MEHRAN UNIVERSITY

OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, JAMSHORO

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

|ASSIGNMENT |
Of

Applied Physics
SUBMITTED TO

Dr.Ali Asghar Memon

SUBMITTED BY

19EL36 (M. Aslam)

1
Q. No 01: (A) Define Constructional Features, Working Principle and Selection of
Magnetic Core in the Transformer.
Basic construction of transformer

Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated steel core. The coils
are insulated from each other as well as from the steel core. A transformer may also consist of a
container for winding and core assembly (called as tank), suitable bushings to take our
terminals, oil conservator to provide oil in the transformer tank for cooling purposes etc. The
figure (1.1) illustrates the basic construction of a transformer. In all types of transformers, core
is constructed by assembling (stacking) laminated sheets of steel, with minimum air-gap
between them (to achieve continuous magnetic path). The steel used is having high silicon
content and sometimes heat treated, to provide high permeability and low hysteresis loss.
Laminated sheets of steel are used to reduce eddy current loss. The sheets are cut in the shape
as E, I and L. To avoid high reluctance at joints, laminations are stacked by alternating the sides
of joint. That is, if joints of first sheet assembly are at front face, the joints of following
assemble are kept at back face.

These windings are insulated electrically and connected magnetically means magnetic core is
connected in between electric circuits (windings).

Figure (1.1)
The main parts of transformer are

1. Primary windings of transformer: it is electrical circuit which produces magnetic flux

when it is connected to electrical source.
2. Secondary windings of transformer : it is electrical circuit in which magnetic flux
produced by primary winding, passes through the core , will link with the secondary ,this
winding also wound on the same core and gives the desired output of the transformer.

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 3. Magnetic core of transformer: it is the magnetic circuit which produced the magnetic
flux produced by the primary winding that will pass through this low reluctance path
linked with secondary winding and create a closed magnetic circuit
4. Oil conservator: as name indicates, it conserves the amount of oil filled in the
transformer allowing for expansion and contraction.
5. Breather: It consist of silica jell which absorb moisture in the transformer
6. Bushing : it is an insulated device that allows input and outputs terminals

Main tank: it is main part of transformer which consists of electric and magnetic circuit. Electric
circuits are winding and magnetic circuits are core type material as shown in figure (1. 2)

Figure (1.2)
The two most common and basic designs of transformer construction are the Closed-core
Transformer and the Shell-core Transformer.

In the “closed-core” type (core form) transformer, the primary and secondary windings are
wound outside and surround the core ring. In the “shell type” (shell form) transformer, the
primary and secondary windings pass inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which forms a shell
around the windings as shown in figure (1.3)

Figure (1.3)

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Working principle:

The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits
which is linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two coils that are
electrically separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance.
The working principle of the transformer can be understood from the figure (1.4).

Figure (1.4)

As shown above the electrical transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core
laminations are joined in the form of strips in between the strips you can see that there are
some narrow gaps right through the cross-section of the core. These staggered joints are said to
be ‘imbricated’. Both the coils have high mutual inductance. A mutual electro-motive force is
induced in the transformer from the alternating flux that is set up in the laminated core, due to
the coil that is connected to a source of alternating voltage. Most of the alternating flux
developed by this coil is linked with the other coil and thus produces the mutual induced
electro-motive force. The so produced electro-motive force can be explained with the help of
Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction as

𝑑𝑖
e = M 𝑑𝑡 ---------- (1)

Where, e= induced emf in the secondary coil

M= mutual inductance
𝑑𝑖
= change in current in the primary coil
𝑑𝑡

4
If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flow in it and thus electrical energy is transferred
magnetically from the first to the second coil.

The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be called as the primary
winding. The energy is drawn out from the second coil and thus can be called as the secondary
winding.

In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:

1. Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.

2. Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
3. Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
4. The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.

Working principle of any type of transformer is same.

Selection of magnetic core in transformer:

A magnetic core is piece of magnetic material with high magnetic permeability used to confine
and guide magnetic field in electrical and magnetic devices such as transformer and electric
motors. It is made of ferromagnetic metal such as iron, or ferrimagnetic compounds such
as ferrites. The high permeability, relative to the surrounding air, causes the magnetic field
lines to be concentrated in the core material. The magnetic field is often created by a current-
carrying coil of wire around the core.

The use of a magnetic core can increase the strength of magnetic field in an electromagnetic
coil by a factor of several hundred times what it would be without the core. However, magnetic
cores have side effects which must be taken into account. In alternating current (AC) devices
they cause energy losses, called core losses, due to hysteresis and eddy currents in applications
such as transformers and inductors. "Soft" magnetic materials with low hysteresis, such
as silicon steel, or ferrite, are usually used in cores

The main problem of transformer core is its hysteresis loss and eddy current loss in
transformer. Hysteresis loss in transformer mainly depends upon its core material

5
Q. No 01: (B) What types of losses occurs in transformer and how can be
calculated.

Types of Losses in a Transformer:

There are various types of losses in the transformer such as iron loss, copper loss, hysteresis
loss, eddy current loss, stray loss, and dielectric loss.

Iron Losses
Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer as this loss occurs in
the core it is also known as Core loss. Iron loss is further divided into hysteresis and eddy
current loss.

1. Hysteresis Loss
Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of magnetization of transformer core whenever it is
subjected to alternating nature of magnetizing force .Whenever the core is subjected to an
alternating magnetic field, the domain present in the material will change their orientation
after every half cycle. The power consumed by the magnetic domains for changing the
orientation after every half cycle is called Hysteresis loss.

This loss can be reduced by magnetic material in the core

6
Where

• KȠ is a proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and quality of the
material of the core used in the transformer,
• f is the supply frequency,
• Bmax is the maximum or peak value of the flux density.
• The iron or core losses can be minimized by using silicon steel material for the
construction of the core of the transformer.

2. Eddy Current Loss

When the flux links with a closed circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit and the current flows,
the value of the current depends upon the amount of emf around the circuit and the resistance
of the circuit.

Since the core is made of conducting material, these EMFs circulate currents within the body of
the material. These circulating currents are called Eddy Currents. They will occur when the
conductor experiences a changing magnetic field. As these currents are not responsible for
doing any useful work, and it produces a loss (I2R loss) in the magnetic material known as
an Eddy Current Loss.
The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core with thin laminations.

The equation of the eddy current loss is given as:

Where,

• Ke – coefficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon the nature of magnetic material
like volume and resistivity of core material, the thickness of laminations
• Bm – maximum value of flux density in wb/m2
• t – thickness of lamination in meters
• f – frequency of reversal of the magnetic field in Hz
• V – the volume of magnetic material in m3

These types of losses can be calculated from equivalent circuit of transformer.

7
Q.No 01: (C) What is an ideal transformer and what is its importance in electrical
engineering.

An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has

- no copper losses (no winding resistance)
- no iron loss in core
- no leakage flux
In other words; an ideal transformer gives output power exactly equal to the input power.
The efficiency of an idea transformer is 100%. Actually, it is impossible to have such
a transformer in practice, but ideal transformer model makes problems easier.

Figure (1.5)

Working principle and construction is same as real transformer.

Importance of ideal transformer:

Main importance of ideal transformer is that we can easily understand the features of
transformer and we can easily calculate the emf equation of transformer.

1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes zero.

2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The infinite permeable
means less magnetizing current requires for magnetizing their core.
3. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of the flux induces in
the core of the transformer links with their primary and secondary winding.
4. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the transformer is free from
hysteresis and eddy current loss.

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Q.No 02: (A) A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator
supplying a load Zload = 4 + j3 Ω through a transmission line of impedance Zline
= 0.18 + j0.24 Ω. Answer the following questions about this system. (a) If the
power system is exactly as described above (and shown in Figure 2-6a), what
will the voltage at the load be? What will the transmission line losses be?

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Q.No 02: (B) What is equivalent circuit of transformer?

Equivalent circuit of Transformer:

In a practical transformer -
(a) Some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This leakage gives rise to
leakage reactance’s at both sides, which are denoted as X1 and X2 respectively.
(b) Both the primary and secondary winding possesses resistance, denoted as R 1 and
R2 respectively. These resistances cause voltage drop as, I1R1 and I2R2 and also copper
loss I12R1 and I22R2.
(c) Permeability of the core cannot be infinite; hence some magnetizing current is needed.
Mutual flux also causes core loss in iron parts of the transformer.
We need to consider all the above things to derive equivalent circuit of a transformer.

Equivalent circuit of transformer

Resistances and reactances of transformer, which are described above, can be imagined separately from
the windings (as shown in the figure below). Hence, the function of windings, thereafter, will only be the
transforming the voltage.

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The no load current I0 is divided into, pure inductance X0 (taking magnetizing components Iμ)
and non-induction resistance R0 (taking working component Iw) which are connected into
parallel across the primary. The value of E1 can be obtained by subtracting I1Z1 from V1. The
value of R0 and X0 can be calculated as, R0 = E1 / Iw and X0 = E1 / Iμ.

But, using this equivalent circuit does not simplifies the calculations. To make calculations
simpler, it is preferable to transfer current, voltage and impedance either to primary side or to
the secondary side. In that case, we would have to work with only one winding which is more
convenient.

From the voltage transformation ratio, it is clear that,

E1 / E2 = N1 / N2 = K
Now, let’s refer the parameters of secondary side to primary.
Z2 can be referred to primary as Z2'
where, Z2' = (N1/N2)2Z2 = K2Z2. ............where K= N1/N2.
that is, R2'+jX2' = K2(R2+jX2)
equating real and imaginary parts,
R2' = K2R2 and X2' = K2X2 .
And V2' = KV2

Q.No 02:(C) The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVA, 8000/240V, 60-Hz

transformer are to be determined. The open-circuit test was performed on the
secondary side of the transformer (to reduce the maximum voltage to be
measured) and the short- circuit test was performed on the primary side of the
transformer (to reduce the maximum current to be measured). The following
data were taken:

Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the

primary side, and sketch that circuit.

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14
Q No 03: (A) what do you understand from induction machine, working principle,
constructional parts losses and slip of induction machine and also types of induction
machine?

Induction machine: The induction machine behaves like a transformer, transferring

electrical energy from the stator to the rotor.

• A rotating magnetic field is set up on the stator by using distributed windings and a 3-phase
AC supply.

• The rotor windings are generally short-circuited.

• The rotor spins almost in synch with stator’s rotating field.

• The amount by which the rotor falls behind the stator is called the slip.

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Working Principle of Induction Motor or machine
We need to give double excitation to make a DC motor to rotate. In the DC motor, we give one
supply to the stator and another to the rotor through brush arrangement. But in induction
motor, we give only one supply, so it is interesting to know how an induction motor works. It is
simple, from the name itself we can understand that here, the induction process is involved.
When we give the supply to the stator winding, a magnetic flux gets produced in the stator due
to the flow of current in the coil. The rotor winding is so arranged that each coil becomes short-
circuited.

The flux from the stator cuts the short-circuited coil in the rotor. As the rotor coils are short-
circuited, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the current will start flowing
through the coil of the rotor. When the current through the rotor coils flows, another flux gets
generated in the rotor. Now there are two fluxes, one is stator flux, and another is rotor flux.
The rotor flux will be lagging in respect of the stator flux. Because of that, the rotor will feel a
torque which will make the rotor to rotate in the direction of the rotating magnetic field. This is
the working principle of both single and three phase induction motors.

Construction of Induction Motor

A three phase Induction motor mainly consists of two parts called as the Stator and the Rotor.
The stator is the stationary part of the induction motor, and the rotor is the rotating part. The
construction of the stator is similar to the three-phase synchronous motor, and the
construction of rotor is different for the different machine. The construction of the induction
motor is explained below in detail.

[1] Construction of Stator

The stator is built up of high-grade alloy steel laminations to reduce eddy current losses. It has
three main parts, namely outer frame, the stator core and a stator winding.

a) Outer frame
It is the outer body of the motor. Its main function is to support the stator core and to protect
the inner parts of the machine. For small machines, the outer frame is casted, but for the large
machine, it is fabricated. The figure below shows the stator construction.

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 b) Stator Core
The stator core is built of high-grade silicon steel stampings. Its main function is to carry the
alternating magnetic field which produces hysteresis and eddy current losses. The stampings
are fixed to the stator frame. Each stamping is insulated from the other with a thin varnish
layer. The thickness of the stamping usually varies from 0.3 to 0.5 mm. Slots are punched on
the inner side of the stampings as shown in the figure below.

c) Stator windings
The core of the stator carries three phase windings which are usually supplied from a three-
phase supply system. The six terminals of the windings (two of each phase) are connected in
the terminal box of the machine. The stator of the motor is wound for a definite number of
poles, depending on the speed of the motor. If the number of poles is greater, the speed of the
motor will be less and if the number of poles is less than the speed will be high.

As the relationship between the speed and the pole of the motor is given as

17
The windings may be connected in start and delta.

[2] Construction of Rotor

The rotor is also built of thin laminations of the same material as the stator. The laminated
cylindrical core is mounted directly on the shaft. These laminations are slotted on the outer side
to receive the conductors. There are two types of rotor.

a) Squirrel Cage Rotor

A squirrel cage rotor consists of a laminated cylindrical core. The circular slots at the outer
periphery are semi-closed. Each slot contains un insulated bar conductor of aluminum or
copper. At the end of the rotor the conductors the short-circuited by a heavy ring of copper or
aluminum. The diagram of the cage rotor is shown below.

The rotor slots are usually not parallel to the shaft but are skewed. The skewing of the rotor
conductors has the following advantages given below.

• It reduces humming and provides smooth and noise free operation.

• It results in a uniform torque curve for different positions of the rotor.
• The locking tendency of the rotor is reduced. As the teeth of the rotor and the stator
attract each other and lock.
• It increases the rotor resistance due to the increased length of the rotor bar conductors.

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 b) Phase Wound Rotor
The Phase wound rotor is also called as Slip Ring Rotor. It consists of a cylindrical core which is
laminated. The outer periphery of the rotor has a semi-closed slot which carries a 3 phase
insulated windings. The rotor windings are connected in star.

The slip ring induction motor is shown in the figure below.

Losses in induction motor

. There are two types of losses occur in three phase induction motor. These losses are,
1. Constant or fixed losses,
2. Variable losses.
1. Constant or Fixed Losses
Constant losses are those losses which are considered to remain constant over normal working
range of induction motor. The fixed losses can be easily obtained by performing no-load test on
the three phase induction motor. These losses are further classified as-
a. Iron or core losses,
b. Mechanical losses and Brush friction losses.
a) Iron or Core Losses
Iron or core losses are further divided into hysteresis and eddy current losses. Eddy current
losses are minimized by using lamination on core. Since by laminating the core, area decreases
and hence resistance increases, which results in decrease in eddy currents. Hysteresis losses are
minimized by using high grade silicon steel. The core losses depend upon frequency of the

19
supply voltage. The frequency of stator is always supply frequency, f and the frequency of rotor
is slip times the supply frequency, (sf) which is always less than the stator frequency. For stator
frequency of 50 Hz, rotor frequency is about 1.5 Hz because under normal running condition
slip is of the order of 3 %. Hence the rotor core loss is very small as compared to stator core loss
and is usually neglected in running conditions.
b) Mechanical and Brush Friction Losses
Mechanical losses occur at the bearing and brush friction loss occurs in wound rotor induction
motor. These losses are zero at start and with increase in speed these losses increases. In three
phase induction motor the speed usually remains constant. Hence these losses almost remain
constant.
2. Variable Losses

These losses are also called copper losses. These losses occur due to current flowing in stator
and rotor windings. As the load changes, the current flowing in rotor and stator winding also
changes and hence these losses also changes. Therefore these losses are called variable losses.
The copper losses are obtained by performing blocked rotor test on three phase induction
motor. The main function of induction motor is to convert an electrical power into mechanical
power. During this conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy the power flows
through different stages.

Slip of Induction Motor

In the induction motor rotor always rotates speed less than synchronous speed. The difference
between the rotor speed (N) and the rotating magnetic flux speed (Ns) is called
slip. The induction motor slip is usually expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed (N s)
and is represented by symbol s.
[(𝑁𝑠 – 𝑁)]
Mathematically, Percentage slip, % s = x 100
𝑁𝑠
(𝑁𝑠 – 𝑁)
Or Fractional slip, s = 𝑁𝑠
The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called slip speed
i.e. Slip speed = Ns – N
The value of induction motor slip at full load varies from about 6% for small motors to about 2%
for large motors.
Types of Induction Motors
The types of induction motors can be classified depending on whether they are a single phase
or three phase induction motor.

1. Single Phase Induction Motor

The types of single phase induction motors include:

1. Split Phase Induction Motor

2. Capacitor Start Induction Motor

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 3. Capacitor Start and Capacitor Run Induction Motor
4. Shaded Pole Induction Motor

2. Three Phase Induction Motor

The types of three phase induction motors include:

1. Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

2. Slip Ring Induction Motor

Q No 03: (B) What is starting torque, what is pull out torque, what is full load
torque of an induction machine?

Starting torque:

The starting torque is the required amount of energy that is used to overcome the inertia of
standstill. That is also known as pull-up torque it is the minimum torque generated by a motor
to accelerate it from static position to the operating speed.

NOTE: - The starting torque must be more the than the application load if it is low, the motor
will overheat.

Pull out torque

Pull out or break down torque is the maximum sustainable torque that a motor can develop
without an abrupt drop in its normal speed but not for a long time, if the motor still continues
to run in its pull out torque it leads to serious damage to the rotor and finally the motor will
stall (gradually slows down and stops).

Full-load (Rated) Torque or Braking Torque

The Full-load Torque is the torque required to produce the rated power of an electrical motor
at full-load speed.

In imperial units the Full-load Torque can be expressed as

T = 5252 Php / nr --------------------- (1)

Where,

T = full-load torque (lb. ft)

Php = rated horsepower

nr = rated rotational speed (rev/min, rpm)

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In metric units the rated torque can be expressed as

T = 9550 PkW / nr ------------------------ (2)

Where,

T = rated torque (Nm)

PkW = rated power (kW)

nr = rated rotational speed (rpm)

Q.No 04: (A) What do you understand by terminal voltage of DC generator?

What difference is between separately excited and self-excited DC generator
also write down the types of DC Generator (circuit diagram, and working
principle and important equations or terms).

Terminal voltage of DC generator

Terminal voltage is the voltage output of a device is measured across its terminals.

Terminal voltage is calculated by V = emf – Ir

Difference between separately excited and self-excited DC generator

Separately excited DC generators are not commonly used because they are relatively expensive
due to the requirement of an additional power source or circuitry. They are used in laboratories
for research work, for accurate speed control of DC motors with Ward-Leonard system and in
few other applications where self-excited DC generators are unsatisfactory. In this type, the
stator field flux may also be provided with the help of permanent magnets (such as
in permanent magnet DC motors). PMDC (permanent magnet DC) motors are popularly used in
small toys, e.g. a toy car.

In a self-excited type of DC generator, the field winding is energized by the current produced by
them. A small amount of flux is always present in the poles due to the residual magnetism. So,
initially, current induces in the armature conductors of a dc generator only due to the residual
magnetism. The field flux gradually increases as the induced current starts flowing through the
field winding.

Types of DC Generators (Diagrams Included)

DC generators are classified based on how their fields are excited (i.e. produced). There are
three methods of excitation, and thus three main types of DC generators.

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 1. Permanent Magnet DC Generators – Field coils excited by permanent magnets
2. Separately Excited DC Generators – Field coils excited by some external source
3. Self-Excited DC Generators – Field coils excited by the generator itself
Self-excited DC generators can further be classified depending on the position of their field
coils. The three types of self-excited DC generators are:

1. Series Wound Generators

2. Shunt Wound Generators
3. Compound Wound Generators
A portable generator is an example of a practical application that utilizes such technologies.

When the flux in the magnetic circuit is created through the use of permanent magnets, then it
is known as a Permanent magnet DC generator.
It consists of an armature and one or several permanent magnets situated around the
armature. This type of DC generator generates does not generate much power.

Separately Excited DC Generator

These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by some external DC source, such
as a battery.
A circuit diagram of separately excited DC generator is shown in the figure below. The symbols
below are:

• Ia = Armature current
• IL = Load current
• V = Terminal voltage
• Eg = Generated EMF (Electromagnetic Force)

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Voltage drop in the armature = Ia × Ra (R/sub>a is the armature resistance)

Let,

Then,

Power generated is equal to

And power delivered to the external load is equal to

Self-Excited DC Generators
Self-excited DC generators are generators whose field magnets are energized by the current
supplied by them. In these types of machines, field coils are internally connected with the
armature.

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According to the position of the field coils, self-excited DC generators may be classified as:
1. Series Wound Generators
2. Shunt Wound Generators
3. Compound Wound Generators

Working Principle of DC Generator

The DC generator working principle is based on Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.

When a conductor is located in an unstable magnetic field, an electromotive force gets induced
within the conductor. The induced e.m.f magnitude can be measured from the equation of the
electromotive force of a generator.
If the conductor is present with a closed lane, the current which is induced will flow in the lane.
In this generator, field coils will generate an electromagnetic field as well as the armature
conductors are turned into the field. Therefore, an electromagnetically induced electromotive
force (e.m.f) will be generated within the armature conductors. The path of induced current will
be provided by Fleming’s right-hand rule.

DC Generator E.M.F Equation

The emf equation of dc generator according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

𝐏Ø𝐙𝐍
is Eg = 𝟔𝟎 𝐀

Where Φ is a flux or pole within Webber

Z is a total no. of armature conductor
P is a number of poles in a generator
A is a number of parallel lanes within the armature
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N is the rotation of armature in r.p.m (revolutions per minute)
E is the induced e.m.f in any parallel lane within the armature
Eg is the generated e.m.f in any one of the parallel lanes
N/60 is the number of turns per second
𝟔𝟎
Time for one turn will be dt = sec
𝑵

Q. No 04 (B) Sketch and explain terminal characteristic of separately excited &

self-excited DC Generator?
Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Generator:
In a separately excited DC generator, the field winding is excited by an external independent
source. There are generally three most important characteristic of DC generator:

[1] Magnetic or Open Circuit Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Generator:

The curve which gives the relation between field current (If) and the generated voltage (E0) in
the armature on no load is called magnetic or open circuit characteristic of a DC generator.

Here in this figure below we can see the variation of generated emf on no load with field
current for different fixed speeds of the armature. For higher value of constant speed, the
steepness of the curve is more. When the field current is zero, for the effect residual
magnetism in the poles, there will be a small initial emf (OA) as show in figure.

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Let us consider a separately excited DC generator giving its no load voltage E 0 for a constant
field current. If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop in the machine then
the voltage will remain constant. Therefore, if we plot the rated voltage on the Y axis and load
current on the X axis then the curve will be a straight line and parallel to X-axis as shown in
figure below. Here, AB line indicating the no load voltage (E0).
When the generator is loaded then the voltage drops due to two main reasons-
1. Due to armature reaction,
2. Due to ohmic drop (IaRa).

[2] Internal or Total Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Generator:

The internal characteristic of the separately excited DC generator is obtained by subtracting the
drops due to armature reaction from no load voltage. This curve of actually generated voltage
(Eg) will be slightly dropping. Here, AC line in the diagram indicating the actually generated
voltage (Eg) with respect to load current. This curve is also called total characteristic of
separately excited DC generator.

[3] External Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Generator:

The external characteristic of the separately excited DC generator is obtained by subtracting the
drops due to ohmic loss (Ia Ra) in the armature from generated voltage (Eg).
Terminal voltage (V) = Eg – Ia Ra.
This curve gives the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current. The external
characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic curve. Here, AD line in the diagram
below is indicating the change in terminal voltage (V) with increasing load current. It can be
seen from figure that when load current increases then the terminal voltage decreases slightly.
This decrease in terminal voltage can be maintained easily by increasing the field current and
thus increasing the generated voltage. Therefore, we can get constant terminal voltage.

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Self-Excited DC Generators:
Modern DC generators with field coils are self-excited generators which get started with the
initial current in the field coils. When generator is switched off, a small magnetism is developed
in rotor iron which induced electromotive force in the armature due to which current is
produced in the field windings. Initially, weak magnetic field creates less current in the coil, but
to sustain self-excitation, the additional magnetic flux increases the electromotive force in the
rotor, due to which voltage keep on increasing until the machine takes the full load.

Q. No 05: What are alpha, beta and gamma decay?

Alpha Decay

The nuclear disintegration process that emits alpha particles is called alpha decay. An example
of a nucleus that undergoes alpha decay is uranium-238. The alpha decay of UU-238 is

238→ 4+ 234
92U 2He 90Th

In this nuclear change, the uranium atom (92U238) transmuted into an atom of thorium (90Th234)
and, in the process, gave off an alpha particle. Look at the symbol for the alpha particle: 2He4.
Where does an alpha particle get this symbol? The bottom number in a nuclear symbol is the
number of protons. That means that the alpha particle has two protons in it which were lost by
the uranium atom. The two protons also have a charge of +2. The top number, 4, is the mass
number or the total of the protons and neutrons in the particle. Because it has 2 protons, and a
total of 4 protons and neutrons, alpha particles must also have two neutrons. Alpha particles
always have this same composition: two protons and two neutrons.

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Another alpha particle producer is thorium-230.

230→ He4+ Ra226

90Th 2 88

Beta Decay

Another common decay process is beta particle emission, or beta decay. A beta particle is
simply a high energy electron that is emitted from the nucleus. It may occur to you that we
have a logically difficult situation here. Nuclei do not contain electrons and yet during beta
decay, an electron is emitted from a nucleus. At the same time that the electron is being
ejected from the nucleus, a neutron is becoming a proton. It is tempting to picture this as a
neutron breaking into two pieces with the pieces being a proton and an electron. That would be
convenient for simplicity, but unfortunately that is not what happens; more about this at the
end of this section. For convenience sake, though, we will treat beta decay as a neutron
splitting into a proton and an electron. The proton stays in the nucleus, increasing the atomic
number of the atom by one. The electron is ejected from the nucleus and is the particle of
radiation called beta.

To insert an electron into a nuclear equation and have the numbers add up properly, an atomic
number and a mass number had to be assigned to an electron. The mass number assigned to an
electron is zero (0) which is reasonable since the mass number is the number of protons plus
neutrons and an electron contains no protons and no neutrons. The atomic number assigned to
an electron is negative one (-1), because that allows a nuclear equation containing an electron
to balance atomic numbers. Therefore, the nuclear symbol representing an electron (beta
particle) is

0
-1e or -1β0

Thorium-234 is a nucleus that undergoes beta decay. Here is the nuclear equation for this beta
decay.

90Th234→-1e0+91Pa234

Gamma Decay

Frequently, gamma ray production accompanies nuclear reactions of all types. In the alpha
decay of UU-238, two gamma rays of different energies are emitted in addition to the alpha
particle.

238→ 4+ 234 0
92U 2He 90Th +2 γ0

Virtually all of the nuclear reactions in this chapter also emit gamma rays, but for simplicity the
gamma rays are generally not shown. Nuclear reactions produce a great deal more energy than
chemical reactions. Chemical reactions release the difference between the chemical bond
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energy of the reactants and products, and the energies released have an order of magnitude
of 1×103kJ/mol1×103kJ/mol. Nuclear reactions release some of the binding energy and may
convert tiny amounts of matter into energy. The energy released in a nuclear reaction has an
order of magnitude of 1×1018kJ/mol1×1018kJ/mol. That means that nuclear changes involve
almost a million times more energy per atom than chemical changes!

Best of luck

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