects/
https://www.thoughtco.com/free-earthquake-printables-1832385
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.html
https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Our-Science/Natural-Hazards/Earthquakes
UNISDR (2009) (adapted by Philippines DRR Law, 2010):

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https://www.google.com/search?q=Debris+Avalanche+or+volcanic+landslide&source=lnms&tb
m=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj_4YuQr7jhAhXWc3AKHWcUB7oQ_AUIDigB&biw=1366&bih=65
7#imgrc=YM6MYNX6k_CrpM:

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