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Structure of Matter

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ATOM
STRUCTURETRUCTURETRUCTURETR
In Chapter 3, we have learnt that atoms and From these activities, can we conclude
molecules are the fundamental building that on rubbing two objects together, they
blocks of matter. The existence of different become electrically charged? Where does this
kinds of matter is due to different atoms charge come from? This question can be
constituting them. Now the questions arise: answered by knowing that an atom is divisible
(i) What makes the atom of one element
and consists of charged particles.
different from the atom of another element?
Many scientists contributed in revealing
and (ii) Are atoms really indivisible, as
proposed by Dalton, or are there smaller the presence of charged particles in an atom.
constituents inside the atom? We shall find It was known by 1900 that the atom was
out the answers to these questions in this indivisible particle but contained at least one
chapter. We will learn about sub-atomic sub-atomic particle – the electron identified by
particles and the various models that have J.J. Thomson. Even before the electron was
been proposed to explain how these particles identified, E. Goldstein in 1886 discovered the
are arranged within the atom. presence of new radiations in a gas discharge
A major challenge before the scientists at and called them canal rays. These rays were
the end of the 19th century was to reveal the positively charged radiations which ultimately
structure of the atom as well as to explain its led to the discovery of another sub-atomic
important properties. The elucidation of the
particle. This sub-atomic particle had a charge,
structure of atoms is based on a series of
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that
experiments.
One of the first indications that atoms are of the electron. Its mass was approximately
not indivisible, comes from studying static 2000 times as that of the electron. It was given
electricity and the condition under which the name of proton. In general, an electron is
electricity is conducted by dif ferent represented as ‘e–’ and a proton as ‘p+’. The
substances. mass of a proton is taken as one unit and its
charge as plus one. The mass of an electron is
4.1 Charged Particles in Matter considered to be negligible and its charge is
minus one.
For understanding the nature of charged It seemed that an atom was composed of
particles in matter, let us carry out the
protons and electrons, mutually balancing
following activities:
their charges. It also appeared that the protons
Activity ______________ 4.1 were in the interior of the atom, for whereas
electrons could easily be removed off but
A. Comb dry hair. Does the comb then
not protons. Now the big question was:
attract small pieces of paper?
B. Rub a glass rod with a silk cloth and what sort of structure did these particles of
bring the rod near an inflated balloon. the atom form? We will find the answer to
Observe what happens. this question below.

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 Q
uestions J.J. Thomson (1856–
1. What are canal rays? 1940), a British
2. If an atom contains one electron physicist, was born in
and one proton, will it carry any Cheetham Hill, a suburb
charge or not? of Manchester, on
18 December 1856. He
was awarded the Nobel
prize in Physics in 1906
for his work on the
4.2 The Structure of an Atom discovery of electrons. He
directed the Cavendish Laboratory at
We have learnt Dalton’s atomic theory in Cambridge for 35 years and seven of his
Chapter 3, which suggested that the atom research assistants subsequently won
was indivisible and indestructible. But the Nobel prizes.
discovery of two fundamental particles
(electrons and protons) inside the atom, led Thomson proposed that:
to the failure of this aspect of Dalton’s atomic (i) An atom consists of a positively
theory. It was then considered necessary to charged sphere and the electrons are
know how electrons and protons are arranged embedded in it.
within an atom. For explaining this, many (ii) The negative and positive charges are
scientists proposed various atomic models. equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a
J.J. Thomson was the first one to propose a whole is electrically neutral.
model for the structure of an atom.
Although Thomson’s model explained that
atoms are electrically neutral, the results of
4.2.1 THOMSON’S MODEL OF AN ATOM experiments carried out by other scientists
Thomson proposed the model of an atom to could not be explained by this model, as we
be similar to that of a Christmas pudding. will see below.
The electrons, in a sphere of positive charge,
were like currants (dry fruits) in a spherical 4.2.2 RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF AN ATOM
Christmas pudding. We can also think of a
Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing
watermelon, the positive charge in the atom
how the electrons are arranged within an
is spread all over like the red edible part of
the watermelon, while the electrons are atom. Rutherford designed an experiment for
studded in the positively charged sphere, like this. In this experiment, fast moving alpha
the seeds in the watermelon (Fig. 4.1). (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin
gold foil.
• He selected a gold foil because he wanted
as thin a layer as possible. This gold foil
was about 1000 atoms thick.
• α-particles are doubly-charged helium
ions. Since they have a mass of 4 u, the
fast-moving α-particles have a
considerable amount of energy.
• It was expected that α-particles would be
deflected by the sub-atomic particles in
the gold atoms. Since the α-particles were
much heavier than the protons, he did
Fig.4.1: Thomson’s model of an atom not expect to see large deflections.

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 39

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 He will hear a sound when each stone strikes
the wall. If he repeats this ten times, he will
hear the sound ten times. But if a blind-folded
child were to throw stones at a barbed-wire
fence, most of the stones would not hit the
fencing and no sound would be heard. This is
because there are lots of gaps in the fence
which allow the stone to pass through them.
Following a similar reasoning, Rutherford
concluded from the α-particle scattering
experiment that—
(i) Most of the space inside the atom is
empty because most of the α-particles
passed through the gold foil without
getting deflected.
(ii) Very few particles were deflected from
their path, indicating that the positive
charge of the atom occupies very little
Fig. 4.2: Scattering of α-particles by a gold foil
space.
(iii) A very small fraction of α-particles
But, the α-particle scattering experiment were deflected by 1800, indicating that
gave totally unexpected results (Fig. 4.2). The all the positive charge and mass of the
following observations were made: gold atom were concentrated in a very
(i) Most of the fast moving α-particles small volume within the atom.
passed straight through the gold foil. From the data he also calculated that the
(ii) Some of the α-particles were deflected radius of the nucleus is about 105 times less
by the foil by small angles. than the radius of the atom.
(iii) Surprisingly one out of every 12000 On the basis of his experiment,
particles appeared to rebound. Rutherford put forward the nuclear model of
In the words of Rutherford, “This result an atom, which had the following features:
was almost as incredible as if you fire a (i) There is a positively charged centre in
15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all
comes back and hits you”. the mass of an atom resides in the
nucleus.
E. Rutherford (1871–1937) (ii) The electrons revolve around the
was born at Spring Grove nucleus in circular paths.
on 30 August 1871. He was (iii) The size of the nucleus is very small
known as the ‘Father’ of as compared to the size of the atom.
nuclear physics. He is Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of
famous for his work on the atom
radioactivity and the
discovery of the nucleus of an atom with The revolution of the electron in a circular orbit
the gold foil experiment. He got the Nobel is not expected to be stable. Any particle in a
prize in chemistry in 1908. circular orbit would undergo acceleration.
During acceleration, charged particles would
radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron
Let us think of an activity in an open field would lose energy and finally fall into the
to understand the implications of this nucleus. If this were so, the atom should be
experiment. Let a child stand in front of a highly unstable and hence matter would not
wall with his eyes closed. Let him throw exist in the form that we know. We know that
stones at the wall from a distance. atoms are quite stable.

40 SCIENCE
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 4.2.3 BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM

Q
uestions
In order to overcome the objections raised 1. On the basis of Thomson’s model
against Rutherford’s model of the atom, of an atom, explain how the atom
Neils Bohr put forward the following is neutral as a whole.
postulates about the model of an atom: 2. On the basis of Rutherford’s
(i) Only certain special orbits known as model of an atom, which sub-
discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed atomic particle is present in the
inside the atom. nucleus of an atom?
(ii) While revolving in discrete orbits the 3. Draw a sketch of Bohr’s model
electrons do not radiate energy. of an atom with three shells.
4. What do you think would be the
observation if the α -particle
Neils Bohr (1885–1962) scattering experiment is carried
was born in Copenhagen out using a foil of a metal other
on 7 October 1885. He was than gold?
appointed professor of
physics at Copenhagen 4.2.4 NEUTRONS
University in 1916. He got
In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another sub-
the Nobel prize for his work
atomic particle which had no charge and a
on the structure of atom in
mass nearly equal to that of a proton. It was
1922. Among Professor
eventually named as neutron. Neutrons are
Bohr’s numerous writings, three appearing
present in the nucleus of all atoms, except
as books are:
hydrogen. In general, a neutron is
(i) The Theory of Spectra and Atomic represented as ‘n’. The mass of an atom is
Constitution, (ii) Atomic Theory and, therefore given by the sum of the masses of
(iii) The Description of Nature. protons and neutrons present in the nucleus.

uestions

Q
These orbits or shells are called energy
levels. Energy levels in an atom are shown in 1. Name the three sub-atomic
Fig. 4.3. particles of an atom.
2. Helium atom has an atomic mass
of 4 u and two protons in its
nucleus. How many neutrons
does it have?

4.3 How are Electrons Distributed

in Different Orbits (Shells)?
The distribution of electrons into different
orbits of an atom was suggested by Bohr
and Bury.
Fig. 4.3: A few energy levels in an atom The following rules are followed for writing
the number of electrons in different energy
These orbits or shells are represented by levels or shells:
the letters K,L,M,N,… or the numbers, (i) The maximum number of electrons
n=1,2,3,4,…. present in a shell is given by the

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 41

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 formula 2n 2, where ‘n’ is the orbit • The composition of atoms of the first
number or energy level index, 1,2,3,…. eighteen elements is given in Table 4.1.
Hence the maximum number of
uestions

Q
electrons in different shells are as
follows: 1. Write the distribution of electrons
first orbit or K-shell will be = 2 × 12 = 2, in carbon and sodium atoms.
second orbit or L-shell will be = 2 × 22 = 8, 2. If K and L shells of an atom are
third orbit or M-shell will be = 2 × 32 = 18, full, then what would be the total
fourth orbit or N-shell will be = 2 × 42 number of electrons in the atom?
= 32, and so on.
(ii) The maximum number of electrons that
can be accommodated in the outermost
orbit is 8. 4.4 Valency
(iii) Electrons are not accommodated in a We have learnt how the electrons in an atom
given shell, unless the inner shells are are arranged in different shells/orbits. The
filled. That is, the shells are filled in a electrons present in the outermost shell of
step-wise manner. an atom are known as the valence electrons.
Atomic structure of the first eighteen From the Bohr-Bury scheme, we also know
elements is shown schematically in Fig. 4.4. that the outermost shell of an atom can

Fig.4.4: Schematic atomic structure of the first eighteen elements

accommodate a maximum of 8 electrons. It

Activity ______________ 4.2 was observed that the atoms of elements,
completely filled with 8 electrons in the
• Make a static atomic model displaying outermost shell show little chemical activity.
electronic configuration of the first In other words, their combining capacity or
eighteen elements. valency is zero. Of these inert elements, the

42 SCIENCE
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 Table 4.1: Composition of Atoms of the First Eighteen Elements
with Electron Distribution in Various Shells
Name of Symbol Atomic Number Number Number Distribution of Vale-
Element Number of of of Electrons ncy
Protons Neutrons Electrons K L M N

Hydrogen H 1 1 - 1 1 - - - 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 2 - - - 0
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 2 1 - - 1
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 2 2 - - 2
Boron B 5 5 6 5 2 3 - - 3
Carbon C 6 6 6 6 2 4 - - 4
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 2 5 - - 3
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 2 6 - - 2
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 2 7 - - 1
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 2 8 - - 0
Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 2 8 1 - 1
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 2 8 2 - 2
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 2 8 3 - 3
Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 2 8 4 - 4
Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 2 8 5 - 3,5
Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 2 8 6 - 2
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 2 8 7 - 1
Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 2 8 8 0

helium atom has two electrons in its outermost element, that is, the valency discussed in the
shell and all other elements have atoms with previous chapter. For example, hydrogen/
eight electrons in the outermost shell. lithium/sodium atoms contain one electron
The combining capacity of the atoms of each in their outermost shell, therefore each
elements, that is, their tendency to react and one of them can lose one electron. So, they are
form molecules with atoms of the same or said to have valency of one. Can you tell, what
is valency of magnesium and aluminium? It
different elements, was thus explained as an
is two and three, respectively, because
attempt to attain a fully-filled outermost shell.
magnesium has two electrons in its outermost
An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons shell and aluminium has three electrons in
was said to possess an octet. Atoms would its outermost shell.
thus react, so as to achieve an octet in the If the number of electrons in the
outermost shell. This was done by sharing, outermost shell of an atom is close to its full
gaining or losing electrons. The number of capacity, then valency is determined in a
electrons gained, lost or shared so as to make different way. For example, the fluorine atom
the octet of electrons in the outermost shell, has 7 electrons in the outermost shell, and its
gives us directly the combining capacity of the valency could be 7. But it is easier for

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 43

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 fluorine to gain one electron instead of losing 6 neutrons, 6 u + 6 u = 12 u. Similarly, the
seven electrons. Hence, its valency is determined mass of aluminium is 27 u (13 protons+14
by subtracting seven electrons from the octet neutrons). The mass number is defined as the
and this gives you a valency of one for fluorine. sum of the total number of protons and
Valency can be calculated in a similar manner neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom. It
for oxygen. What is the valency of oxygen that is denoted by ‘A’. In the notation for an atom,
you get from this calculation? the atomic number, mass number and symbol
Therefore, an atom of each element has a of the element are to be written as:
definite combining capacity, called its valency.
Mass Number
Valency of the first eighteen elements is given A
in the last column of Table 4.1. Symbol of
element X

Q
uestion Atomic Number
Z

1. How will you find the valency 14

For example, nitrogen is written as 7 N .
of chlorine, sulphur and
magnesium?
uestions

4.5 Atomic Number and Mass

Number

4.5.1 ATOMIC NUMBER

We know that protons are present in the
nucleus of an atom. It is the number of
Q
4.6 Isotopes
1. If number of electrons in an atom
is 8 and number of protons is also
8, then (i) what is the atomic
number of the atom? and (ii) what
is the charge on the atom?
2. With the help of Table 4.1, find
out the mass number of oxygen
and sulphur atom.

protons of an atom, which determines its

atomic number. It is denoted by ‘Z’. All atoms In nature, a number of atoms of some
of an element have the same atomic number, elements have been identified, which have the
Z. In fact, elements are defined by the number same atomic number but different mass
of protons they possess. For hydrogen, Z = 1,
numbers. For example, take the case of
because in hydrogen atom, only one proton
hydrogen atom, it has three atomic species,
is present in the nucleus. Similarly, for
carbon, Z = 6. Therefore, the atomic number namely protium ( 11 H), deuterium ( 12 H or D)
is defined as the total number of protons 3
present in the nucleus of an atom. and tritium ( 1 H or T). The atomic number of
each one is 1, but the mass number is 1, 2
4.5.2 MASS NUMBER and 3, respectively. Other such examples are
12 14 35
After studying the properties of the sub- (i) carbon, 6 C and 6 C, (ii) chlorine, 17
Cl
atomic particles of an atom, we can conclude
37
that mass of an atom is practically due to and 17
Cl, etc.
protons and neutrons alone. These are On the basis of these examples, isotopes
present in the nucleus of an atom. Hence are defined as the atoms of the same element,
protons and neutrons are also called having the same atomic number but different
nucleons. Therefore, the mass of an atom mass numbers. Therefore, we can say that
resides in its nucleus. For example, mass of there are three isotopes of hydrogen atom,
carbon is 12 u because it has 6 protons and namely protium, deuterium and tritium.

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