Study Notes: Introduction to Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. It explores the ways in which
individuals think, feel, and act, both in social contexts and within themselves. In this course, we
will cover foundational topics in psychology, including key theories, concepts, and research
findings that have shaped the field. Below are study notes for an introductory psychology class.

1. What is Psychology?
Definition:

● Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.

● It examines how humans and animals perceive, think, feel, and interact with their
environment.

Key Questions in Psychology:

● How do we think and reason?

● What motivates our actions and decisions?
● How do our behaviors influence others?
● What are the biological, cognitive, and social factors that shape our emotions and mental
health?

2. History of Psychology
A. Early Foundations

● Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920): Known as the "father of psychology," Wundt established

the first psychology laboratory in 1879. He focused on introspection and the study of
conscious experience.
● Structuralism: A school of thought founded by Edward Titchener that sought to
understand the structure of the mind by breaking down mental processes into their most
basic components.

B. Functionalism
 ● William James (1842-1910): Founder of functionalism, which focused on how mental
and behavioral processes function—how they enable organisms to adapt to their
environment.
● Influenced by Charles Darwin, functionalism emphasized the role of mental processes in
helping individuals survive and thrive.

C. Behaviorism

● John B. Watson (1878-1958): Founder of behaviorism, which argued that psychology

should focus on observable behavior rather than internal mental states.
● B.F. Skinner: Expanded on Watson's work, studying operant conditioning and
reinforcement.

D. Psychoanalysis

● Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Developed psychoanalysis, focusing on the role of

unconscious processes, early childhood experiences, and inner conflicts in shaping
behavior.
● Concepts like the id, ego, and superego are central to Freudian theory.

E. Humanism

● Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers emphasized human potential, self-actualization,

and the importance of personal growth and free will.

3. Research Methods in Psychology

A. Scientific Method

● Psychology uses the scientific method to form hypotheses, conduct experiments, and
analyze data to draw conclusions about behavior and mental processes.

B. Types of Research Designs

1. Descriptive Research:
○ Observational Studies
○ Case Studies
○ Surveys and Questionnaires
○ Pros: Provides valuable insights and detailed descriptions of behavior.
○ Cons: Cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.
2. Correlational Research:
○ Examines the relationship between two variables.
 ○ Correlation does not imply causation. For example, there may be a correlation
between ice cream sales and drowning incidents, but one does not cause the
other.
3. Experimental Research:
○ The most reliable method for determining cause-and-effect relationships.
○ Involves manipulating an independent variable to observe the effect on a
dependent variable.
○ Key Concepts: Control group, random assignment, and placebo effect.

4. Biological Foundations of Behavior

A. The Nervous System

● Central Nervous System (CNS): Composed of the brain and spinal cord.
● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Consists of sensory and motor neurons that
connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
○ Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate,
digestion).
○ Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary muscle movements.

B. Neurons

● Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system, responsible for
transmitting information through electrical and chemical signals.
○ Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
○ Axon: Transmits electrical impulses to other neurons or muscles.
○ Synapse: The gap between two neurons where communication occurs through
neurotransmitters.

C. Brain Structure and Functions

● Brainstem: Controls basic life functions like breathing and heart rate.
● Cerebellum: Responsible for balance, coordination, and motor control.
● Limbic System: Involved in emotions, memory, and motivation. Includes the amygdala
(emotions) and the hippocampus (memory).
● Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of the brain, involved in higher-order functions like
thought, decision-making, and sensory processing.

5. Learning and Conditioning

A. Classical Conditioning

● Ivan Pavlov: Discovered classical conditioning while studying the digestive system in
dogs.
● In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a
stimulus that naturally evokes a response.
○ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).
○ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association,
triggers a response (e.g., bell).
○ Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural response to the UCS (e.g.,
salivation).
○ Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation
when hearing the bell).

B. Operant Conditioning

● B.F. Skinner: Developed operant conditioning, which focuses on how behavior is

shaped by reinforcement and punishment.
○ Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.
■ Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus.
■ Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus.
○ Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
■ Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus.
■ Negative punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus.

6. Memory and Cognition

A. Stages of Memory

1. Encoding: The process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored in
memory.
2. Storage: Retaining information over time.
3. Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed.

B. Types of Memory

● Sensory Memory: Briefly holds sensory information.

● Short-Term Memory: Holds a limited amount of information for a short time (about 20
seconds).
● Long-Term Memory: Stores information for long periods, potentially for a lifetime.

C. Cognitive Biases and Heuristics

 ● Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that help in problem-solving but can lead to errors.
● Cognitive Biases: Systematic patterns of deviation from rationality, affecting
decision-making and judgment.
○ Confirmation bias: Tendency to search for information that confirms one's
preexisting beliefs.
○ Anchoring bias: Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered
(the "anchor").

7. Personality Theories
A. Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

● Freud’s model of personality includes the id, ego, and superego.

○ Id: Operates on the pleasure principle; seeks instant gratification.
○ Ego: Operates on the reality principle; mediates between the id and the
superego.
○ Superego: Represents moral standards and ideals.

B. Humanistic Theories

● Abraham Maslow: Developed the Hierarchy of Needs, where self-actualization is the

highest level of personal fulfillment.
● Carl Rogers: Focused on the importance of self-concept and unconditional positive
regard in developing a healthy personality.

8. Psychological Disorders
A. Mental Health Conditions

● Anxiety Disorders: Includes generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and phobias.
● Mood Disorders: Includes depression and bipolar disorder.
● Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Characterized by persistent, unwanted
thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions).
● Schizophrenia: A severe disorder involving distorted thinking, hallucinations, and
delusions.

B. Therapies
 ● Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Focuses on changing negative patterns of
thinking and behavior.
● Psychodynamic Therapy: Based on Freud’s ideas, exploring unconscious conflicts and
past experiences.
● Humanistic Therapy: Emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and positive
regard.

9. Social Psychology
A. Conformity and Obedience

● Solomon Asch’s Conformity Study: Demonstrated the power of group pressure to

influence individuals’ decisions.
● Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study: Showed how people are willing to obey authority
figures, even when it conflicts with their moral values.

B. Attribution Theory

● Explains how individuals interpret the causes of behavior, distinguishing between

internal (dispositional) and external (situational) factors.
● Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overestimate the influence of
personality and underestimate the role of the situation.

Conclusion
Psychology is a vast and fascinating field that offers valuable insights into human behavior