CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Any undesirable change in the composition of the atmosphere, which causes

harm to the living organisms (Flora and Fauna), is considered air pollution.
The atmosphere is a gaseous envelope which surrounds the earth the air is a
mechanical mixture of several gases, mainly nitrogen (78%), oxygen (20.95%)
organ (0.937) and carbon dioxide (0.03%). Besides, other trace gases like
neon, krypton, helium, hydrogen, xenon and ozone are also present. Air is
very important for all types of life in the biosphere. Human life is not possible
without air because man can live for a few days without or for a few weeks
without food but cannot survive even for a few minutes without air.

At present the environmental pollution has reached at a dangerous level but

along with this the awareness towards environmental protection has also
increased from Stockholm conference to Johannesburg and Cop-8
conference of 2002 wherein many steps have been taken at national and
international level. At present the most dangerous threat living organisms is
the rise in temperature of the atmosphere. There is an increase in the levels
of CO2 by 0.4%. CH4 1.1%, CFC by 5% N2O by 0.25 every year in the
atmosphere, because of the increase in the amount of these gases over last
75 years the rise in atmosphere temperature has risen by 1.5°C. If the rise is
above 1 to 12 feet resulting coastal areas will be submerged but also the
world climate will change another important consequences of air pollution is
the depletion of ozone layer due to which Ultra violate rays will damage the
life on earth.

A number of policy measures have been activated in India in order to control

the levels of air pollutants such as particulate matter, sulphur dioxide (SO2)
and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). These air pollutants cause adverse effects on

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health and environment. The harmful effects of these pollutants on human
beings, ecosystem, historical monuments and building are well documented
Particulates are considered to be responsible for respiratory diseases,
morbidity and mortality The major anthropogenic sources of air pollutants are
industrial emissions, domestic fuel burning, emissions from power plants and
transportation activities. In India, specifically in Delhi, vehicular pollution
contributes 67% of the total air pollution load, which is approximately 3,000
metric tonnes per day (Highlights, Central Pollution Control Board, 1999). It is
estimated that out of every 10 school children in Delhi, 1 suffers from asthma.
The figure is increasing due to the increased vehicular activities. It is
remarkable that the vehicular population observed in 1993 was approximately
2.1 million and during 2001, it has increased to around 3.6 million. It is
estimated that on an average, 370 to 600 vehicles are registered daily.

The tremendous vehicular growth resulted in the high concentrations of air

pollutants. It is estimated that the vehicles account for approximately 97% of
total Hydrocarbons (HC), 48% of NOx, 76% of CO, 10% of SPM and 6% of
SO2 emissions in Delhi (Sengupta, R., Bennett, D. A., Kraft, S. E., and
Beaulieu, J., 2000. Evaluating the Impact of Policy-induced Land use
Management Practices on Non-point Source Pollution using a Spatial
Decision Support System: A simulation of the Big Creek Basin. Water
International, 25 (3): 437-445). Diesel powered vehicles are one of the several
vehicle sources of NOx emissions. In diesel engines, a major part of the fuel
remains unburnt that makes particulate emissions. According to the Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB), the concentration of PM10 (particulate matter
of size less than 10 µm), SO2, NO2 and SPM (total suspended particulate
matter) are exceeding the stipulated permissible limits for the respective
pollutant. Due to this, the major policies activated in Delhi are related to the
emissions from transportation activity. To control the pollution levels in
ambient air, standards for the vehicles and the fuel standards have been
correspondingly improved. A few of recent initiative taken by government
includes removal of lead from gasoline, phasing out of older commercial
vehicles, introduction of EURO I and EURO II emission norms, check on

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adulteration of fuel, control of sulphur content in petrol and diesel, lowering of
benzene content in petrol, change in automobile fuel, which led conversion of
diesel fuel to CNG in the public transport and buses during 2001. CNG is
introduced as it is a clean burning alternative fuel for vehicles and has a
potential for reducing harmful emissions of air pollutants. It is estimated that
diesel combustion emits 84 g/km of particulates as compared to 11 g/km in
CNG (Nylund & Lawson, 2000 Breathing Clean: Considering the Switch to
Natural Gas Buses).

It is argued that the conversion of fuel in vehicles to CNG reduces the

pollutants levels, as it is less hazardous, environmental friendly and cost
effective in terms of operational cost (Goyal & Sidhartha, 2003). The studies
have already been conducted to assess the air quality levels and the effect of
shift to cleaner fuel. In this line, Kathuria (2002) observed insignificant impact
of change in fuel quality on air quality levels. The study was however confined
to the air quality data observed during 1999 to 2001 and at only one station.
Contrary to Kathuria, Goyal and Sidhartha (2003) observed significant impact
of CNG implementation in Delhi. They utilized the air quality data during
1995–2001, collected at the same station as that of Kathuria. In a study on
emission trends of air pollutants from various sources and effects on air
quality in Delhi, Gurjara et al. (2004) observed that the impact of several
control measures on air quality is not very large (World Bank, 2005). A
significant reduction in various air pollutant levels at several

Residential, industrial and commercial areas and also at traffic intersections

has been reported (Central Pollution Control Board, 2000). On the contrary,
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) study has reported increase in the
levels of air pollutants in Delhi (*Centre for Science and Environment, 2001).
Results of the above studies vary in their interpretations and yield messages,
which may be misleading for the policy makers and public. Therefore, there is
a need for a more comprehensive study, which is based on increased spatial
and temporal coverage. This would help in integrated assessment of the air
quality levels before and after the implementation of CNG in motor vehicles.

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This will ultimately result in providing the comprehensive solutions to the air
quality concerns of the city.

Justification of studies- Unlimited and free access to clean air of acceptable

quality is a fundamental human Necessity and right. The lung is a critical
interface between the environment and the human body. An average person
takes about 10 million breaths a year, and toxic substances in air can easily
reach the lung and other organs where they can produce harmful effects. An
adequate understanding of the nature and magnitude of the effects of different
air pollutants on health is an essential step in developing successful policies
to reduce these risks. Many studies suggest that outdoor air pollution still
poses a considerable threat to human health in south Africa and specifically in
India , leading to greater morbidity and shorter life expectancy.
Adverse effects of different pollutants on human health have been well
documented in India and other parts of the world. These include many
diseases and an estimated reduction in life expectancy of a year or more for
people living in Different world’s cities. There is also evidence of increased
infant mortality in highly polluted areas. Concerns about these health effects
have led to the implementation of Regulations to reduce emissions of harmful
air pollutants and their precursors at International, national, regional and local
levels. Other measures – while necessary to further reduce the health effects
of air pollution are becoming increasingly expensive. There is thus a growing
need for accurate information on the effect of air pollution on health as a basis
for designing scientific, effective and well targeted strategies to reduce these
effects.
DEFINITIONS OF AIR POLLUTION
A few definitions of pollution and air pollution are given below:-
According to the national environmental research council (NERC), 1976
"Pollution may be defined as "The release of substances and energy as
waste product of human activities which result in changes usually
harmful, with in the natural environment"
H. Rerbins (1974) has defined air pollution as "The presence in the outdoor
atmosphere of one or more contaminants such as dust, firms, gas, mist
odour, smoke or vapour in quantities of characteristics and of duration

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such as to be injurious to human, plant or animal life and to enjoyment
of life and property"
According to world health organization (WHO) "air pollution is defined is
limited to situation in which the outdoor ambient atmosphere contains
materials in concentration which are harmful to man and his
surrounding environment"
In general air pollution is disequilibrium condition of the air caused due to
introduction of foreign elements from natural as well as anthropogenic
sources to the air so that the air becomes injurious to biological communities
including, being.
Current transportation policies in mega-cities worldwide lead to major threats
to health through traffic injuries, air pollution, noise, reduction in physical
activities, and adverse impact on urban quality of life. In addition, a large
section of the population in cities in low-income countries has to live in
informal-sector, substandard housing. Many transportation policies fail to take
enough account of their impacts on poverty and social exclusion, and they
neglect the access and transportation demands of the more economically
disadvantaged groups of society, who rely mostly on public transportation,
walking, and cycling. Delhi, the capital city of India, is an interesting case
because failure to consider the broad spectrum of health effects that may
result from transport and land-use policies and investments has resulted in
decisions that penalize the least affluent groups of the population and make it
more difficult for them to get to jobs, education, health care, amenities, and
services.
Map- 1 Country wise Carbon dioxide Emission World Map

Source :-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions

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Urban transportation systems are complex systems defined by land-use and
transport policies. A description of a complete transportation system must
meet the following conditions:

• All modes of transportation must be considered and all elements of the

transportation system must be considered - the persons and items
being transported; the vehicles in which they are conveyed; and the
network of facilities through which the vehicles, passengers, and
cargoes move, including terminals where trips originate or terminate
and transfer points where commuters transfer from bus to train or
bicycle to train or bus etc.

• All movements through the system must be considered.

• For each specific flow the total trip from point of origin to final
destination - overall modes and facilities must be considered.

Such a comprehensive definition of a transportation system enables analysts

to consider explicitly the assumptions introduced by eliminating individual
elements of a highly complex and interrelated system. In cities in which the
level of complexity increases because of large disparities between the city
residents, however, often only selected elements are quantified and analysed.
The existing traffic and transport indicators such as kilometres travelled by
vehicles, average speeds, and delays experienced by vehicles at
intersections are biased towards motorized travel. Bicycle and walking trips
are not included with motorized vehicle trips for traffic analyses. Policies
based on such limited analyses result in adverse health impacts for a large
section of the population. This is evident from the study of transport land-use
policies in Delhi, the capital city of India.

Delhi, INDIA

Delhi is located at 28º35’N latitude, 77°12’E longitude, 216 m above sea level
is situated in the National Capital Territory (NCT) in the North of India, about
160 Km south of Himalayas. Delhi is Land locked state situated between the
Great Indian Desert ‘(Thar Desert) of Rajasthan in the west, and indo gangetic

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plain in the east. As Nation’s capital city it has become a nucleus of trade,
commerce and Industry in the northern India the Major industrial activities
exist in the west, south and south-east zones of the city. Engineering, clothing
and chemicals predominate, although electronic and electrical goods are main
industries of the city .this city is categorized as a service town, however,
industry is rapidly expanding on the way.

Delhi is the cultural heart of the country and considering all aspects of life. It is
most suitably located as a capital. Here, overcrowding problem is not as
bigger as in Mumbai but the encroachment of the city into rural areas is a
great concern. Rural-urban and inter-urban migration are the root cause for its
population growth.

The vegetation of Delhi is a thorny’ and scrub forests (the classification of

forest types developed by Champion et al., (1968), the forests of Delhi fall in
the category of tropical thorn forests, and more specifically as Semi-arid open
scrub of rash forests. But in its present state, the Delhi has become a
synthetic vegetative stand where native plants are found in co-existence with
planted exotics, many of them are naturalized plants.

This is perhaps the most complex problem threatening the Delhi ecosystem.
Most of our city planners strongly favour conversion of the forest into a semi-
wild parkland (by cutting the undergrowth) or into totally new parklands (by
planting ornamental trees and shrubs after removing most of the original
vegetation). They argue that parks are more useful for people and would, in
any case, serve the same ecological purpose as a forest.

The Ridges of Delhi have been converted into parks. Though this may not
seem important to most joggers and strollers, such activity has wreaked
havoc upon the scrub vegetation of the Ridge. Parks are certainly essential in
a city like Delhi, but they can easily be planned in other areas (already
denuded of forests), without tampering with the Ridge.

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Photo-1 Traffic congestion in Delhi

Source:- https://www.google.co.in/image

Traffic congestion in Delhi particular, and in India in general, is a product of

the rapid increase in the number of road vehicle. Congestion is most
pronounced in the old Delhi city areas, which have narrow streets and
inadequate parking facilities. The expansion of Old Delhi and New Delhi has
been accompanied by a marked growth in the number of people commuting to
and from Delhi. Commuters are forced to depend on road transport and traffic
densities have increased, particularly along the highway and internal roads of
the city.

PRETORIA, SOUTH AFRICA

Pretoria is located around 50 km north of Johannesburg in the north-east of

South Africa. It lies in a transitional belt running between the plateau of the
Highveld to the south and the lower-lying Bushveld to the north. Because of
an altitude of about 1,350m above sea level, the city enjoys warm climate
surrounded by hills of the Magaliesberg range with a sheltered and fertile
valley. The city is bestowed with a moderate dry subtropical climate. The
climate is characterized by hot and rainy summers for a long period as well as

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cool and dry winters over a short period. Pretoria has an average annual
temperature of about 18.7°C, which is a bit high, despite the 1350m altitude.
Major reason for a warm climate is because of its sheltered valley position.
The valley acts as a heat trap and prevents flow of cool southerly and
northern-easterly air masses throughout the year. The city receives rainfalls in
the months of summer. However, the drought like situation prevails in the
winter months because of unpleasant climatic condition resulting from sharp
frosts. Pretoria rarely receives snowfalls, may be once or twice in a century.

Pretoria has an enjoyable climate throughout the year. However, the

temperature falls in the evening as compared to daytime. To stay on a safer
side, it is always better if you carry suitable woolen clothing and jackets. The
temperature in summer between October-March is around 30°C and stays
warm throughout the day. Between November-February, the city receives
thunderstorm during noon, but it doesn't last for a long period. It experiences
cold waves between July-August, when the temperature is around 20°C at
daytime. The evenings in winter are very cold. Therefore, it is better to stay
inside and not go out without significant guidance. Most of the people prefer to
visit Pretoria in the month of October because of ideal climate, when the city
appears very beautiful due to the beautiful jacaranda tresses in full blossom
that are ready to spread aroma and fragrance in and around all corners of the
city.

AIR POLLUTION PATTERNS AND TRENDS

Delhi is one of the most discussed and documented cities in India. Within its
large geographical area, it contains many cities and sub-cities. Delhi has more
than its share of urban problems.

Planned development of Delhi has been attempted since 1874, when the
Delhi Municipal Committee was formed in 1910, a town-planning committee
was appointed by the British Government to plan an imperial city in Delhi.
Soon after independence in 1947, the Ministry of Rehabilitation was entrusted
with the task of resettling nearly 450 000 refugees as they arrived from the
new border. Problems of pollution and housing in the new capital led to the

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establishment of the Town Planning Organisation and the Delhi Development
Authority in 1955 and 1957, respectively, to slow down unplanned growth of
Delhi. The Town Planning Organisation prepared the first master plan for
Delhi in 1962 (DMP 62) and earmarked spaces for industrial units and other
land uses for the city. The number of industrial units built exceeded the
number proposed in DMP 62, however, and so did the number of people
working in these units. This resulted in a large number of people with low
incomes living in squatter settlements in Delhi. Since 1975, different
governments have adopted policies to forcibly evict such people from the city
centre of Delhi to the resettlement colonies at the city's peripheries. The
master plan for Delhi is supposed to be the blueprint for developing the entire
city, and it is supposed to be prepared by including active participation of the
city's residents. The planning of the city has remained the prerogative of a few
government officials and technical experts, however, with no role for the
people to play. The master plan has been violated systematically by many
governmental and semi-governmental agencies.

The systemic failure of planning is evident from the situation today. The
"green belt" that was specified in DMP 62 has been exploited by land
developers. The resettlement colonies and industrial areas, which were
supposed to be a ring town under DMP 62, are now a connected suburb.
Gurgaon, Faridabad, and Ghaziabad are contiguous urban sprawls, and the
arterial roads and national highways are the most congested in the region.
Constantly increasing numbers of poor people continue to live in informal
settlements without services. Estimates suggest that over 1500 unauthorized
colonies are without civic amenities and that as much as 60% of the
population lives in substandard housing. The living conditions of the residents
in these colonies are very poor, with 70% without sewage facilities and 60%
with no separate space for cooking in their houses. The acute scarcity of land,
shelter, and infrastructure means that many people put up shanties or
substandard housing, known as jhuggi jhopri clusters or "jhuggies", on public
land (and other vacant land). Well over 3 million people are estimated to live
in jhuggies; this number is projected to increase to 4.5 million by 2011 and to

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6 million by 2020. The people from households with low incomes that reside in
jhuggies, slums, and low-income, unauthorized, residential settlements in
Delhi are "captive pedestrians".

LAND USE AND SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION

Delhi, like most Indian cities, has a mixed pattern of land use. This is partly
because large numbers of people need to walk between their places of
residence and their places of work. No clear-cut concentric zones of different
activities exist. Central core areas comprise not only commercial development
but also high-concentration housing, and working-class developments are
found in the core and vicinity of the city. Manufacturing activity is spread
geographically not only in the peripheral zone but also in the intermediate and
inner zones.

FIG.1 INDUSTRIAL AREAS IN DELHI

Source:- http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/newdelhi/delh

Employment in industry grew from 17% of the work force in 1951 to 29% in
1981and 33% in 1991. Between 1961 and 1971, the number of industries that
employed less than 10 workers grew by 444% in Delhi, while Bombay
recorded growth of only 51% and Calcutta just 18%. Industrial employment in
Delhi increased from 215 000 jobs in 1971 to 1 136 000 jobs in 1999. Along
with this, a large section of the population is also employed in the

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informal sector in activities such as distributing newspapers and selling
vegetables. The spatial arrangement of social zones in Delhi shows distinct
patches of lower-class housing in the outskirts and the innermost commercial
areas. The innermost areas are characterized by high population density.
These areas of Old Delhi have been declared slums because of their old,
dilapidated, and obsolete structures. People of the lower classes reside at the
outskirts in resettlement colonies built by the government, those in the elite
class are mostly concentrated in the peripheral zones, and middle-class areas
are dispersed all over the city.

LAND-USE POLICIES

Two important aspects of land-use policies in the recent past included the
relocation of 90 000 industrial units from the city centre for reasons related to
pollution and the resettlement of poor people evicted from their original
location to the city's outskirts.

The relocation of industrial units may have reduced pollution in the city;
however, almost 50 000 people lost their source of income and have faced
immense hardships. The court instituted a rehabilitation package for the
affected population, but implementation has been very weak and largely
remained on paper only. Similarly, the unprecedented large- scale evictions of
people from unauthorized and illegal constructions in Delhi from the year 2000
have affected poor people who are the most vulnerable. The people of the
slum communities in Delhi are being removed from their places of self-created
living to yield space for six major development projects backed by judicial
activism and initiated by the rich and the middle class. Plans to turn Delhi into
a clean city seek to evict the poor to the outskirts in favour of commercial
complexes, flyovers, recreational parks, and roads for the well off.

The report of the Habitat International Coalition showed that the relocations
conducted since 1975 have created a number of irresolute social problems. It
observed that Delhi has a history of illegal and forced eviction and an equally
long history of migration into the city. The city needs cheap labour for menial
jobs to keep production costs low and maintain the standard of living of the
better off — and the poor are the source of that labour. As the city expands

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and its land increases in commercial value, the "unpropertied" poor are
pushed to the periphery. In this way, they are the first to subsidize the current
development process at the cost of their own access to regular employment
and livelihood opportunities, education, health care, and other social
necessities. Since 2000, more than 100 000 jhuggies in Delhi have been
displaced 10–25 km away from their original location. This not only reduced
opportunities for employment but also increased dependence on motorized
transport that is often too expensive for households that survive on limited
casual income from the informal sector. Longer pedestrian and bicycle trips
also increase the risk of road traffic injuries.

TRANSPORT POLICIES

The Government of India in 1997 prepared a white paper on pollution in Delhi.

Subsequently, the Environmental Pollution Control Authority was set up for
the city and suggested measures to reduce vehicular pollution .These
measures do not consider the second major health impact of transport and
land-use policies traffic injuries. In Delhi, pedestrians, bicyclists, and
motorized two-wheelers are involved in 75% of the total fatal road traffic
crashes. Because bicyclists and pedestrians continue to share the road space
with motorized vehicles, which include buses, cars, three-wheelers, and
scooters, in the absence of infrastructure specifically designed for them,
bicyclists and pedestrians are at high risk of being involved in road traffic
crashes.

FIG.2 : - TRANSPORT POLICY

Source:-https://www.somerset.gov.uk/irj/public/home

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In Delhi, a major conflict exists between speed and trends in fatalities.
Average speed has declined over the years, but congestion on the roads in
Delhi is worsening, despite several local, road-improvement programmes.
Average speed during peak periods ranges between 10 and 15 km/h in
central areas and 21 and 39 km/h on arterial roads. As average speeds
decrease, the number of fatalities would be expected to decrease the number
of total fatalities does show a marginal decline; however, the share of
pedestrian fatalities continues to rise.

The decline in average speed of motor vehicles and the pollution levels in
Delhi seem to be the two most important factors to influence the type of
investment in road infrastructure in the city. The safety and mobility needs of
most road users pedestrians and bus commuters are not considered in future
improvement plans. This has two major impacts on the city traffic and travel
patterns. First, the share of pedestrian and public transport trips as a
percentage of total trips has decreased over the years. In both cases, the
people who walk and use public transport despite the hostile environment only
do so because they have no other option. Second, the socioeconomic context
of our cities means that pedestrians cannot be removed and motorized
vehicles thus are forced to share the road space with pedestrians, which
results in suboptimal conditions for all road users.

The Influence of Urbanization

A number of research works on urban climates have been investigated and

these indicate that there is hardly any element of the weather that is not
influenced, directly or indirectly, by air pollution (Landsberg, 1956 and 1974;
Chandler, 1965; WMO, 1970; Peterson, 1969; Oke, 1974). However the
release of pollutants is not the only contributing factor the artificial generation
of heat, the built environment, and heat capacities and alterations in relative
humidity through modifications of the hydrological cycle, are among the many
elements and generators of change. In consequence, it is extremely difficult to
isolate the independent effects of pollution. The general influence of air
pollution and urbanization upon climatic parameters is therefore reviewed
together, in this section. Landsberg (1970), has investigated that most of the

14
obvious atmospheric effects of urban pollutants are caused’ the particulates.
They deplete the solar and sky radiation in all wavelengths. The mean
reduction in urban areas are observed to be between 8.0 and 30.0 per cent
depending on city geometry, topographic setting, and ventilation rate, The
light attenuating properties of the aerosol also have a notable impact on the
horizontal visibility. Many investigations, especially, for earlier years have
shown a deterioration of visual ranges in the city compared with rural areas.
For this led to an increase of cases with very low visibilities and a large
reduction in tie cases of long distance visibilities (Brazell, 1964; Freeman,
1968).

Urban effects upon precipitation have been noted for a number of decades
but were relatively hard to verify by statistical test. The reason for this is the
very high variability of rain amounts and the poor qualities of the ordinary rain
gauge as a sampling device. Landsberg (1956) gave several European
examples of urban-rural comparisons and concluded that the amount of
precipitation over a city is about 10 per cent greater than nearby country
areas. More recent studies have shown that the greatest positive anomalies
occur downwind of the city centre. One very string example of the effect of the
Chicago urban area on local precipitation at La Porte has been documented
by Changnon (1968). Changnon (1961, 1962, 1968 and 1969) has
summarized precipitation data for several other wind-western cities and
detected positive increases, but not nearly as pronounced as those at La
porte. On contrary, some researchers (Holzman et al., 1970; Ogden, 1969
and 1971) have challenged the results obtained by Changnon1968) and
suggested that there might have been some k7of observational bias.

Rural Urban differences, those of air temperatures are probably the most
documented. That the core of a city is warmer than its envirpnments1 forming
a heat island has been known for more than a century and continues to
receive considerable attention in the literature. Summaries of research on the
subject have been provided by Landsberg (1956); Tyson et al. (1973); and
Oke (1974). Oke (1974) noted that probably the single most important
development in the study of heat islands since the Brussels symposium on

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Urban climates and Building climatology in 1968 has been the increase in our
knowledge of the vertical temperature structure. Much remains to be done,
but it is clear that the thermal influence of a large city commonly extends up to
200- 300 m and even to 500 m [Bornstein (1968), Clarke (1969), Tyson/t al.
(1972)].

The wind speed and its direction over city area differ in several dimension
from that over the surrounding fringe area. Munn (1970) and Landsberg
(1972) provide reviews of urban air flow and distinguish between conditions
with strong and weak regional flow characteristics. In the former case the city
tends to modify the flow, in the later case it may generate its own circulation
pattern. Observational evidence to support the existence of this type of simple
direct circulation ha ben given by Chandler (1960 and 1961) for London and
Leicester city; Okita (1960 and 1965) for Ashikawa city, Pooler (1963) for
Louisville, Schmidt (1963) and Schmidt et al. (1963) around a localized
industrial heat source within Dutch City’s area, Davidson (1967) in New York
City, Findlay et al., (1969) for Toronto, and Geogrgii (1970) for Frankfurt city.
Thus while air pollution concentration appears to depend on whether factors,
air pollution my also change weather and climate considerably on a local and
regional scale. It was about 1968-69 that several scientists, engaged in cloud-
seeding research, began to discuss the need for study of inadvertent
modification of weather around large metropolitan areas, Out of this grew
project METROMIX (Metropolitan Meteorological Experiment) involving
scientists from the Illinois State Water Survey, the University of Wyoming, the
Angonne National Laboratory, and the University of Chicago. Under this
project a study was made for the location arid magnified of anomalous
weather fields around St. Louis in an effort to establish cause-and-effect
relationship linking those field to causal agents in the city, and to the extent
possible to generalize and explain on the basis of findings to larger issues in
society.

In the last two decades, the influences of urbanization on atmospheric

properties have been investigated for a large number of cities around the
world by many researchers (Oke, 1979; Landsberg, 1981; Cayan et al., 1984;

16
Goodridge, 1985, Padmanabhanuirty, 1986). A considerable number of these
studies (Oke, 1979, and 1982; Landsberg, 1981; Park, 1986) investigated
urban heat island intensity in a short time period. Unfortunately, these results
are difficult to he linked to seasonal and annual mean temperatures. Other
studies (Wigley et al. 1982; Colcacino et al., 1983; Kukia et al., 1986; Yague
et al. 1991; Jauregui et al., 1992; Karaca et al., 1993 and 1995) have used
temperature-time series of sufficient length in order to demonstrate the
positive temperature trend in major cities. l3 other types of studies have
underlined the fact that urban areas are warmer than their surroundings,
especially during clear, calm nights and this is normally a result of the delayed
cooling of the city compared to its surrounding rural areas.

CONCEPTS OF MANAGEMENT

Management is an important element in every research and studies. It is the

element that coordinates currents activities and plans for the future. The
management adapts the research studies to its environment and shapes the
organization to make it more suitable for the research.

Definition according to Mr. F.W.Taylor “Management is the art of “knowing

what you want to do” and then seeing that it is done in the best and
cheapest way. Definition according to Mr. George R. Terry “Management as
a process “consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling,
performed to determine and accomplish the objective by the use of
people and resources.” Thus this definition tells that management is act of
achieving the organization objectives.

AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT

Air pollution management aims at the elimination, or reduction to acceptable

levels, of airborne gaseous pollutants, suspended particulate matter and
physical and, to a certain extent, biological agents whose presence in the
atmosphere can cause adverse effects on human health (e.g., irritation,
increase of incidence or prevalence of respiratory diseases, morbidity, cancer,
excess mortality) or welfare (e.g., sensory effects, reduction of visibility),
deleterious effects on animal or plant life, damage to materials of economic

17
value to society and damage to the environment (e.g., climatic modifications).
The serious hazards associated with radioactive pollutants, as well as the
special procedures required for their control and disposal, also deserve
careful attention. The importance of efficient management of outdoor and
indoor air pollution cannot be overemphasized. Unless there is adequate
control, the multiplication of pollution sources in the modern world may lead to
irreparable damage to the environment and mankind.

The objective of this research is to give a general overview of the possible

approaches to the management of ambient air pollution from motor vehicle
and industrial sources. However, it is to be emphasized from the very
beginning that indoor air pollution (in particular, in developing countries )
might play an even larger role than outdoor air pollution due to the
observation that indoor air pollutant concentrations are often substantially
higher than outdoor concentrations.

Beyond considerations of emissions from fixed or mobile sources, air pollution

management involves consideration of additional factors (such as topography
and meteorology, and community and government participation, among many
others) all of which must be integrated into a comprehensive programme. For
example, meteorological conditions can greatly affect the ground-level
concentrations resulting from the same pollutant emission. Air pollution
sources may be scattered over a community or a region and their effects may
be felt by, or their control may involve, more than one administration.
Furthermore, air pollution does not respect any boundaries, and emissions
from one region may induce effects in another region by long-distance
transport. Ready to spread aroma and fragrance in and around all corners of
the city.

MAJOR STUDIES ON AIR POLLUTION

Research in this important area of air pollution is being carried out mainly at
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur;
CEMDE, Department of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi; Indian
Institutes of Technology; Indian Institutes of Science, Bangalore; Central

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Pollution Control Board (CPCB), New Delhi; Jawaharlal University, New Delhi
and in some Indian universities. Some of the studies are theoretical i.e. they
are mainly addressed to analytical closed solution or numerical solution of the
governing equations with initial and boundary conditions. Whereas, some
experimental studies are of the nature of air sampling surveys or
environmental impact analysis using simple programmed model.

In fact, the study of environmental problems are quite vitae specially in the
Indian context because Indian metros are progressively getting chaos with
population boom and choked with pollutants and are acquiring the dubious
distinction of being the most polluted cities of the world. Some of the problems
which are relevant to the present day are:

(i) Control of pollution levels without stagnating the industrial growth

(ii) Development of multisource regional computer simulation model for

uneven terrain conditions for variety of emission and meteorological
conditions

(iii) Studies on the effect of pollutants on plants, animals and human

beings

(iv) Updating the BIS Air Pollution Code (IS: 8829-1978), Reprinted 1988.

NEERI Nagpur is in the process of designing and developing a

comprehensive physical simulation facility for studying a wide range of
environmental problems. Further, IITs are in the progress for studying the
pollution dispersion problems in thermally stratified boundary layers.

Review of Literature

Most of the studies on urban climate, in general, and on urban air pollution
climatology, in particular, have been undertaken by several authors for a
number of areas. One of the earliest studies of an urban climate was Luke
Howard’s work The Climate of London, first published in 1833. He is most
remembered for his clous-classification scheme, recognized that the weather
in London was different from that of the surrounding rural country side, at
least in terms of reduce visibility and increased temperature. His account was

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a remarkable pioneer study and was followed by other researches [e.g.
Middleton et al. (1936); Manley (1944); Sundborg (1950); Duckworth et al.
(1954); Mitchell (1961); Chandler (1965); Clarke (1969); and Oke et al. (1970)
etc.). A resume of studies of city climate was provided by Brooks (1952);
Landsberg (1952) and (1974); Peterson (1969) and Oke (1974) etc.

Another studies relating to air pollution, in particular, its relationship

with meteorological factors have also been reviewed extensively for a number
of city areas. Such kind of studies have been investigated by Cramer (1959);
McCormick (1962); Munn (1973a) and Munn et al. (1973).

During the past two decades, Lalas et a11982) conclude that the
observations of the SO2 concentration are correlated with meteorological
parameters. In winter, the SO2 concentration is correlated with the wind
speed, minimum temperature and rain; while wind speed and direction,
minimum temperature, and relative humidity during summer. I-He (1985)
studied the correlation between the O3 and NO2 concentrations and observed
relative humidity, temperature, and wind as well with the previous day
maximum concentrations of each pollutant. Further, the development of sea-
breeze circulations was found to be crucial in the concentration of pollutants in
the coastal city area. Lalas et al. (1953), (1987); Helmis et al. (1987);
Asimakopoulos et al. (1992)1. A more recent review is provided by
Kassomenos e al. (1995); Bossert (1997). In coastal city area sea-breeze
circulations associated with complex land features, which are generally
considered a very effective mechanism in transporting pollutants from their
source places [Edinger et al. (1972); Chang et al. (1989); Millan (1993)].

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The present study would have some unique features dealing with various
strategies and tactics applied by the Government for settling the air pollution
in India and South Africa. This comparative study will examine the rate of air
pollution and other related problem.

The most significant global environmental problem faced by the world

community is related to global environmental changes (GEC) consequent

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upon global warming resulting from a host of causal factors viz. ozone
depletion, emission of greenhouse gases at alarming rate, deforestation etc.
The probable net result of global warming would be climatic changes at
local, regional and global levels. The international communities are scared of
catastrophic adverse effects of future climatic change on different spheres of
man and nature e.g. deglaciation and sea level changes, submergence of
island nations and major coastal lowlands, atmospheric dynamics including
evaporation and precipitation, global radiation balance, photosynthesis and
ecological productivity, plant and animal community, human health and wealth
and many more. The major sources of global environmental problems have
been identified e.g. rapid rate of industrialization and urbanization pollution
growth at alarming rate, advancement in productive technology, manor land
use changes etc.

HYPOTHESIS

The hypothesis of my research is: "The government policies and strategies

are the major component of air pollution management”

Normally it is believed that the government policies and strategies are the
useful for decrease air pollution and provide healthy environment for citizen.
In order to check the deterioration of environment due to air pollution some
concrete steps like formulation of stringent anti pollution laws their sincere
implementation, Switching over to C.N.G. increase of public transport,
focusing on Electric Train in public transport unleaded petrol on filling Station,
L.P.G. filling station and electric train facility and metro train facility are
required. All such above mentioned measure have been visualized in this
research. In the research the causes of air pollution in Delhi and Pretoria will
be evaluated.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1. Analysed the General environmental condition of Delhi and Pretoria in

chapter first and second.

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2. Examined the varieties of the air Pollution in Delhi and Pretoria and
discussed in chapter third.

3. Evaluated the impact of air pollution on environment and described in

chapter third and fourth.

4. Assessed the government steps to minimize the air pollution and

improve environmental conditions and discussed in chapter fourth.

5. Assessed the impact of policies on air pollution management in chapter

fifth.

METHOD OF STUDY

The proposed study calls for a variety of methods in conducting the study. As
it is, any comparative study involves an in depth knowledge of both the
subject. In this research the dependent variable are government policies and
strategies. If the government policies are implemented strictly, the pollution
level of the environment will be definitely reduced. Abovementioned variable
are closely related to each other.

Particularly in this case of air pollution management of both Delhi and

Pretoria: - a policy analysis, it will not suffice to follow just one methodology.
Thus the study shall employ a mixture of historical, comparative, analytical
and empirical methods. The approach to the study is factual, stochastic
method as well as conceptual throughout and proceeds further by describing
each and every aspect of air pollution in Delhi and Pretoria. The research
relies heavily on analytical and qualitative methods, such as documents and
textual analysis and scientific analysis. A detailed document and textual
analysis has been carried out of books journals, periodicals, magazines,
newspaper, articles, official documents, and internet sources pertaining to the
research topic.

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