Electron

− −
The electron (e , or β in nuclear reactions) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary
electric charge.[13] Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family,[14] and are
generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or
1
substructure.[1] The electron's mass is approximately ⁠1836 ⁠that of the proton.[15] Quantum
mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of a half-integer
value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant, ħ. Being fermions, no two electrons can
occupy the same quantum state, per the Pauli exclusion principle.[14] Like all elementary particles,
electrons exhibit properties of both particles and waves: They can collide with other particles and
can be diffracted like light. The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments
than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and
hence a longer de Broglie wavelength for a given energy.

Electrons play an essential role in numerous physical phenomena, such as electricity, magnetism,
chemistry, and thermal conductivity; they also participate in gravitational, electromagnetic, and
weak interactions.[16] Since an electron has charge, it has a surrounding electric field; if that electron
is moving relative to an observer, the observer will observe it to generate a magnetic field.
Electromagnetic fields produced from other sources will affect the motion of an electron according
to the Lorentz force law. Electrons radiate or absorb energy in the form of photons when they are
accelerated.

Laboratory instruments are capable of trapping individual electrons as well as electron plasma by
the use of electromagnetic fields. Special telescopes can detect electron plasma in outer space.
Electrons are involved in many applications, such as tribology or frictional charging, electrolysis,
electrochemistry, battery technologies, electronics, welding, cathode-ray tubes, photoelectricity,
photovoltaic solar panels, electron microscopes, radiation therapy, lasers, gaseous ionization
detectors, and particle accelerators.

Interactions involving electrons with other subatomic particles are of interest in fields such as
chemistry and nuclear physics. The Coulomb force interaction between the positive protons within
atomic nuclei and the negative electrons without allows the composition of the two known as
atoms. Ionization or differences in the proportions of negative electrons versus positive nuclei
changes the binding energy of an atomic system. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between
two or more atoms is the main cause of chemical bonding.[17]
In 1838, British natural philosopher Richard
Electron
Laming first hypothesized the concept of an
indivisible quantity of electric charge to explain
the chemical properties of atoms.[3] Irish
physicist George Johnstone Stoney named this
charge "electron" in 1891, and J. J. Thomson and
his team of British physicists identified it as a
particle in 1897 during the cathode-ray tube
experiment.[5]

Electrons participate in nuclear reactions, such as

nucleosynthesis in stars, where they are known
as beta particles. Electrons can be created
through beta decay of radioactive isotopes and in Hydrogen atomic orbitals at different energy
levels. The more opaque areas are where one
high-energy collisions, for instance, when cosmic
is most likely to find an electron at any given
rays enter the atmosphere. The antiparticle of the
time.
electron is called the positron; it is identical to the
electron, except that it carries electrical charge of Composition Elementary particle[1]
the opposite sign. When an electron collides with
Statistics Fermionic
a positron, both particles can be annihilated,
producing gamma ray photons. Family Lepton

Generation First
History
Interactions Weak,
electromagnetic,
Discovery of effect of electric force gravity

The ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted Symbol

−
e ,β
−

small objects when rubbed with fur. Along with

Antiparticle Positron[a]
lightning, this phenomenon is one of humanity's
earliest recorded experiences with electricity.[18] Theorized Richard Laming
In his 1600 treatise De Magnete, the English (1838–1851),[2]
scientist William Gilbert coined the Neo-Latin G. Johnstone Stoney
term electrica, to refer to those substances with (1874) and

property similar to that of amber which attract others.[3][4]

small objects after being rubbed.[19] Both electric Discovered J. J. Thomson

and electricity are derived from the Latin ēlectrum (1897)[5]
(also the root of the alloy of the same name),
which came from the Greek word for amber, Mass 9.109 383 7139(28) × 10−31 kg [6]
ἤλεκτρον (ēlektron). 5.485 799 090 441(97) × 10−4 Da [7]
[1 822.888 486 209(53)]−1 Da[b]
0.510 998 950 69(16) MeV/c2 [8]
Discovery of two kinds of charges
Mean lifetime > 6.6 × 1028 years[9]
In the early 1700s, French chemist Charles (stable)

François du Fay found that if a charged gold-leaf Electric charge −1 e

is repulsed by glass rubbed with silk, then the −1.602 176 634 × 10−19 C [10]
same charged gold-leaf is attracted by amber
Magnetic moment −9.284 764 6917(29) × 10−
rubbed with wool. From this and other results of
−1.001 159 652 181 28(18)
similar types of experiments, du Fay concluded
that electricity consists of two electrical fluids, Spin 1
2 ⁠ħ
vitreous fluid from glass rubbed with silk and
Weak isospin 1
resinous fluid from amber rubbed with wool. LH: −⁠ 2 ⁠, RH: 0

These two fluids can neutralize each other when Weak hypercharge LH: −1, RH: −2
combined.[19][20] American scientist Ebenezer
Kinnersley later also independently reached the
same conclusion.[21]: 118 A decade later Benjamin Franklin proposed that electricity was not from
different types of electrical fluid, but a single electrical fluid showing an excess (+) or deficit (−). He
gave them the modern charge nomenclature of positive and negative respectively.[22] Franklin
thought of the charge carrier as being positive, but he did not correctly identify which situation was
a surplus of the charge carrier, and which situation was a deficit.[23]

Between 1838 and 1851, British natural philosopher Richard Laming developed the idea that an
atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electric
charges.[2] Beginning in 1846, German physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber theorized that electricity was
composed of positively and negatively charged fluids, and their interaction was governed by the
inverse square law. After studying the phenomenon of electrolysis in 1874, Irish physicist George
Johnstone Stoney suggested that there existed a "single definite quantity of electricity", the charge
of a monovalent ion. He was able to estimate the value of this elementary charge e by means of
Faraday's laws of electrolysis.[24] However, Stoney believed these charges were permanently
attached to atoms and could not be removed. In 1881, German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz
argued that both positive and negative charges were divided into elementary parts, each of which
"behaves like atoms of electricity".[3]

Stoney initially coined the term electrolion in 1881. Ten years later, he switched to electron to
describe these elementary charges, writing in 1894: "... an estimate was made of the actual amount
of this most remarkable fundamental unit of electricity, for which I have since ventured to suggest
the name electron". A 1906 proposal to change to electrion failed because Hendrik Lorentz preferred
to keep electron.[25][26] The word electron is a combination of the words electric and ion.[27] The suffix
-on which is now used to designate other subatomic particles, such as a proton or neutron, is in turn
derived from electron.[28][29]

Discovery of free electrons outside matter

A beam of electrons deflected by a

magnetic field into a circle[30]

While studying electrical conductivity in rarefied gases in 1859, the German physicist Julius Plücker
observed the radiation emitted from the cathode caused phosphorescent light to appear on the tube
wall near the cathode; and the region of the phosphorescent light could be moved by application of
a magnetic field.[31] In 1869, Plücker's student Johann Wilhelm Hittorf found that a solid body
placed in between the cathode and the phosphorescence would cast a shadow upon the
phosphorescent region of the tube. Hittorf inferred that there are straight rays emitted from the
cathode and that the phosphorescence was caused by the rays striking the tube walls. Furthermore,
he also discovered that these rays are deflected by magnets just like lines of current.[32]

In 1876, the German physicist Eugen Goldstein showed that the rays were emitted perpendicular to
the cathode surface, which distinguished between the rays that were emitted from the cathode and
the incandescent light. Goldstein dubbed the rays cathode rays.[33][34]: 393 Decades of experimental
and theoretical research involving cathode rays were important in J. J. Thomson's eventual
discovery of electrons.[3] Goldstein also experimented with double cathodes and hypothesized that
one ray may repulse another, although he didn't believe that any particles might be involved.[35]

During the 1870s, the English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes developed the first cathode-
ray tube to have a high vacuum inside.[36] He then showed in 1874 that the cathode rays can turn a
small paddle wheel when placed in their path. Therefore, he concluded that the rays carried
momentum. Furthermore, by applying a magnetic field, he was able to deflect the rays, thereby
demonstrating that the beam behaved as though it were negatively charged.[33] In 1879, he
proposed that these properties could be explained by regarding cathode rays as composed of
negatively charged gaseous molecules in a fourth state of matter, in which the mean free path of
the particles is so long that collisions may be ignored.[34]: 394–395

In 1883, not yet well-known German physicist Heinrich Hertz tried to prove that cathode rays are
electrically neutral and got what he interpreted as a confident absence of deflection in electrostatic,
as opposed to magnetic, field. However, as J. J. Thomson explained in 1897, Hertz placed the
deflecting electrodes in a highly-conductive area of the tube, resulting in a strong screening effect
close to their surface.[35]

The German-born British physicist Arthur Schuster expanded upon Crookes's experiments by
placing metal plates parallel to the cathode rays and applying an electric potential between the
plates.[37] The field deflected the rays toward the positively charged plate, providing further evidence
that the rays carried negative charge. By measuring the amount of deflection for a given electric and
magnetic field, in 1890 Schuster was able to estimate the charge-to-mass ratio[c] of the ray
components. However, this produced a value that was more than a thousand times greater than
what was expected, so little credence was given to his calculations at the time.[33] This is because it
was assumed that the charge carriers were much heavier hydrogen or nitrogen atoms.[37] Schuster's
estimates would subsequently turn out to be largely correct.

In 1892 Hendrik Lorentz suggested that the mass of these particles (electrons) could be a
consequence of their electric charge.[38]

J. J. Thomson

While studying naturally fluorescing minerals in 1896, the French physicist Henri Becquerel
discovered that they emitted radiation without any exposure to an external energy source. These
radioactive materials became the subject of much interest by scientists, including the New Zealand
physicist Ernest Rutherford who discovered they emitted particles. He designated these particles
alpha and beta, on the basis of their ability to penetrate matter.[39] In 1900, Becquerel showed that
the beta rays emitted by radium could be deflected by an electric field, and that their mass-to-charge
ratio was the same as for cathode rays.[40] This evidence strengthened the view that electrons
existed as components of atoms.[41][42]

In 1897, the British physicist J. J. Thomson, with his colleagues John S. Townsend and H. A. Wilson,
performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were unique particles, rather than waves,
atoms or molecules as was believed earlier.[5] By 1899 he showed that their charge-to-mass ratio,
e/m, was independent of cathode material. He further showed that the negatively charged particles
produced by radioactive materials, by heated materials and by illuminated materials were
universal.[5][43] Thomson measured m/e for cathode ray "corpuscles", and made good estimates of
the charge e, leading to value for the mass m, finding a value 1400 times less massive than the least
massive ion known: hydrogen.[34]: 364 [5] In the same year Emil Wiechert and Walter Kaufmann also
calculated the e/m ratio but did not take the step of interpreting their results as showing a new
particle, while J. J. Thomson would subsequently in 1899 give estimates for the electron charge and
mass as well: e ~ 6.8 × 10−10 esu and m ~ 3 × 10−26 g[44][45]

Robert Millikan

The name "electron" was adopted for these particles by the scientific community, mainly due to the
advocation by G. F. FitzGerald, J. Larmor, and H. A. Lorentz.[46]: 273 The term was originally coined by
George Johnstone Stoney in 1891 as a tentative name for the basic unit of electrical charge (which
had then yet to be discovered).[47][26]

The electron's charge was more carefully measured by the American physicists Robert Millikan and
Harvey Fletcher in their oil-drop experiment of 1909, the results of which were published in 1911.
This experiment used an electric field to prevent a charged droplet of oil from falling as a result of
gravity. This device could measure the electric charge from as few as 1–150 ions with an error
margin of less than 0.3%. Comparable experiments had been done earlier by Thomson's team,[5]
using clouds of charged water droplets generated by electrolysis, and in 1911 by Abram Ioffe, who
independently obtained the same result as Millikan using charged microparticles of metals, then
published his results in 1913.[48] However, oil drops were more stable than water drops because of
their slower evaporation rate, and thus more suited to precise experimentation over longer periods
of time.[49]

Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under certain conditions a fast-
moving charged particle caused a condensation of supersaturated water vapor along its path. In
1911, Charles Wilson used this principle to devise his cloud chamber so he could photograph the
tracks of charged particles, such as fast-moving electrons.[50]

Atomic theory

The Bohr model of the atom, showing

states of an electron with energy
quantized by the number n. An
electron dropping to a lower orbit
emits a photon equal to the energy
difference between the orbits

By 1914, experiments by physicists Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, James Franck and Gustav
Hertz had largely established the structure of an atom as a dense nucleus of positive charge
surrounded by lower-mass electrons.[51] In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr postulated that
electrons resided in quantized energy states, with their energies determined by the angular
momentum of the electron's orbit about the nucleus. The electrons could move between those
states, or orbits, by the emission or absorption of photons of specific frequencies. By means of
these quantized orbits, he accurately explained the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom.[52] However,
Bohr's model failed to account for the relative intensities of the spectral lines and it was
unsuccessful in explaining the spectra of more complex atoms.[51]

Chemical bonds between atoms were explained by Gilbert Newton Lewis, who in 1916 proposed
that a covalent bond between two atoms is maintained by a pair of electrons shared between
them.[53] Later, in 1927, Walter Heitler and Fritz London gave the full explanation of the electron-pair
formation and chemical bonding in terms of quantum mechanics.[54] In 1919, the American chemist
Irving Langmuir elaborated on the Lewis's static model of the atom and suggested that all electrons
were distributed in successive "concentric (nearly) spherical shells, all of equal thickness".[55] In
turn, he divided the shells into a number of cells each of which contained one pair of electrons. With
this model Langmuir was able to qualitatively explain the chemical properties of all elements in the
periodic table,[54] which were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law.[56]

In 1924, Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli observed that the shell-like structure of the atom could
be explained by a set of four parameters that defined every quantum energy state, as long as each
state was occupied by no more than a single electron. This prohibition against more than one
electron occupying the same quantum energy state became known as the Pauli exclusion
principle.[57] The physical mechanism to explain the fourth parameter, which had two distinct
possible values, was provided by the Dutch physicists Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck. In
1925, they suggested that an electron, in addition to the angular momentum of its orbit, possesses
an intrinsic angular momentum and magnetic dipole moment.[51][58] This is analogous to the
rotation of the Earth on its axis as it orbits the Sun. The intrinsic angular momentum became known
as spin, and explained the previously mysterious splitting of spectral lines observed with a high-
resolution spectrograph; this phenomenon is known as fine structure splitting.[59]

Quantum mechanics

In his 1924 dissertation Recherches sur la théorie des quanta (Research on Quantum Theory), French
physicist Louis de Broglie hypothesized that all matter can be represented as a de Broglie wave in
the manner of light.[60] That is, under the appropriate conditions, electrons and other matter would
show properties of either particles or waves. The corpuscular properties of a particle are
demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space along its trajectory at any given
moment.[61] The wave-like nature of light is displayed, for example, when a beam of light is passed
through parallel slits thereby creating interference patterns. In 1927, George Paget Thomson and
Alexander Reid discovered the interference effect was produced when a beam of electrons was
passed through thin celluloid foils and later metal films, and by American physicists Clinton
Davisson and Lester Germer by the reflection of electrons from a crystal of nickel.[62] Alexander
Reid, who was Thomson's graduate student, performed the first experiments but he died soon after
in a motorcycle accident[63] and is rarely mentioned.
 In quantum mechanics, the behavior
of an electron in an atom is described
by an orbital, which is a probability
distribution rather than an orbit. In the
figure, the shading indicates the
relative probability to "find" the
electron, having the energy
corresponding to the given quantum
numbers, at that point.

De Broglie's prediction of a wave nature for electrons led Erwin Schrödinger to postulate a wave
equation for electrons moving under the influence of the nucleus in the atom. In 1926, this equation,
the Schrödinger equation, successfully described how electron waves propagated.[64] Rather than
yielding a solution that determined the location of an electron over time, this wave equation also
could be used to predict the probability of finding an electron near a position, especially a position
near where the electron was bound in space, for which the electron wave equations did not change
in time. This approach led to a second formulation of quantum mechanics (the first by Heisenberg
in 1925), and solutions of Schrödinger's equation, like Heisenberg's, provided derivations of the
energy states of an electron in a hydrogen atom that were equivalent to those that had been derived
first by Bohr in 1913, and that were known to reproduce the hydrogen spectrum.[65] Once spin and
the interaction between multiple electrons were describable, quantum mechanics made it possible
to predict the configuration of electrons in atoms with atomic numbers greater than hydrogen.[66]

In 1928, building on Wolfgang Pauli's work, Paul Dirac produced a model of the electron – the Dirac
equation, consistent with relativity theory, by applying relativistic and symmetry considerations to
the hamiltonian formulation of the quantum mechanics of the electro-magnetic field.[67] In order to
resolve some problems within his relativistic equation, Dirac developed in 1930 a model of the
vacuum as an infinite sea of particles with negative energy, later dubbed the Dirac sea. This led him
to predict the existence of a positron, the antimatter counterpart of the electron.[68] This particle
was discovered in 1932 by Carl Anderson, who proposed calling standard electrons negatrons and
using electron as a generic term to describe both the positively and negatively charged variants.[69]

In 1947, Willis Lamb, working in collaboration with graduate student Robert Retherford, found that
certain quantum states of the hydrogen atom, which should have the same energy, were shifted in
relation to each other; the difference came to be called the Lamb shift. About the same time,
Polykarp Kusch, working with Henry M. Foley, discovered the magnetic moment of the electron is
slightly larger than predicted by Dirac's theory. This small difference was later called anomalous
magnetic dipole moment of the electron. This difference was later explained by the theory of
quantum electrodynamics, developed by Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard
Feynman in the late 1940s.[70]

Particle accelerators

With the development of the particle accelerator during the first half of the twentieth century,
physicists began to delve deeper into the properties of subatomic particles.[71] The first successful
attempt to accelerate electrons using electromagnetic induction was made in 1942 by Donald Kerst.
His initial betatron reached energies of 2.3 MeV, while subsequent betatrons achieved 300 MeV. In
1947, synchrotron radiation was discovered with a 70 MeV electron synchrotron at General Electric.
This radiation was caused by the acceleration of electrons through a magnetic field as they moved
near the speed of light.[72]

With a beam energy of 1.5 GeV, the first high-energy particle collider was ADONE, which began
operations in 1968.[73] This device accelerated electrons and positrons in opposite directions,
effectively doubling the energy of their collision when compared to striking a static target with an
electron.[74] The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN, which was operational from 1989
to 2000, achieved collision energies of 209 GeV and made important measurements for the
Standard Model of particle physics.[75][76]

Confinement of individual electrons

Individual electrons can now be easily confined in ultra small (L = 20 nm, W = 20 nm) CMOS
transistors operated at cryogenic temperature over a range of −269 °C (4 K) to about −258 °C
(15 K).[77] The electron wavefunction spreads in a semiconductor lattice and negligibly interacts
with the valence band electrons, so it can be treated in the single particle formalism, by replacing its
mass with the effective mass tensor.
Characteristics

Classification

Standard Model of elementary particles. The

electron (symbol e) is on the left.

In the Standard Model of particle physics, electrons belong to the group of subatomic particles
called leptons, which are believed to be fundamental or elementary particles. Electrons have the
lowest mass of any charged lepton (or electrically charged particle of any type) and belong to the
first generation of fundamental particles.[78] The second and third generation contain charged
leptons, the muon and the tau, which are identical to the electron in charge, spin and interactions,
but are more massive. Leptons differ from the other basic constituent of matter, the quarks, by their
lack of strong interaction. All members of the lepton group are fermions because they all have half-
1
odd integer spin; the electron has spin ⁠2 ⁠.[79]

Fundamental properties

The invariant mass of an electron is approximately 9.109 × 10−31 kg,[80] or 5.489 × 10−4 Da. Due to
mass–energy equivalence, this corresponds to a rest energy of 0.511 MeV (8.19 × 10−14 J). The ratio
between the mass of a proton and that of an electron is about 1836.[15][81] Astronomical
measurements show that the proton-to-electron mass ratio has held the same value, as is predicted
by the Standard Model, for at least half the age of the universe.[82]

Electrons have an electric charge of −1.602 176 634 × 10−19 coulombs,[80] which is used as a
standard unit of charge for subatomic particles, and is also called the elementary charge. Within the
limits of experimental accuracy, the electron charge is identical to the charge of a proton, but with
−
the opposite sign.[83] The electron is commonly symbolized by e , and the positron is symbolized by
+
e .[79][80]

ħ
The electron has an intrinsic angular momentum or spin of ⁠2 ⁠.[80] This property is usually stated by
ħ
referring to the electron as a spin-1/2 particle.[79] For such particles the spin magnitude is ⁠2 ⁠,[84]
ħ
while the result of the measurement of a projection of the spin on any axis can only be ±⁠2 ⁠. In
addition to spin, the electron has an intrinsic magnetic moment along its spin axis.[80] It is
approximately equal to one Bohr magneton,[85][d] which is a physical constant that is equal to
9.274 010 0657(29) × 10−24 J⋅T−1.[86] The orientation of the spin with respect to the momentum of
the electron defines the property of elementary particles known as helicity.[87]

The electron has no known substructure.[1][88] Nevertheless, in condensed matter physics, spin–
charge separation can occur in some materials. In such cases, electrons 'split' into three
independent particles, the spinon, the orbiton and the holon (or chargon). The electron can always
be theoretically considered as a bound state of the three, with the spinon carrying the spin of the
electron, the orbiton carrying the orbital degree of freedom and the chargon carrying the charge, but
in certain conditions they can behave as independent quasiparticles.[89][90][91]

The issue of the radius of the electron is a challenging problem of modern theoretical physics. The
admission of the hypothesis of a finite radius of the electron is incompatible to the premises of the
theory of relativity. On the other hand, a point-like electron (zero radius) generates serious
mathematical difficulties due to the self-energy of the electron tending to infinity.[92] Observation of
a single electron in a Penning trap suggests the upper limit of the particle's radius to be
10−22 meters.[93] The upper bound of the electron radius of 10−18 meters[94] can be derived using the
uncertainty relation in energy. There is also a physical constant called the "classical electron radius",
with the much larger value of 2.8179 × 10−15 m, greater than the radius of the proton. However, the
terminology comes from a simplistic calculation that ignores the effects of quantum mechanics; in
reality, the so-called classical electron radius has little to do with the true fundamental structure of
the electron.[95][96][e]

There are elementary particles that spontaneously decay into less massive particles. An example is
the muon, with a mean lifetime of 2.2 × 10−6 seconds, which decays into an electron, a muon
neutrino and an electron antineutrino. The electron, on the other hand, is thought to be stable on
theoretical grounds: the electron is the least massive particle with non-zero electric charge, so its
decay would violate charge conservation.[97] The experimental lower bound for the electron's mean
lifetime is 6.6 × 1028 years, at a 90% confidence level.[9][98][99]
Quantum properties

As with all particles, electrons can act as waves. This is called the wave–particle duality and can be
demonstrated using the double-slit experiment.

The wave-like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously,
rather than just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle. In quantum mechanics, the
wave-like property of one particle can be described mathematically as a complex-valued function,
the wave function, commonly denoted by the Greek letter psi (ψ). When the absolute value of this
function is squared, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a location—a
probability density.[100]: 162–218

Example of an antisymmetric wave

function for a quantum state of two
identical fermions in a one-
dimensional box, with each horizontal
axis corresponding to the position of
one particle. If the particles swap
position, the wave function inverts its
sign.

Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their
intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons
must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave
function of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that it changes sign when two
electrons are swapped; that is, ψ(r1, r2) = −ψ(r2, r1), where the variables r1 and r2 correspond to the
first and second electrons, respectively. Since the absolute value is not changed by a sign swap, this
corresponds to equal probabilities. Bosons, such as the photon, have symmetric wave functions
instead.[100]: 162–218

In the case of antisymmetry, solutions of the wave equation for interacting electrons result in a zero
probability that each pair will occupy the same location or state. This is responsible for the Pauli
exclusion principle, which precludes any two electrons from occupying the same quantum state.
This principle explains many of the properties of electrons. For example, it causes groups of bound
electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same
orbit.[100]: 162–218

Virtual particles

In a simplified picture, which often tends to give the wrong idea but may serve to illustrate some
aspects, every photon spends some time as a combination of a virtual electron plus its antiparticle,
the virtual positron, which rapidly annihilate each other shortly thereafter.[101] The combination of
the energy variation needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under
the threshold of detectability expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, ΔE · Δt ≥ ħ. In effect,
the energy needed to create these virtual particles, ΔE, can be "borrowed" from the vacuum for a
period of time, Δt, so that their product is no more than the reduced Planck constant,
ħ ≈ 6.6 × 10−16 eV·s. Thus, for a virtual electron, Δt is at most 1.3 × 10−21 s.[102]

A schematic depiction of virtual

electron–positron pairs appearing at
random near an electron (at lower
left)

While an electron–positron virtual pair is in existence, the Coulomb force from the ambient electric
field surrounding an electron causes a created positron to be attracted to the original electron, while
a created electron experiences a repulsion. This causes what is called vacuum polarization. In
effect, the vacuum behaves like a medium having a dielectric permittivity more than unity. Thus the
effective charge of an electron is actually smaller than its true value, and the charge decreases with
increasing distance from the electron.[103][104] This polarization was confirmed experimentally in
1997 using the Japanese TRISTAN particle accelerator.[105] Virtual particles cause a comparable
shielding effect for the mass of the electron.[106]

The interaction with virtual particles also explains the small (about 0.1%) deviation of the intrinsic
magnetic moment of the electron from the Bohr magneton (the anomalous magnetic
moment).[85][107] The extraordinarily precise agreement of this predicted difference with the
experimentally determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of quantum
electrodynamics.[108]

The apparent paradox in classical physics of a point particle electron having intrinsic angular
momentum and magnetic moment can be explained by the formation of virtual photons in the
electric field generated by the electron. These photons can heuristically be thought of as causing
the electron to shift about in a jittery fashion (known as zitterbewegung), which results in a net
circular motion with precession.[109] This motion produces both the spin and the magnetic moment
of the electron.[14] In atoms, this creation of virtual photons explains the Lamb shift observed in
spectral lines.[103] The Compton Wavelength shows that near elementary particles such as the
electron, the uncertainty of the energy allows for the creation of virtual particles near the electron.
This wavelength explains the "static" of virtual particles around elementary particles at a close
distance.

Interaction

An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive
charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength
of this force in nonrelativistic approximation is determined by Coulomb's inverse square
law.[110]: 58–61 When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field.[100]: 140 The Ampère–
Maxwell law relates the magnetic field to the mass motion of electrons (the current) with respect to
an observer. This property of induction supplies the magnetic field that drives an electric motor.[111]
The electromagnetic field of an arbitrary moving charged particle is expressed by the Liénard–
Wiechert potentials, which are valid even when the particle's speed is close to that of light
(relativistic).[110]: 429–434
 A particle with charge q (at left) is
moving with velocity v through a
magnetic field B that is oriented
toward the viewer. For an electron, q
is negative, so it follows a curved
trajectory toward the top.

When an electron is moving through a magnetic field, it is subject to the Lorentz force that acts
perpendicularly to the plane defined by the magnetic field and the electron velocity. This centripetal
force causes the electron to follow a helical trajectory through the field at a radius called the
gyroradius. The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the
form of synchrotron radiation.[112][f][100]: 160 The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the
electron, known as the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac Force, which creates a friction that slows the
electron. This force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon itself.[113]

Here, Bremsstrahlung is
produced by an electron e
deflected by the electric field
of an atomic nucleus. The
energy change E2 − E1
determines the frequency f of
the emitted photon.

Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics. An

isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate
conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum between
two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb
force.[114] Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle,
such as a proton. The deceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung
radiation.[115]

An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called Compton
scattering. This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which
modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift.[g] The maximum
magnitude of this wavelength shift is h/mec, which is known as the Compton wavelength.[116] For an
electron, it has a value of 2.43 × 10−12 m.[80] When the wavelength of the light is long (for instance,
the wavelength of the visible light is 0.4–0.7 μm) the wavelength shift becomes negligible. Such
interaction between the light and free electrons is called Thomson scattering or linear Thomson
scattering.[117]

The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles, such as an
electron and a proton, is given by the fine-structure constant. This value is a dimensionless quantity
formed by the ratio of two energies: the electrostatic energy of attraction (or repulsion) at a
separation of one Compton wavelength, and the rest energy of the charge. It is given by
1
α ≈ 0.007 297 353,[118] which is approximately equal to ⁠137 ⁠.

When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two or more gamma
ray photons. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a positronium atom can form
before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022 MeV.[119][120] On the
other hand, a high-energy photon can transform into an electron and a positron by a process called
pair production, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.[121][122]

In the theory of electroweak interaction, the left-handed component of electron's wavefunction

forms a weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino. This means that during weak interactions,
electron neutrinos behave like electrons. Either member of this doublet can undergo a charged
current interaction by emitting or absorbing a W and be converted into the other member. Charge is
conserved during this reaction because the W boson also carries a charge, canceling out any net
change during the transmutation. Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon
of beta decay in a radioactive atom. Both the electron and electron neutrino can undergo a neutral
0
current interaction via a Z exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino–electron elastic
scattering.[123]
Atoms and molecules

Probability densities for the first few hydrogen

atom orbitals, seen in cross-section. The energy
level of a bound electron determines the orbital
it occupies, and the color reflects the probability
of finding the electron at a given position.

An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. A system of
one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the number of electrons is different
from the nucleus's electrical charge, such an atom is called an ion. The wave-like behavior of a
bound electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital. Each orbital has its own set of
quantum numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, and
only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus. According to the Pauli exclusion
principle each orbital can be occupied by up to two electrons, which must differ in their spin
quantum number.

Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the emission or absorption of photons with an
energy that matches the difference in potential.[124]: 159–160 Other methods of orbital transfer include
collisions with particles, such as electrons, and the Auger effect.[125] To escape the atom, the energy
of the electron must be increased above its binding energy to the atom. This occurs, for example,
with the photoelectric effect, where an incident photon exceeding the atom's ionization energy is
absorbed by the electron.[124]: 127–132

The orbital angular momentum of electrons is quantized. Because the electron is charged, it
produces an orbital magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular momentum. The net
magnetic moment of an atom is equal to the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of
all electrons and the nucleus. The magnetic moment of the nucleus is negligible compared with that
of the electrons. The magnetic moments of the electrons that occupy the same orbital, called paired
electrons, cancel each other out.[126]

The chemical bond between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described
by the laws of quantum mechanics.[127] The strongest bonds are formed by the sharing or transfer
of electrons between atoms, allowing the formation of molecules.[17] Within a molecule, electrons
move under the influence of several nuclei, and occupy molecular orbitals; much as they can occupy
atomic orbitals in isolated atoms.[128] A fundamental factor in these molecular structures is the
existence of electron pairs. These are electrons with opposed spins, allowing them to occupy the
same molecular orbital without violating the Pauli exclusion principle (much like in atoms). Different
molecular orbitals have different spatial distribution of the electron density. For instance, in bonded
pairs (i.e. in the pairs that actually bind atoms together) electrons can be found with the maximal
probability in a relatively small volume between the nuclei. By contrast, in non-bonded pairs
electrons are distributed in a large volume around nuclei.[129]

Conductivity

A lightning discharge consists

primarily of a flow of electrons.[130]
The electric potential needed for
lightning can be generated by a
triboelectric effect.[131][132]

If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei,
then that object has a net electric charge. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to
be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the
object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are
equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A
macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect.[133]
Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed free electrons. Electrons in metals also behave
as if they were free. In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other
solids are quasi-electrons—quasiparticles, which have the same electrical charge, spin, and
magnetic moment as real electrons but might have a different mass.[134] When free electrons—both
in vacuum and metals—move, they produce a net flow of charge called an electric current, which
generates a magnetic field. Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field. These
interactions are described mathematically by Maxwell's equations.[135]

At a given temperature, each material has an electrical conductivity that determines the value of
electric current when an electric potential is applied. Examples of good conductors include metals
such as copper and gold, whereas glass and Teflon are poor conductors. In any dielectric material,
the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an insulator.
Most semiconductors have a variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of
conduction and insulation.[136] On the other hand, metals have an electronic band structure
containing partially filled electronic bands. The presence of such bands allows electrons in metals
to behave as if they were free or delocalized electrons. These electrons are not associated with
specific atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move like a gas (called Fermi
gas)[137] through the material much like free electrons.

Because of collisions between electrons and atoms, the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is
on the order of millimeters per second. However, the speed at which a change of current at one
point in the material causes changes in currents in other parts of the material, the velocity of
propagation, is typically about 75% of light speed.[138] This occurs because electrical signals
propagate as a wave, with the velocity dependent on the dielectric constant of the material.[139]

Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are
free to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal
conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by
the Wiedemann–Franz law,[137] which states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to the electrical
conductivity is proportional to the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases
the electrical resistivity of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electric current.[140]

When cooled below a point called the critical temperature, materials can undergo a phase transition
in which they lose all resistivity to electric current, in a process known as superconductivity. In BCS
theory, pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice
vibrations called phonons, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical
resistance.[141] (Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100 nm, so they can overlap each other.)[142]
However, the mechanism by which higher temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain.
Electrons inside conducting solids, which are quasi-particles themselves, when tightly confined at
temperatures close to absolute zero, behave as though they had split into three other quasiparticles:
spinons, orbitons and holons.[143][144] The former carries spin and magnetic moment, the next
carries its orbital location while the latter electrical charge.

Motion and energy

According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, as an electron's speed approaches the speed of
light, from an observer's point of view its relativistic mass increases, thereby making it more and
more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference. The speed of an
electron can approach, but never reach, the speed of light in vacuum, c. However, when relativistic
electrons—that is, electrons moving at a speed close to c—are injected into a dielectric medium
such as water, where the local speed of light is significantly less than c, the electrons temporarily
travel faster than light in the medium. As they interact with the medium, they generate a faint light
called Cherenkov radiation.[145]

Lorentz factor as a function of

velocity. It starts at value 1 and goes
to infinity as v approaches c.

The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as the Lorentz factor, defined as
where v is the speed of the particle. The kinetic energy Ke of an electron moving with
velocity v is:

where me is the mass of electron. For example, the Stanford linear accelerator can accelerate an
electron to roughly 51 GeV.[146] Since an electron behaves as a wave, at a given velocity it has a
characteristic de Broglie wavelength. This is given by λe = h/p where h is the Planck constant and p
is the momentum.[60] For the 51 GeV electron above, the wavelength is about 2.4 × 10−17 m, small
enough to explore structures well below the size of an atomic nucleus.[147]

Formation

Pair production of an electron and

positron, caused by the close
approach of a photon with an atomic
nucleus. The lightning symbol
represents an exchange of a virtual
photon, thus an electric force acts.
The angle between the particles is
very small.[148]

The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the
evolution of the Universe.[149] For the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were over
10 billion kelvins and photons had mean energies over a million electronvolts. These photons were
sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons.
Likewise, positron–electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted energetic photons:
+ −
γ+γ↔e +e

An equilibrium between electrons, positrons and photons was maintained during this phase of the
evolution of the Universe. After 15 seconds had passed, however, the temperature of the universe
dropped below the threshold where electron-positron formation could occur. Most of the surviving
electrons and positrons annihilated each other, releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the
universe.[150]

For reasons that remain uncertain, during the annihilation process there was an excess in the
number of particles over antiparticles. Hence, about one electron for every billion electron–positron
pairs survived. This excess matched the excess of protons over antiprotons, in a condition known
as baryon asymmetry, resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe.[151][152] The surviving
protons and neutrons began to participate in reactions with each other—in the process known as
nucleosynthesis, forming isotopes of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of lithium. This
process peaked after about five minutes.[153] Any leftover neutrons underwent negative beta decay
with a half-life of about a thousand seconds, releasing a proton and electron in the process,
 −
n → p + e + νe

For about the next 300 000–400 000 years, the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind
with atomic nuclei.[154] What followed is a period known as recombination, when neutral atoms were
formed and the expanding universe became transparent to radiation.[155]

Roughly one million years after the big bang, the first generation of stars began to form.[155] Within a
star, stellar nucleosynthesis results in the production of positrons from the fusion of atomic nuclei.
These antimatter particles immediately annihilate with electrons, releasing gamma rays. The net
result is a steady reduction in the number of electrons, and a matching increase in the number of
neutrons. However, the process of stellar evolution can result in the synthesis of radioactive
isotopes. Selected isotopes can subsequently undergo negative beta decay, emitting an electron
and antineutrino from the nucleus.[156] An example is the cobalt-60 (60Co) isotope, which decays to
60
form nickel-60 ( Ni).[157]

An extended air shower generated by

an energetic cosmic ray striking the
Earth's atmosphere

At the end of its lifetime, a star with more than about 20 solar masses can undergo gravitational
collapse to form a black hole.[158] According to classical physics, these massive stellar objects exert
a gravitational attraction that is strong enough to prevent anything, even electromagnetic radiation,
from escaping past the Schwarzschild radius. However, quantum mechanical effects are believed to
potentially allow the emission of Hawking radiation at this distance. Electrons (and positrons) are
thought to be created at the event horizon of these stellar remnants.

When a pair of virtual particles (such as an electron and positron) is created in the vicinity of the
event horizon, random spatial positioning might result in one of them to appear on the exterior; this
process is called quantum tunnelling. The gravitational potential of the black hole can then supply
the energy that transforms this virtual particle into a real particle, allowing it to radiate away into
space.[159] In exchange, the other member of the pair is given negative energy, which results in a net
loss of mass–energy by the black hole. The rate of Hawking radiation increases with decreasing
mass, eventually causing the black hole to evaporate away until, finally, it explodes.[160]
Cosmic rays are particles traveling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as
3.0 × 1020 eV have been recorded.[161] When these particles collide with nucleons in the Earth's
atmosphere, a shower of particles is generated, including pions.[162] More than half of the cosmic
radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of muons. The particle called a muon is a
lepton produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion.
− −
π → μ + νμ

A muon, in turn, can decay to form an electron or positron.[163]

− −
μ → e + νe + νμ

Observation

Aurorae are mostly caused by

energetic electrons precipitating into
the atmosphere[164]

Remote observation of electrons requires detection of their radiated energy. For example, in high-
energy environments such as the corona of a star, free electrons form a plasma that radiates energy
due to Bremsstrahlung radiation. Electron gas can undergo plasma oscillation, which is waves
caused by synchronized variations in electron density, and these produce energy emissions that can
be detected by using radio telescopes.[165]

The frequency of a photon is proportional to its energy. As a bound electron transitions between
different energy levels of an atom, it absorbs or emits photons at characteristic frequencies. For
instance, when atoms are irradiated by a source with a broad spectrum, distinct dark lines appear in
the spectrum of transmitted radiation in places where the corresponding frequency is absorbed by
the atom's electrons. Each element or molecule displays a characteristic set of spectral lines, such
as the hydrogen spectral series. When detected, spectroscopic measurements of the strength and
width of these lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be
determined.[166][167]

In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of

particle detectors, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and
charge.[168] The development of the Paul trap and Penning trap allows charged particles to be
contained within a small region for long durations. This enables precise measurements of the
particle properties. For example, in one instance a Penning trap was used to contain a single
electron for a period of 10 months.[169] The magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a
precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical
constant.[170]

The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at Lund
University in Sweden, February 2008. The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called
attosecond pulses, which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time.[171][172]

The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by angle-resolved

photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). This technique employs the photoelectric effect to measure
the reciprocal space—a mathematical representation of periodic structures that is used to infer the
original structure. ARPES can be used to determine the direction, speed and scattering of electrons
within the material.[173]

Plasma applications

Particle beams

During a NASA wind tunnel test, a

model of the Space Shuttle is
targeted by a beam of electrons,
simulating the effect of ionizing
gases during re-entry.[174]

Electron beams are used in welding.[175] They allow energy densities up to 107 W·cm−2 across a
narrow focus diameter of 0.1–1.3 mm and usually require no filler material. This welding technique
must be performed in a vacuum to prevent the electrons from interacting with the gas before
reaching their target, and it can be used to join conductive materials that would otherwise be
considered unsuitable for welding.[176][177]
Electron-beam lithography (EBL) is a method of etching semiconductors at resolutions smaller than
a micrometer.[178] This technique is limited by high costs, slow performance, the need to operate the
beam in the vacuum and the tendency of the electrons to scatter in solids. The last problem limits
the resolution to about 10 nm. For this reason, EBL is primarily used for the production of small
numbers of specialized integrated circuits.[179]

Electron beam processing is used to irradiate materials in order to change their physical properties
or sterilize medical and food products.[180] Electron beams fluidise or quasi-melt glasses without
significant increase of temperature on intensive irradiation: e.g. intensive electron radiation causes
a many orders of magnitude decrease of viscosity and stepwise decrease of its activation
energy.[181]

Linear particle accelerators generate electron beams for treatment of superficial tumors in radiation
therapy. Electron therapy can treat such skin lesions as basal-cell carcinomas because an electron
beam only penetrates to a limited depth before being absorbed, typically up to 5 cm for electron
energies in the range 5–20 MeV. An electron beam can be used to supplement the treatment of
areas that have been irradiated by X-rays.[182][183]

Particle accelerators use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies.
These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields. The dependency of
the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the
Sokolov–Ternov effect.[h] Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments.
Synchrotron radiation can also cool the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the
particles. Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles' accelerating to the required
energies; particle detectors observe the resulting energy emissions, which particle physics
studies.[184]

Imaging

Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a method of bombarding a crystalline material with a

collimated beam of electrons and then observing the resulting diffraction patterns to determine the
structure of the material. The required energy of the electrons is typically in the range 20–
200 eV.[185] The reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED) technique uses the reflection of
a beam of electrons fired at various low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline materials.
The beam energy is typically in the range 8–20 keV and the angle of incidence is 1–4°.[186][187]

The electron microscope directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen. Some electrons
change their properties, such as movement direction, angle, and relative phase and energy as the
beam interacts with the material. Microscopists can record these changes in the electron beam to
produce atomically resolved images of the material.[188] In blue light, conventional optical
microscopes have a diffraction-limited resolution of about 200 nm.[189] By comparison, electron
microscopes are limited by the de Broglie wavelength of the electron. This wavelength, for example,
is equal to 0.0037 nm for electrons accelerated across a 100,000-volt potential.[190] The
Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope is capable of sub-0.05 nm resolution,
which is more than enough to resolve individual atoms.[191] This capability makes the electron
microscope a useful laboratory instrument for high resolution imaging. However, electron
microscopes are expensive instruments that are costly to maintain.

Two main types of electron microscopes exist: transmission and scanning. Transmission electron
microscopes function like overhead projectors, with a beam of electrons passing through a slice of
material then being projected by lenses on a photographic slide or a charge-coupled device.
Scanning electron microscopes rasteri a finely focused electron beam, as in a TV set, across the
studied sample to produce the image. Magnifications range from 100× to 1,000,000× or higher for
both microscope types. The scanning tunneling microscope uses quantum tunneling of electrons
from a sharp metal tip into the studied material and can produce atomically resolved images of its
surface.[192][193][194]

Other applications

In the free-electron laser (FEL), a relativistic electron beam passes through a pair of undulators that
contain arrays of dipole magnets whose fields point in alternating directions. The electrons emit
synchrotron radiation that coherently interacts with the same electrons to strongly amplify the
radiation field at the resonance frequency. FEL can emit a coherent high-brilliance electromagnetic
radiation with a wide range of frequencies, from microwaves to soft X-rays. These devices are used
in manufacturing, communication, and in medical applications, such as soft tissue surgery.[195]

Electrons are important in cathode-ray tubes, which have been extensively used as display devices
in laboratory instruments, computer monitors and television sets.[196] In a photomultiplier tube,
every photon striking the photocathode initiates an avalanche of electrons that produces a
detectable current pulse.[197] Vacuum tubes use the flow of electrons to manipulate electrical
signals, and they played a critical role in the development of electronics technology. However, they
have been largely supplanted by solid-state devices such as the transistor.[198]
See also

Anyon
Electronics portal
Beta radiation
Physics portal

Electride Science portal

Electron bubble

Exoelectron emission

g-factor

Lepton

List of particles

One-electron universe

Periodic systems of small molecules

Spintronics

Stern–Gerlach experiment

Townsend discharge

Zeeman effect

Positron or antielectron is a antiparticle or antimatter counter part of the

electron

Notes

a. The positron is occasionally called the 'anti-electron'.

b. The fractional version's denominator is the inverse of the decimal value (along with its relative
standard uncertainty of 2.9 × 10−11).

c. Older sources list charge-to-mass rather than the modern convention of mass-to-charge ratio.

d. Bohr magneton:
 e. The classical electron radius is derived as follows. Assume that the electron's charge is spread
uniformly throughout a spherical volume. Since one part of the sphere would repel the other
parts, the sphere contains electrostatic potential energy. This energy is assumed to equal the
electron's rest energy, defined by special relativity (E = mc2).
From electrostatics theory, the potential energy of a sphere with radius r and charge e is given
by:

where ε0 is the vacuum permittivity. For an electron with rest mass m0, the rest energy is equal
to:

where c is the speed of light in vacuum. Setting them equal and solving for r gives the classical
electron radius.
See: Haken, Wolf, & Brewer (2005).

f. Radiation from non-relativistic electrons is sometimes termed cyclotron radiation.

g. The change in wavelength, Δλ, depends on the angle of the recoil, θ, as follows,

where c is the speed of light in vacuum and me is the electron mass. See Zombeck
(2007).[81]: 393, 396

h. The polarization of an electron beam means that the spins of all electrons point into one
direction. In other words, the projections of the spins of all electrons onto their momentum
vector have the same sign.

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External links

"The Discovery of the Electron" (https://history.aip.org/exhibits/electron/) . Center for History of

Physics. American Institute of Physics.

"Particle Data Group" (https://pdg.lbl.gov/) . University of California.

Bock, R.K.; Vasilescu, A. (1998). The Particle Detector BriefBook (https://physics.web.cern.ch/Parti

cleDetector/BriefBook/) (14th ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-64120-9.