INSTRUCTIONAL

LEARNING GUIDE

HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN
ORGANIZATION
First Semester F.Y. 2020-2021

NAME OF STUDENT:_______________________________YEAR AND

SECTION:_________
NAME OF
TEACHER:___________________________________________________________
CONTENTS
PRELIMINARIES – COURSE Details

MIDTERM COVERAGE

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAIVIOR
- The Meaning of Organizational Behavior
- Why Organizational Behavior Matters
- Need for Organizational Behavior
- Organizational Behavior Models

CHAPTER II MANAGING PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATION

- Management functions, roles, and skills
- Managerial skills
- Managerial Challenges
- Managing for effectiveness

CHAPTER III MOTIVATION

- What is motivation?

CHAPTER IV WORK-RELATED ATTITUDES

- What is an attitude?
- Job satisfaction: feelings about our work
- Attachment to companies: organizational commitment
- Negative attitudes toward co-workers: prejudice
- Strategies for overcoming workplace prejudice: managing a diverse
workforce
- Sexual harassment

FINAL COVERAGE

CHAPTER V ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION AND POWER

- The basic nature of communication
- The communication process
- The information richness of communication media
- Formal and informal communication
- Power: having an impact on others

CHAPTER VI GROUPS AND TEAMS IN ORGANIZATIONS

- The Nature of Groups
- Types of groups
 - Group development over time: the five-stage model
- Group dynamics: people working with others
- Teams: empowered work groups

CHAPTER VII LEADERSHIP

- What is leadership?
- The trait approach: are some people really "born leaders"?
- Characteristics of successful leaders
- The behavior approach: what do leaders do?

APPENDICES
 Rubrics
 List of additional references
 List of figures
 Acknowledgement and Disclaimer
 PRELIMINARIES – COURSE DETAILS

Course Description:

This course provides a broad introduction on the structure and function of

organizations and the behavior of people in them, focusing on public and non-profit
organizations. The primary purpose of the course is to equip students with
understanding of organizational concepts and practical techniques of managing
effectively in challenging environments. Topics discussed include organizational
behavior, managing people and organization, motivation, work related attitudes,
organizational communication and power, groups and teams in organizations and
leadership.

Course Outcomes:

A graduate of Bachelor of Science in Customs Administration course must

achieve the following after finishing the subject:
1. A foundation on the concepts that underlie human behavior in organization
2. A broad viewpoint in managing people in an organization and its environment
components
3. A thorough understanding of the function of organization and the people in
them
4. function of organization and the people in them.

Methodology of Implementation:

This is a distance learning strategy where students and teachers are physically at a
distance with each other while the teaching and learning process is going on. The
teacher shall meet students thru different modes of communication (social network,
online class, text messaging, email, messenger etc.) to provide an orientation of the
program and instructions for the students to follow throughout the duration of the
course.

Guidelines are prepared by the teachers based on institutional policies to ensure

that students will be able to follow through the different activities set for the course.
There is no face to face activity which means students are not required to report to
school to attend classes, rather, they shall interact with their teachers in different
technology based communication strategies set by the teachers for the course.

Topics shall be assigned according to the syllabus of the subject. Activities are given
at pre-determined time to be completed by the students. At the completion of each
topic, students are required to take the evaluation examinations which shall be
given by the teachers which determine applicability of the lessons learned.

During the duration of the course, students can consult their teachers from time to
time to address their difficulties or challenges they may encounter along the way.
The subjects are structured in sequential order. Course materials and references
shall be provided by the teachers in advance to facilitate teaching and learning
process.

Delivery Mode:
1. Printed Text Materials or saved in a flashdrive
2. Audio / video materials
3. Downloaded links
MIDTERM COVERAGE

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the completion of this coverage, the students shall
be able to:
1. Define organizational behavior.
2. Identify and discuss contextual perspectives on organizational behavior.
3. Describe the manager’s job in terms of managerial functions
4. Define the roles of manager and identify needed skills.
5. Describe the four main forces in the environment that post the most
opportunities and problems for organizations today
6. Discuss how to manage for effectiveness from the perspective of
organizational behavior.
7. Define motivation.
8. Explain need hierarchy theory and how it applies in organizations.
9. Describe equity theory's approach to motivation in the workplace.
10.Outline the basic assumptions of expectancy theory and its implications in
organizations.
11.Explain how goals can be set to motivate high levels of job performance.
12.Describe ways in which jobs can be designed so as to enhance motivation.
13.Define attitude and its three basic components.
14.Describe two theories of job satisfaction.
15.Identify the consequences of having dissatisfied employees.
16.Describe ways of boosting job satisfaction.
17.Distinguish between three fundamental forms of organizational commitment.
18.Identify the benefits of having a committed workforce.
19.Describe ways of developing organizational commitment.
20.Distinguish between the concepts of prejudice, stereotypes, and
discrimination.
21.Be aware of biases that can influence person perception without perceivers
being aware of their influences.

Specific Instructions in the completion of this Chapter:

1. Student must read and understand the Intended Learning Outcomes specified
above and make it as a checklist of acquired knowledge and skills after
completing the entire chapter. This shall be the basis of the teacher in the
formulation of the Summative evaluation given at the end of the chapter.
2. Students must carefully study the given lecture notes and take note of the
topics that were not clearly stated or understood by the student. This areas
can be referred to the subject teacher during consultation hours provided for
the students to contact the teacher.
3. Study the discussions and insights given and follow instructions for activities
if there are.
 4. After completely reading all the materials, open the video links of the lessons
given along with this learning package and watch the given videos to
supplement your reading. (please check your flash drive content).
5. Upon completion of all the lessons and topics presented, answer the self
reflection questions given to you. Check the instruction of to answer and
what to do to comply with required answers.
6. Compile you outputs in your Learning Portfolio to be submitted at specific
date by your teacher.
7. Should the student have any queries or clarifications with the topics, the
student should contact the subject teacher in the given consultation hours
which can be found in the preliminaries of this material.

Key Terms:
 Human Behavior
 Organization
 Organizational Behavior

CHAPTER I
AN INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
In this chapter, we begin with a comprehensive definition of organizational behavior
and a framework for its study. We then trace the field’s historical roots and its
emergence as an independent field. Next, we discuss contemporary organizational
behavior and present an overview of the rest of this book. Finally, we examine
several contextual perspectives that provide the general framework from which we
can develop a more comprehensive examination of human behavior at work.

NOTE: Before proceeding in the lecture, you are tasked to watch video
entitled “Why Should We Study Organizational Behaviour?” through this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H5BM_OxgNMQ or saved on your flash
drive.

THE MEANING OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of human behavior in organizational

settings, how human behavior interacts with the organization, and the organization
itself. But because the organization influences and is influenced by the individual,
we cannot fully understand the individual’s behavior without knowing something
about the organization. Similarly, we can study an organization without focusing
specifically on each individual within it. But again, we are looking at only one piece
of the puzzle. Eventually, we must consider the other pieces to understand the
whole. Exhibit 1 illustrates this view of organizational behavior. It shows the
linkages among human behavior in organizational settings, the individual-
organization interface, the organization, and the environment surrounding the
organization. Each individual brings to an organization a unique set of personal
characteristics, experiences from other organizations, and personal background.
Therefore, organizational behavior must look at the unique perspective that each
individual brings to the work setting. For example, suppose that Texas Instruments
hires a consultant to investigate employee turnover. As a starting point, the
consultant might analyse the types of people the firm usually hires. The goal of this
analysis would be to learn as much as possible about the nature of the company’s
workforce from the standpoint of the individual—their expectations, their personal
goals, and so forth.
But individuals do not work in isolation. They come in contact with other people and
with the organization in a variety of ways. Points of contact include managers, co-
workers, the formal policies and procedures of the organization, and various
changes implemented by the organization. Over time, the individual changes as a
function of both personal experiences and maturity and of work experiences with
the organization. The organization, in turn, is affected by the presence and eventual
absence of the individual. Clearly, then, the study of organizational behavior must
consider the ways in which the individual and the organization interact. Thus, the
consultant studying turnover at Texas Instruments might choose to look at the
orientation procedures for newcomers to the organization. The goal of this phase of
the study would be to understand some of the dynamics of how incoming
individuals interact within the broader organizational context.

An organization, of course, exists before a particular person joins it and continues to

exist long after he or she has left. Therefore, the organization itself represents a
crucial perspective from which to view organizational behavior. For instance, the
consultant studying turnover would also need to study the structure and culture of
Texas Instruments. An understanding of factors such as the performance evaluation
and reward systems, the decision-making and

Need for Organizational Behavior

Organizational Behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built on contribution

from a number of other behavioral discipline like psychology, sociology, social
psychology, anthropology and political science. Understanding Organizational
Behavior is becoming very important for managers. Due to global competition, it is
becoming necessary for the employees to become more flexible and to cope with
rapid changes. It is becoming challenging for the managers to use Organizational
Behavior concepts. Organizations are no longer constrained by national borders.
Burger King is owned by a British firm, and McDonald’s sell hamburgers in Moscow.
Exaction Mobile, an American company receives 75% of its revenue from sales
outside US. All the major automobile manufactures build their cars outside their
border, for example, Honda builds cars in Ohio, USA, Ford in Brazil and Mercedes
and BMW in South Africa. This shows that the world has become a global village.
Hence, managers have to diversify work force. Work force diversity means the
organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender, race and
ethnicity. Diversity if managed positively, can increase creativity and innovation in
organizations as well as improve decision making by providing different perspective
on pre plans. Quality management is driven by the constant attainment of customer
satisfaction through continuous improvement of all organizational processes
(productivity, absenteeism, turnover, job satisfaction and recently added fifth
dependent variable is organizational citizenship).

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MODELS

Every organization develops a particular model in which behavior of the people
takes place. This model is developed on the basis of management’s assumptions
about people and the vision of the management. Since these assumptions vary to a
great extent, these result into the development of different organizational behavior
models (OB models). From the very beginning of the civilized human society, two
alternative approaches have been adopted for placing trust on people. One says
“trust everyone unless there is a contrary evidence”: another says “do not trust
anyone unless there is a contrary evidence”. Naturally, interpersonal interactions
take place differently under these two approaches. Following description of the
organizations is worthwhile to note here:

“Most of our originations tend to be arranged on the assumption that people cannot
be trusted or relied on, even in tiny matters”.

However, this is only one side of the coin. For example, McGregor has given
theories X and Y and each theory makes assumptions which are quite contrary to
each other; Argyris has given the concept of immaturity and maturity of people
which also provides two opposite views about the people. Thus, OB models
developed on the basis of these assumptions would show great variations. However,
OB models that are in practice show some kind of continuum between these two
opposite poles, though they tend to lean towards a particular pole. Davis has
described four OB models which are as follows:
1. Autocratic
2. Custodial
3. Supportive
4. Collegial

EXHIBIT 2: Characteristics of Organizational Behavioral Model

Autocratic Model
In the autocratic model, managerial orientation is
towards power. Managers see authority as the only
means to get the things done, and employees are
expected to follow orders. The result is high
dependence on boss. This dependence is possible
because employees live on the subsistence level.
The organizational process is mostly formalized; the
authority is delegated by right of command over
people to whom it applies. The management
decides what the best action for the employees is.
The model is largely based on the Theory of X
assumptions of McGregor where the human beings
are taken inherently distasteful to work and try to
avoid responsibility. A very strict and close
supervision is required to obtain desirable performance from them. Likert’s
management system can be compared with the model of organizational behavior.
His system (exploitative authoritative) in which motivation depends on physical
security and some use of desire for start and better performance is ensured through
fear, threats, punishment, and occasional rewards; communications is mostly one-
way, that is downward: there is little interaction between managers and employees.

The autocratic model represents traditional thinking which is based on the economic
concept of the man. With the changing values and aspiration levels of people, this
model is yielding place to others. However, this does not mean that this model is
discarded in totality. In many cases; the autocratic model of organizational behavior
may be a quite useful way to accomplish performance, particularly where the
employees can be motivated by physiological needs. This generally happens at
lower strata of the organization.

Custodial Model

In the custodial model, the managerial

orientation is towards the use of money to play
for employee benefits. The model depends on
the economic resources of the organization and
its ability to pay for the benefits. While the
employees hope to obtain security, at the same
time they become highly dependent on the
organization. An organizational dependence
reduces personal dependence on boss. The
employees are able to satisfy their security
needs or in the context of Herzberg’s theory only
maintenance factors. These employees working
under custodial model feel happy, their level of
performance is not very high. This resembles again to Herzberg’s satisfied and
dissatisfied. Since employee are getting adequate regards and organizational
security, they feel happy. However, they are not given any authority to decide what
benefits or rewards they should get. This approach is quite similar to patrimonial
approach where the basic assumption is that it is the prerogative of management to
decide what benefits are best suited to the employees. Such an approach is still
quite common in many business organizations in India. The phenomenon is more
predominant in family-managed business organizations where family characteristics
have also been applied to the organizational settings. The basic ingredient of the
family-managed system is that, parents decide what is good or bad for their
children and managers decide what is good for their employees. From this point of
view, this model is not suitable for matured employees.

Supportive Model

The supportive model organizational behavior

depends on managerial leadership rather than on
the use of power of money. The aim of managers is
to support employees in their achievement of
results. The focus is primarily on participation and
involvement of employees in managerial decision-
making process. The model is based on principles of
supportive relationships of Likert, which is the basic
ingredient of his system 4 (participative). Likert
states that, the leadership and other processes of
the organization must be such as to ensure a
maximum probability that in all interactions and all
relationships with the organizations each member
will, in the light of his background, values and
expectation views the experience as supportive and one which builds and
maintains, his sense of personal worth and importance.28 It is quite similar to the
assumptions of McGregor’s Theory Y. The supportive model is based on the
assumptions that human beings move to the maturity level and they expect the
organizational climate which supports this expectations. Various organizational
processes-communication, leadership, decision-making, interaction, control, and
influence-are such that, these help employees to fulfil their higher order needs such
as esteem and self-actualization.

Likert has shown that, supportive model is best suited in the conditions when
employees are self-motivated. Thus, this emphasizes not on the economic
resources of the organization but its human aspect. Manager’s role is to help
employees to achieve their work rather than supervising them closely. This can be
applied more fruitfully for higher level managers whose lower order needs are
satisfied reasonably. Organizations with sophisticated technology and employing
professional people can also apply this model for getting best out of their human
resources. However, this does not mean that, this model can be applied in all
circumstances. For example Davis observes that, ‘the supportive model tends to be
specially effective in nations with affluence and complex technology, because it
appeals to higher order needs and provides intrinsic motivational factors. It may not
be the best model to apply in less developed nations. Because their employees
need structures who are often at lower levels and their social conditions are
different’. Moreover, this model can be applied more fruitfully for managerial levels
as compared to operative levels. As such, the tendency of modern management is
to move towards supportive model, especially for their management groups.
Collegial Model

Collegial model is an extension of supportive model.

The term collegial refers to a body of people having
common purpose. Collegial model is based on the
team concept in which each employee develops
high degree of understanding towards others and
shares common goals. The employee response to
this situation is responsibility. Employees need little
direction and control from management. Control is
basically through self-discipline by the team
members. The organizational climate is quite
conductive to self-fulfilment and self-actualization.
Collegial model tends to be more useful with
unprogrammed work requiring behavioral flexibility,
an intellectual environment, and considerable job
freedom.

The various models of organizational behavior are based on the assumption of the
human characteristics and how they can work best. Since situational variables are
strong factors in determining the organizational processes, managers cannot
assume that a particular model is best suitable for all purposes and for all
situations. Rather all the models will remain in practice and that too with
considerable success. These models are basically constructed around need
hierarchy. Since need hierarchy is not similar for all the employees, the same model
cannot be used for all of them. The need hierarchy changes with the level of a
person in the organization, level of his education, level of maturity, personality
factors and the type of work environment. Considering these factors, a particular
model can be applied. Organization theorists have argued that there is a tendency
to move towards the adoption of supportive model because in this case people may
give their best because in other models they do not find conditions conducive to
give their best performance. This is why managers are taking a number of steps to
humanize their organizations, such as participation, morale building, and so on to
make the organizations more effective.

REFERENCES:

TEXTBOOK:

Robins, S. 2016. Organization and Organizational Behavior. Prentice Hall

Publications.
Bauer, T., Berrin. E. 2017. An Introduction to Organizational Behaviors. Prentice Hall
Publications.

ADDTITIONAL:

UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORS Delta Publishing

Copyright 2019 by DELTA PUBLISHING COMPANY P.O. Box 5332, Los Alamitos, CA
90721-5332.

JOURNAL:

https://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-behaviors-and-human-decision-
processes

CHAPTER MANAGING PEOPLE AND

ORGANIZATIONS
II (6 hrs)
Sweeping change threatens to make yesterday’s manager obsolete. But an
awareness of that change and how to capitalize on its offer tomorrow’s manager
untold opportunity. Although the nature of managerial work varies from company to
company and continues to evolve, one common thread permeates virtually all
managerial activity: interacting with other people. Indeed, the “typical” day for
most managers is almost entirely devoted to interacting with others. Thus, the
management process and behavior of people in organizations are undeniably
intertwined.

This chapter relates the general field of management to the more specific field of
organizational behavior. We start by characterizing the manager’s job in terms of its
functions, roles, and requisite skills. Next, we identify and discuss a variety of
managerial, organizational, and competitive challenges and relate them to
organizational behavior. Finally, we discuss how to manage for organizational
effectiveness in the context of organizational behavior.

MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS, ROLES, AND SKILLS

Management is defined as the process of working with and through others to

achieve organizational objectives in a changing environment. The job of a
contemporary manager can be conceptualized in many different ways. The most
widely accepted approaches, however, are from the perspectives of basic
managerial functions, common managerial roles, and fundamental managerial
skills.

MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS

The four basic managerial functions in organizations are planning, organizing,

leading, and controlling. By applying these functions to the various organizational
resources—human, financial, physical, and informational—the organization achieves
different levels of effectiveness and efficiency.
Planning

The managerial function of planning is the process of determining the organization’s

desired future position and deciding how best to get there. The planning process at
Sears, Roebuck, for example, includes scanning the environment, deciding on
appropriate goals, outlining strategies for achieving those goals, and developing
tactics to execute the strategies. Behavioral processes and characteristics pervade
each of these activities. Perception, for instance, plays a major role in
environmental scanning, and creativity and motivation influence how managers set
goals, strategies, and tactics for their organization.

Organizing

The managerial function of organizing is the process of designing jobs, grouping

jobs into manageable units, and establishing patterns of authority among jobs and
groups of jobs. This process designs the basic structure, or framework, of the
organization. For large organizations like Sears, the structure can be extensive and
complicated. As noted earlier, the processes and characteristics of the organization
itself are a major theme of organizational behavior.

Leading
Leading is the process of motivating members of the organization to work together
toward the organization’s goals. A manager must hire and train employees. Major
components of leading include motivating employees, managing group dynamics,
and leadership per se, all of which are closely related to major areas of
organizational behavior.

Controlling
A final managerial function, controlling, is the process of monitoring and correcting
the actions of the organization and its people to keep them headed toward their
goals. A manger has to control costs, inventory, and so on. Again, behavioral
processes and characteristics play an important role in carrying out this function.
Performance evaluation and reward systems for example, are all aspects of
controlling.

MANAGERIAL ROLES
In an organization, as in a play or a movie, a role is the part a person plays in a
given situation. Managers often play a number of different roles. Much of our
knowledge about managerial roles comes from the work of Henry Mintzberg.

Mintzberg Mintzberg’s interpersonal roles are primarily social in nature; that is, they
are roles in which the manger’s main task is to identify ten basic managerial roles
clustered into three general categories.

Interpersonal Roles
Relate to other people in certain ways. The manager sometimes many serve as a
figurehead for the organization. Taking visitors to dinner and attending ribbon-
cutting ceremonies are part of the figurehead role. In the role of leader, the
manager works to hire, train, and motivate employees. Finally, the liaison role
consists of relating to others outside the group or organization. For example, a
manger at Intel might be responsible for handling all price negotiations with a major
supplier of electronic circuit boards. Obviously, each of these interpersonal roles
involves behavioral processes.

Informational Roles
Mintzberg’s three informational roles involve some aspects of information
processing. The monitor actively seeks information that might be of value to the
organization in general or to specific managers. The manager who transmits this
information to others is carrying out the role of disseminator. The spokesperson
speaks for the organization to outsiders. For example, the manager chosen by Apple
Computer to appear at a press conference announcing a merger or other major
deal, such as a recent decision to undertake a joint venture with Microsoft, would be
serving in this role. Again, behavioral processes are part of these roles because
information is almost always exchanged between people.

Decision-making Roles
Finally, Mintzberg identified four decision-making roles. The entrepreneur
voluntarily initiates change, such as innovations or new strategies, in the
organization. The disturbance handler helps settle disputes between various parties,
such as other mangers and their subordinates. The resource allocator decides who
will get what—how resources in the organization will be distributed among various
individuals and groups. The negotiator represents the organization in reaching
agreements with other organizations, such as contracts between management and
labour unions. Again, behavioral processes are clearly crucial in each of these
decisional roles.

MANAGERIAL SKILLS
Still another important element of managerial work is the set of skills necessary to
carry out basic functions and fill fundamental roles. In general, most successful
managers have a strong combination of technical, interpersonal, conceptual, and
diagnostic skills.
Technical Skills
Technical skills are those skills necessary to accomplish specific tasks within the
organization. Assembling a computer, developing a new formula for a frozen food
additive, and writing a press release each require technical skills. Hence, these skills
are generally associated with the operations employed by the organization in its
production processes.
Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal skills comprise the manager’s ability to communicate with,
understand, and motivate individuals and groups. As we have already noted,
managers spend a large portion of their time interacting with others. Thus, it is
clearly important that they be able to relate to, and get along with other people.

Conceptual Skills
Conceptual skills refer to the manager’s ability to think in the abstract. A manger
with strong conceptual skills is able to see the “big picture.” That is, she or he can
see potential or opportunity where others see road-blocks or problems. Managers
with strong conceptual skills can see opportunities that others miss

Diagnostic Skills
Most successful managers also bring diagnostic skills to the organization. Diagnostic
skills allow the manager to better understand cause-and-effect relationships and to
recognize the optimal solution to problems.
Of course, not every manager has an equal allotment of these four basic
skills. Nor are equal allotments critical. For example, the optimal skills mix tends to
vary with the manager’s level in the organization. First-line mangers generally need
to depend more on their technical and interpersonal skills and less on their
conceptual and diagnostic skills. Top managers tend to exhibit the reverse
combination—a greater emphasis on conceptual and diagnostic skills and a
somewhat lesser dependence on technical and interpersonal skills. Middle
managers require a more even distribution of skills.

TEXTBOOK:
Robins, S. 2016. Organization and Organizational Behavior. Prentice Hall
Publications.
Bauer, T., Berrin. E. 2017. An Introduction to Organizational Behaviors. Prentice Hall
Publications.
ADDTITIONAL:
UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORS Delta Publishing
Copyright 2019 by DELTA PUBLISHING COMPANY P.O. Box 5332, Los Alamitos, CA
90721-5332.
JOURNAL:
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-behaviors-and-human-decision-
processes
MIDTERM COVERAGE (27 hours)

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the completion of this coverage, the students shall
be able to:
1. Define motivation.
2. Explain need hierarchy theory and how it applies in organizations.
3. Describe equity theory's approach to motivation in the workplace.
4. Outline the basic assumptions of expectancy theory and its implications in
organizations.
5. Explain how goals can be set to motivate high levels of job performance.
6. Describe ways in which jobs can be designed so as to enhance motivation.
7. Define attitude and its three basic components.
8. Describe two theories of job satisfaction.
9. Identify the consequences of having dissatisfied employees.
10.Describe ways of boosting job satisfaction.
11.Distinguish between three fundamental forms of organizational commitment.
12.Identify the benefits of having a committed workforce.
13.Describe ways of developing organizational commitment.
14.Distinguish between the concepts of prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination.
15.Be aware of biases that can influence person perception without perceivers
being aware of their influences.

Specific Instructions in the completion of this Chapter:

1. Student must read and understand the Intended Learning Outcomes specified
above and make it as a checklist of acquired knowledge and skills after
completing the entire chapter. This shall be the basis of the teacher in the
formulation of the Summative evaluation given at the end of the chapter.
2. Students must carefully study the given lecture notes and take note of the
topics that were not clearly stated or understood by the student. This areas
can be referred to the subject teacher during consultation hours provided for
the students to contact the teacher.
3. Study the discussions and insights given and follow instructions for activities
if there are.
4. After completely reading all the materials, open the video links of the lessons
given along with this learning package and watch the given videos to
supplement your reading. (please check your flash drive content).
5. Upon completion of all the lessons and topics presented, answer the self
reflection questions given to you. Check the instruction of to answer and
what to do to comply with required answers.
6. Compile you outputs in your Learning Portfolio to be submitted at specific
date by your teacher.
7. Should the student have any queries or clarifications with the topics, the
student should contact the subject teacher in the given consultation hours
which can be found in the preliminaries of this material.
Key Terms:
 Human Behavior
 Organization
 Organizational Behavior
CHAPTER III MOTIVATION

Would you continue to work if you already had enough money on which to live?
Although many might say "no," in reality, for most, the answer appears to be "yes."
Surveys have found that most of us would continue to work even if we didn't need
the money, suggesting that people are motivated by more than just a pay check.
The quest to find success in an interesting career is a major goal for many. What's
more, this appears to be the case all around the world, making the motivation to
work a universal phenomenon.

WHAT IS MOTIVATION? A DEFINITION

Scientists have defined motivation as the process of arousing, directing, and

maintaining behavior toward a goal. As this definition suggests, motivation involves
three components. The first component, arousal, has to do with the drive, or energy
behind our actions. For example, when we are hungry, we are driven to seek food.
The direction component involves the choice of behavior made. A hungry person
may make many different choices--eat an apple, have a pizza delivered, go out for a
burger, and so on. The third component, maintenance, is concerned with people's
persistence, their willingness to continue to exert effort until a goal is met. The
longer you would continue to search for food when hungry, the more persistent you
would be.

MOTIVATING BY MEETING BASIC HUMAN NEEDS

As our definition suggests, people are motivated to fulfil their needs—whether it is a
need for food, as in our example, or other needs, such as the need for social
approval. Companies that help their employees in this quest are certain to reap the
benefits. Organizational behaviorists claim that companies that strive to meet the
needs of their employees attract the best people and motivate them to do excellent
work.

MASLOW'S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY

Some insight into how to achieve this is provided by Abraham Maslow's need
hierarchy theory. Maslow's basic idea was simple: People will not be healthy and
well-adjusted unless they have all of their basic needs met. This idea applies
whether we're talking about becoming a functioning member of society, Maslow's
original focus, or a productive employee of an organization, a later application of his
work. Specifically, Maslow identified five different types of needs which, he claimed,
are activated in a hierarchy, beginning at the lowest, most basic needs, and working
upward to the next level. Furthermore, these needs are not aroused all at once or in
random fashion. Rather, each need is triggered step by step, only after the one
beneath it in the hierarchy has been satisfied. The specific needs, and the
hierarchical order, in which they are arranged, are mapped out in Exhibit 3. Each of
Maslow's five categories of needs is explained below:

EXHIBIT 3: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological Needs
The lowest-order is defined by physiological needs, those that satisfy fundamental
biological drives, such as the need for air, food, water, and shelter. These are
understandably primary to humans, as even new-born babies express these basic
needs.
There are many things that companies do to help meet their employees' basic
physiological needs. Probably the simplest involves paying them a living wage,
money that can be exchanged for food and shelter. But, there's more to satisfying
physiological needs than giving employees a pay check. There are also coffee
breaks and opportunities to rest. Even the cruellest, slave-driving bosses know the
importance of giving workers time to relax and recharge their systems.

Safety Needs
After physiological needs have been satisfied, the next level of needs is triggered--
safety needs. These are concerned with the need to operate in an environment that
is physically and psychologically safe and secure, one free from threats of harm.
Organizations help satisfy their employees' safety needs in several ways. For
example, they protect shop workers from hazards in the environment by fitting
them with goggles and hard hats. Even seemingly safe work settings, such as
offices, can be swamped with safety hazards. This is why efforts are made to spare
office workers from eyestrain, wrist injuries (such as the increasingly prevalent
carpal tunnel syndrome), and back pain, by using specially designed computer
monitors, desks, and chairs. Physical safety may also involve such basic tools as
security and fire-prevention. Today's organizations show considerable interest in
protecting the safety of their employees. Although government regulations dictate
many safety practices, it is safe to say that employers independently recognize the
motivational benefits related to providing safe work environments.

Social Needs
Once physiological and safety needs have been satisfied, the social needs are
activated. These refer to the need to be liked and accepted by others. As social
animals, we want to be with others and to have them approve of us.

Many companies provide health club facilities for their employees. Besides keeping
employees healthy, it's easy to see how such opportunities also help satisfy social
needs. "Playing hard" with those whom we also "work hard" provides good
opportunities to fulfil social needs on 26 the job.

Esteem Needs
Not only do we need to be liked by others socially, but we also need to gain their
respect and approval. In other words, we have a need for self-esteem—that is, to
achieve success and have others recognize our accomplishments. Consider, for
example, reserved parking spots or plaques honoring the "employee of the month."
Both are ways of promoting esteem within individual employees. So too are awards
banquets in which worthy staff members' contributions are recognized. The same
thing is frequently done in print by recognizing one's organizational contributions on
the pages of a corporate newsletter.

The practice of awarding bonuses to people making suggestions for improvement is

another highly successful way to help employees' satisfy their esteem needs. A
genuine “thank you” can be enough recognition to foster respect and esteem. Or,
as Mark Twain said, "I can live for two months on a good compliment." Some
companies are highly creative in their efforts to show recognition.

Self-Actualization Needs
What happens after all an employee's lower-order needs are met? According to
Maslow, people will strive for self-actualization—that is, they will work to become all
they are capable of being. When people are self-actualized they perform at their
maximum level of creativity and become extremely valuable assets to their
organizations. For this reason, companies are interested in paving the way for their
employees to self-actualize by meeting their lower-order needs.

As this discussion clearly suggests, Maslow's theory provides excellent guidance

with respect to the needs that workers are motivated to achieve. Indeed, many
organizations have taken actions directly suggested by the theory, and have found
them to be successful. For this reason, the theory remains popular with
organizational practitioners. Scientists, however, have noted that specific elements
of the theory—notably, the assertion that there are only five needs and that they
are activated in a specific order—have not been supported fully. Despite this
shortcoming, the insight that Maslow's theory provides into the importance of
recognizing human needs in the workplace makes it a valuable approach to
motivation.

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

Clayton Alderfer’s existence-relatedness-growth (ERG) theory builds on some of
Maslow’s thinking but reduces the number of universal needs from five to three—
growth needs, relatedness needs, and existence needs—and is more flexible on
movement between levels. Alderfer lifts the restriction imposed by Maslow in which
lower-order needs must be addressed before a higherlevel need becomes a
motivator. Alderfer breaks with Maslow on the consequence of need frustration.
Needs at more than one level can be motivators at any time. Alderfer proposes that
when an individual is motivated to satisfy a higher-level need but has difficulty
doing so, the person’s motivation to satisfy lower-level needs will increase.
 EXHIBIT 4: Alderfer’s Erg Theory

EQUITY THEORY: THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING FAIR

There can be little doubt about the importance of money as a motivator on the job.
However, it would be overly simplistic and misleading to say that people only want
to earn as much money as possible. Even the highest-paid executives, sports
figures, and celebrities sometimes complain about their pay despite their multi-
million-dollar salaries. Are they being greedy? Not necessarily. Often, the issue is
not the actual amount of pay received, but rather, pay fairness, or equity.

Equity theory proposes that people are motivated to maintain fair, or equitable,
relationships between themselves and others, and to avoid those relationships that
are unfair, or inequitable. To make judgments of equity, people compare
themselves to others by focusing on two variables: outcomes—what we get out of
our jobs (e.g., pay, fringe benefits, prestige, etc.)—and inputs—the contributions
made (e.g., time worked, effort exerted, units produced). It helps to think of these
judgments as ratios—that is, the outcomes received relative to the inputs
contributed (e.g., $1,000 per week in exchange for working 40 hours). It is
important to note that equity theory deals with outcomes and inputs as they are
perceived by people, not necessarily by objective standards. As you might imagine,
well-intentioned people sometimes disagree about what constitutes equitable
treatment.

EXPECTANCY THEORY: BELIEVING YOU CAN GET WHAT YOU WANT

Beyond seeking fair treatment on the job, people are also motivated by the
expectation that they will achieve certain desired rewards by working hard. If
you've ever put in long hours studying in the hopes of receiving an "A" in one of
your classes, then you understand expectancy theory. This is one of the basic ideas
behind the popularity of pay systems known as merit pay plans, or payfor-
performance plans, which formally establish links between job performance and
rewards. However, a recent survey found that only 25 percent of employees see a
clear link between good job performance and their rate of pay. Clearly, companies
are not doing enough to affect motivation. To get an understanding of why
companies are failing to significantly increase motivation, let's take a closer look at
expectancy theory.

DESIGNING JOBS THAT MOTIVATE

Job Enlargement: Doing More of the Same Kind of Work

Job enlargement is increasing the number of tasks an employee performs but
keeping all of the tasks at the same level of difficulty and responsibility. It is also
called horizontal job loading because the content of a job is expanded but the
difficulty remains constant. Proponents of this approach thought that job
enlargement might increase intrinsic motivation. There's no higher responsibility
involved, nor any greater skills, just a wider variety of the same types of tasks. The
idea behind job enlargement is simple: you can decrease boredom by giving people
a greater variety of jobs to do.

Job Enrichment: Increasing Required Skills and Responsibilities

As an alternative, consider another approach taken to redesign jobs—job
enrichment. Job 34 enrichment is the designing of jobs to provide opportunities for
employee growth by giving employees more responsibility and control over their
work. It is often referred to as vertical job loading because employees are given
some of the responsibilities that used to belong to their supervisors. Herzberg’s
motivator – hygiene theory – was a driving force in the movement to enrich jobs. Job
enrichment is aimed at increasing intrinsic motivation.

Managers can enrich jobs in a variety of ways:

• Allow employees to plan their own work schedules.
• Allow employees to decide how the work should be performed.
• Allow employees to check their own work.
• Allow employees to learn new skills.

THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL

Thus far, we have failed to specify precisely how to enrich a job. What elements of a
job need to be enriched for it to be engaging to an employee? An attempt to expand
the idea of job enrichment, known as the job characteristic model, provides an
answer to this important question.

Basic Elements of the Job Characteristics Model

This approach assumes that jobs can be designed so as to help people get
enjoyment out of their jobs and care about the work they do. The model identifies
how jobs can be designed to help people feel that they are doing meaningful and
valuable work. In particular, it specifies that enriching certain elements of jobs
alters people's psychological states in a manner that enhances their work
effectiveness. The model identifies five core job dimensions that help create three
critical psychological states, leading, in turn, to several beneficial personal and work
outcomes (see Exhibit 5).

EXHIBIT 5
THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
According to the job characteristic model, the five core job dimensions listed create
three critical psychological states, which in turn influence the personal and work
outcomes shown. The model also acknowledges that these relationships are
strongest among those individuals highest in growth need strength.
The five critical job dimensions are skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and feedback. Let's take a closer look at these.
• Skill variety is the extent to which a job requires using several different skills
and talents that an employee has. For example, a restaurant manager with high
skill variety will perform many different tasks (e.g., maintaining sales records,
handling customer complaints, scheduling staff, supervising repair work, and the
like).
• Task identity is the degree to which a job requires doing a whole task from
beginning to end. For example, tailors will have high task identity if they do
everything associated with making an entire suit (e.g., measuring the client,
selecting the fabric, cutting and sewing it, and altering it to fit)
• Task significance is the amount of impact a job is believed to have on others.
For example, medical researchers working on a cure for COVID19 virus disease
surely recognize the importance of their work to the world at large. Even more
modest contributions to the company can be recognized as being significant to the
extent that employee understand the role of their jobs in the overall mission of the
organization.
• Autonomy is the extent to which employees have the freedom and discretion to
plan, schedule, and carry out their jobs as desired. For example, in 1991 a team of
Procter & Gamble employees was put in charge of making all the arrangements
necessary for the building of a new $5 million facility for making concentrated
Downy.
• Feedback is the extent to which the job allows people to have information about
the effectiveness of their performance. For example, telemarketing representatives
regularly receive information about how many calls they make per day and the
monetary values of the sales made.
TEXTBOOK:
Robins, S. 2016. Organization and Organizational Behavior. Prentice Hall
Publications.
Bauer, T., Berrin. E. 2017. An Introduction to Organizational Behaviors. Prentice Hall
Publications.
ADDTITIONAL:
UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORS Delta Publishing
Copyright 2019 by DELTA PUBLISHING COMPANY P.O. Box 5332, Los Alamitos, CA
90721-5332.
JOURNAL:
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-behaviors-and-human-decision-
processes
CHAPTER IV WORK RELATED ATTITUDE

WHAT IS AN ATTITUDE? A DEFINITION

We all hold definite views about things and people—feelings referred to as

attitudes. Formally, we define an attitude as a relatively stable cluster of feelings,
beliefs, and behavioral predisposition (i.e., intentions) toward some specific target.
Attitudes consist of three major components: an evaluative component, a
cognitive component, and a behavioral component.

JOB SATISFACTION: FEELINGS ABOUT OUR WORK

Do people generally like their jobs? Despite what you may hear in the news
about dissatisfied workers going on strike or even acting violently toward their
supervisors, overall, people are quite satisfied with their jobs. In fact, surveys have
found that the percentage of people reporting satisfaction with their jobs averages
between 80 and 90 percent. These feelings, reflecting attitudes toward one's job,
are known as job satisfaction. As job satisfaction seems to play an important role in
organizations, it makes sense to ask: What factors contribute to job satisfaction? As
we will point out, a great deal of research, theory, and practice bears upon this
question.
Theories of Job Satisfaction and Their Implications
Although there are many different approaches to understanding job
satisfaction, two particular ones stand out as providing our best insight into this
very important attitude—the two-factor theory of job satisfaction, and value theory.

Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory of Job Satisfaction

There is no more direct way to find out what causes people's satisfaction and
dissatisfaction with their jobs than to ask them. Over 30 years ago Frederick
Herzberg did just this. He assembled a group of accountants and engineers and
asked them to recall incidents that made them feel especially satisfied and
especially dissatisfied with their jobs. His results were surprising: Different factors
accounted for satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Rather than finding that the presence
of certain variables made people feel satisfied and that their absence made them
feel dissatisfied, as you might expect, Herzberg found that satisfaction and
dissatisfaction stemmed from two different sources. For this reason, his approach is
widely referred to as the two factor theory of job satisfaction.

What are the two factors? In general, people were satisfied with aspects of
their jobs that had to do with the work itself or to outcomes directly resulting from
it. These included things such as chances for promotion, opportunities for personal
growth, recognition, responsibility, and achievement. Because these variables were
associated with high levels of satisfaction, Herzberg referred to them as motivators.
However, dissatisfaction was associated with conditions surrounding the job, such
as working conditions, pay, security, relations with others, and so on, rather than
the work itself. Because these variables prevent dissatisfaction when present, they
are referred to as hygiene factors (or maintenance factors).

EXHIBIT 6
HERZBERG’STWO-FACTOR THEORY
According to Herzberg’s two-factor theory, job satisfaction and dissatisfaction
are not opposite ends of the same continuum but independent dimensions.

Consequences of Job Dissatisfaction

Thus far, we have been alluding to the negative effects of job dissatisfaction,
but without specifying exactly what these are. In other words, what consequences
may be expected among workers who are dissatisfied with their jobs? Several
effects have been well documented.

Employee Withdrawal: Voluntary Turnover and Absenteeism

As you might expect, people who are dissatisfied with their jobs want little to
do with them—that is, they withdraw. An extreme form of employee withdrawal is
quitting, formally referred to as voluntary turnover. Withdrawal also may take the
form of absenteeism.
Organizations are highly concerned about these behaviors as they are very
costly. The expenses involved in selecting and training employees to replace those
who have resigned can be considerable. Even unscheduled absences can be
expensive. Although voluntary turnover is permanent, whereas absenteeism is a
short-term reaction, both are effective ways of withdrawing from dissatisfying jobs.
Research has shown that the more dissatisfied people are with their jobs, the more
likely they are to be absent and to resign. However, we also know that these
relationships are not especially strong. In other words, job satisfaction is only
modestly correlated with voluntary turnover and absenteeism. The reason for this is
simple: Job dissatisfaction is likely to be only one of many factors responsible for
someone's decision to resign or to stay off the job. For example, a dissatisfied
employee may show up for work despite feeling dissatisfied if she believes that it is
critical for her to perform certain tasks. However, still others may care so little that
they would not bother to show up anyway. Thus, job satisfaction is not a particularly
strong predictor of absenteeism.
The same may be said with respect to turnover. Whether or not people will
quit their jobs is likely to depend on several factors. Among them is likely to be the
availability of other jobs. So, if conditions are such that alternative positions are
available, people may be expected to resign in response to dissatisfaction.
However, when such options are limited, voluntary turnover may be a less viable
option. Hence, knowing that one is dissatisfied with his or her job does not
automatically suggest that he or she will be inclined to quit. Indeed, many people
stay on jobs that they dislike.

Job Performance: Are Dissatisfied Employees Poor Workers?

How about those dissatisfied employees who remain on their jobs? Does their
performance suffer? As in the case of withdrawal behaviors, the link between job
performance and satisfaction is also quite modest. One key reason for this is that
performance on some jobs is so carefully regulated that people may have little
leeway to raise or lower their performance even if they wanted to. The weak
negative association between job satisfaction and employee withdrawal, and the
weak positive association between job satisfaction and performance, are good
examples of the point made earlier – that attitudes are not perfect predictors of
behavior. Indeed, the important work-related attitude, job satisfaction, has been
found to be only modestly related, at best, to important aspects of job behavior.

TIPS FOR BOOSTING JOB SATISFACTION

In view of the negative consequences of dissatisfaction outlined above, it
makes sense to consider ways of raising satisfaction on the job. Although an
employee's dissatisfaction might not account for all aspects of his or her
performance, it is important to try to promote satisfaction if for no other reason
than to make people happy. After all, satisfaction is a desirable end in itself. With
this in mind, what can be done to promote job satisfaction? Based on the available
research, we can offer several suggestions.
1. Pay people fairly. People who believe that their organizations' pay systems
are inherently unfair tend to be dissatisfied with their jobs. This not only
applies to salary and hourly pay, but also to fringe benefits. In fact, when
people are given opportunities to select the fringe benefits they most desire,
their job satisfaction tends to rise. This idea is consistent with value theory.
After all, given the opportunity to receive the fringe benefits they most desire
employees may have little or no discrepancies between those they want and
those they actually have.
2. Improve the quality of supervision. It has been found that satisfaction is
highest among employees who believe their supervisors are competent, treat
them with respect, and have their best interests in mind. Similarly, job
satisfaction is enhanced when employees believe that they have open lines of
communication with their superiors.
3. Decentralize organizational power. Decentralization is the degree to
which the capacity to make decisions resides in several people, as opposed to
one or just a handful. When power is decentralized, people are allowed to
participate freely in the process of decision making. This arrangement
contributes to their feelings of satisfaction because it leads them to 43 believe
that they can have some important effects on their organizations. By contrast,
when the power to make decisions is concentrated in the hands of just a few,
employees are likely to feel powerless and ineffective, thereby contributing to
their feelings of dissatisfaction.
4. Match people to jobs that fit their interests. People have many interests,
and these are only sometimes satisfied on the job. However, the more people
find that they are able to fulfil their interests while on the job, the more
satisfied they will be with those jobs. For example, a recent study found that
college graduates were more satisfied with their jobs when these were
consistent with their college majors than when these fell outside their fields of
interest. It is, no doubt, with this in mind that career counsellors frequently
find it useful to identify people's no vocational interests.

ATTACHMENT TO COMPANIES: ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

Thus far, our discussion has centred on people's attitudes toward their jobs.
However, to fully understand work-related attitudes we also must focus on people's
attitudes toward the organizations, in which they work—that is, their organizational
commitment. The concept of organizational commitment is concerned with the
degree to which people are involved with their organizations and are interested in
remaining within them.

This important attitude may be completely unrelated to job satisfaction. For

example, a nurse may really like the kind of work she does, but dislike the hospital
in which she works, leading her to seek a similar job elsewhere. By the same token,
a waiter may have positive feelings about the restaurant in which he works, but
may dislike waiting on tables. These complexities illustrate the importance of
studying organizational commitment. Our presentation of this topic will begin by
examining the different dimensions of organizational commitment. We will then
review the impact of organizational commitment on organizational functioning, and
conclude by presenting ways of enhancing commitment.
Varieties of Organizational Commitment
Being committed to an organization is not only a matter of “yes” or “no” or even
“how much?” Distinctions also can be made with respect to “what kind” of
commitment. Specifically, scientists have distinguished between three distinct
forms of commitment.

Continuance Commitment.
Have you ever stayed on a job because you just don't want to bother to find a new
one? If so, you are already familiar with the concept of continuance commitment.
This refers to the strength of a person's desire to remain working for an organization
due to his or her belief that it may be costly to leave. The longer people remain in
their organizations, the more they stand to lose what they have invested in the
organization over the years (e.g., retirement plans, close friendships). Many people
are committed to staying on their jobs simply because they are unwilling to risk
losing these things. Such individuals may be said to have a high degree of
continuance commitment.

Affective Commitment.
A second type of organizational commitment is affective commitment--the strength
of people's desires to continue working for an organization because they agree with
its underlying goals and values. People feeling high degrees of affective
commitment desire to remain in their organizations because they endorse what the
organization stands for and are willing to help it in its mission. Sometimes,
particularly when an organization is undergoing change, employees may wonder
whether their personal values continue to be in line with those of the organization in
which they may work. When this happens, they may question whether they still
belong, and if they believe not, they may resign.
Normative Commitment.
A third type of organizational commitment is known as normative commitment. This
refers to employees' feelings of obligation to stay with the organization because of
pressures from others. People who have high degrees of normative commitment are
greatly concerned about what others would think of them for leaving. They would
be reluctant to disappoint their employers, and concerned that their fellow
employees may think poorly of them for resigning.

Why strive for a Committed Workforce?

People who feel deeply committed to their organizations behave differently than
those who do not. Specifically, several key aspects of work behavior have been
linked to organizational commitment.

Committed Employees Are Unlikely to Withdraw.

The more committed employees are to their organizations, the less likely they are
to resign and to be absent (what we referred to as withdrawal behavior in the
context of job satisfaction). Being committed leads people to stay on their jobs and
to show up for work when they are supposed to.

Committed Employees Are Willing to make sacrifices for the Organization.

Beyond remaining in their organizations, those who are highly committed to them
demonstrate a great willingness to share and to make sacrifices required for the
organization to thrive.

NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TOWARD CO-WORKERS: PREJUDICE

Thus far, our discussion has focused on two different attitude objects: jobs and
organizations. However, we also develop attitudes toward another important
element of the work environment – other people. Such attitudes are highly
problematic when they are negative, especially when these feelings are based on
misguided beliefs and prompt harmful behavior. Prejudice is the term used to refer
to attitudes of this type. Prejudicial attitudes often hold people back, creating an
invisible barrier to success commonly known as the glass ceiling.

Because prejudicial attitudes can have devastating effects on both people and
organizations, we will examine them closely in this section of the ILG. To give you a
feel for how serious prejudices can be, we will describe specific targets of prejudice
in the workplace and the special nature of the problems they confront. We will then
follow-up by describing various strategies that have been used to overcome
prejudice in the workplace. Before doing this, however, we will describe exactly
what is meant by prejudice, and distinguish it from related concepts.
Anatomy of Prejudice: Basic Distinctions
To understand prejudice it is useful to examine the three components of attitudes
described earlier – the cognitive component, the evaluative component, and the
behavioral component. As you may recall, the cognitive component refers to things
we believe about an attitude object, whether or not they are accurate. In the case of
prejudice, we tend to rely on beliefs about people based on the groups to which
they belong. So, to the extent that we believe that people from certain groups
possess certain characteristics, knowing that someone belongs to a group will lead
us to believe certain things about them. Beliefs of this type are known as
stereotypes.

Stereotypes
As you surely realize, stereotypes, whether positive or negative, are generally
inaccurate. If we knew more about someone than whatever we might assume based
on his or her membership in various groups, we probably would make more
accurate judgments. However, to the extent that we often find it difficult or
inconvenient to learn everything we need to know about someone, we frequently
rely on stereotypes as a kind of mental shortcut. So, for example, if you believe that
individuals belonging to group X are lazy, and that person A belongs to group X, you
would be predisposed to believe that person A is lazy too. Although this may be
logical, engaging in such stereotyping runs the risk of misjudging person A. After all,
he or she might not be lazy at all despite the fact that you assumed so based on the
stereotype.

Nonetheless, assume you believe person A to be lazy. How do you feel about lazy
people? Chances are that you don't like them – that is, your evaluation of person A
would be negative. Would you want to hire a lazy individual, such as A, for your
company? Probably not. Thus, you would be predisposed against hiring A. Your
prejudice toward person A is clear.

Discrimination.
Prejudicial attitudes are particularly harmful when the behavioral predisposition turn
into actual behaviors. In such instances, people become the victims of others'
prejudices – that is, discrimination. If prejudice is an attitude, then think of
discrimination as the behavior consistent with that attitude.

Halo Effects.
A halo effect occurs when the perceiver’s general impression of a target distorts his
or her perception of the target on specific dimensions. Halos can also be negative (a
person can be mistakenly perceived as being different than they really are).
 STRATEGIES FOR OVERCOMING WORKPLACE PREJUDICE: MANAGING A
DIVERSE WORKFORCE
It’s one thing to identify prejudicial attitudes and quite another to eliminate them.
Several major approaches have been taken toward doing precisely this, including
diversity management programs and mentoring programs.

Diversity Management Programs

In recent years, organizations have become increasingly proactive in their attempts
to eliminate prejudice, and have taken it upon themselves to go beyond affirmative
action requirements. Their approach is not just to hire a broader group of people
than usual, but to create an atmosphere in which diverse groups can flourish. They
are not merely trying to obey the law or attempting to be socially responsible, but
they recognize that diversity is a business issue. As one consultant put it." A
corporation's success will increasingly be determined by its managers' ability to
naturally tap the full potential of a diverse workforce. '' Diversity programs are more
likely to be successful if they include repeated efforts with follow-up activities to see
if the training accomplished its objectives.

It is with this goal in mind that three-quarters of American organizations are

adapting diversity management programs – efforts to celebrate diversity by
creating supportive, not just neutral, work environments for women and minorities.
Simply put, the underlying philosophy of diversity management programs is that
cracking the glass ceiling requires that women and minorities are not just tolerated,
but valued.

Education
Sometimes, effectively managing diversity requires that members of an
organization receive additional education to make them better able to communicate
and work with diverse employees and customers.

Mentoring Programs
Mentoring is a process through which an experienced member of an organization
(the mentor) provides advice and guidance to a less experienced member (the
protégé) and helps the less experienced person learn the ropes and do the right
things to advance in the organization. Mentoring programs can be formal or
informal. Successful mentoring requires:
• An atmosphere of mutual respect.
• An atmosphere of mutual understanding.
• The mentor must have the protégé’s best interests in mind

SEXUAL HARASSMENT

The term harassment describes the behavior of a person or people that another
person finds offensive, aggravating, or otherwise unwelcome. Not all harassment is
unlawful. In our society, the term harassment is used very broadly. “Stop harassing
me!” can mean, “Stop annoying me,” or “Stop bugging me.” The definition of
unlawful workplace harassment is much narrower than the general definition of
harassment. There are specific laws and legal standards used to determine which
behaviors and actions are unlawful.

Sexual harassment can be either economic or environmental and is defined as

unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favours, or other verbal or
physical conduct of a sexual nature. For a subordinate employee to be sexually
harassed by a supervisor, the unwelcome sexual behavior must seriously impact the
employee’s job or be used by the supervisor as a basis for employment decisions
about the employee.

A majority of sexual harassment complaints are brought by one co-worker against

another. However, to be considered unlawful sexual harassment, the harassing co-
worker’s conduct must interfere with the employee’s work performance or create a
hostile work environment. The sexually harassing behavior must be unwelcome and
severe or pervasive in a way that causes the employee’s working conditions to
become intolerable.

Sexual harassment can take many forms, including comments about an individual's
body, physical touching, sexual stories, sexual comments, sexually explicit posters,
calendars, cartoons, or other items or actions of a sexual nature.

For harassment to be considered unlawful, it must be ALL of the following:

• Related to a protected category
• Unwelcome
• Offensive to a reasonable person in the recipient’s position
• Severe or pervasive

Key steps that organizations can take to combat the sexual harassment problem
include:
1. Develop a sexual harassment policy supported by top management. This policy
should:
a. Describe and prohibit both quid pro quo and hostile work environment
sexual
harassment.
b. Provide examples of types of behaviors that are prohibited.
c. Outline a procedure employees can follow to report sexual harassment.
d. Describe the disciplinary actions that will be taken for instances of sexual
harassment.
e. Describe the organization’s commitment to educating and training
organizational
members about sexual harassment.
2. Clearly communicate the organization’s sexual harassment policy throughout the
organization.
3. Investigate charges of sexual harassment with a fair complaint procedure.
4. Take corrective action as soon as possible once it has been determined that
sexual harassment
has taken place.
5. Provide sexual harassment training and education to all members of the
organization.

TEXTBOOK:
Robins, S. 2016. Organization and Organizational Behavior. Prentice Hall Publications.
Bauer, T., Berrin. E. 2017. An Introduction to Organizational Behaviors. Prentice Hall
Publications.
ADDTITIONAL:
UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORS Delta Publishing Copyright
2019 by DELTA PUBLISHING COMPANY P.O. Box 5332, Los Alamitos, CA 90721-5332.
JOURNAL:
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-behaviors-and-human-decision-processes

SEMI FINAL COVERAGE (27 hours)

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the completion of this coverage, the students shall
be able to:

1. Define communication.
2. Describe the various steps in the communication process.
3. Distinguish between different forms of verbal media and their relative
effectiveness.
4. Identify the types of formal messages that flow in different directions within an
organization chart.
5. Describe how informal communication is different than formal communication in
an organization.
6. Identify various methods for improving organizational communication.
7. Define power.
8. Identify the four main types of position power and the four main types of
personal power.
9. Define organizational politics.
10.Identify the major forms that organizational politics takes.
11.Describe steps that can be taken to minimize the effects of organizational politic
12.Define and distinguish between various types of formal and informal groups.
13.Describe the role of norms in organizations and how they develop.
14.Explain the social facilitation effect.
15.Describe the social loafing effect and how it may be overcome.
16.Define team and explain what makes a team different from an ordinary work
group.
17.Describe the general effectiveness of work teams.
18.Identify ways of overcoming obstacles to team effectiveness.
19.Describe the nature of four important kinds of groups in organizations and how
and why they help an organization achieve its goals.

Specific Instructions in the completion of this Chapter:

1. Student must read and understand the Intended Learning Outcomes
specified above and make it as a checklist of acquired knowledge and
skills after completing the entire chapter. This shall be the basis of the
teacher in the formulation of the Summative evaluation given at the end
of the chapter.
2. Students must carefully study the given lecture notes and take note of the
topics that were not clearly stated or understood by the student. This
areas can be referred to the subject teacher during consultation hours
provided for the students to contact the teacher.
3. Study the discussions and insights given and follow instructions for
activities if there are.
4. After completely reading all the materials, open the video links of the
lessons given along with this learning package and watch the given videos
to supplement your reading. (Please check your flash drive content).
5. Upon completion of all the lessons and topics presented, answer the self-
reflection questions given to you. Check the instruction of to answer and
what to do to comply with required answers.
6. Compile you outputs in your Learning Portfolio to be submitted at specific
date by your teacher.
7. Should the student have any queries or clarifications with the topics, the
student should contact the subject teacher in the given consultation hours
which can be found in the preliminaries of this material.

Key Terms:
 Human Behavior
 Organization
 Organizational Behavior
 Communication
 Power
CHAPTER V Organizational Communication and Power
 One of the main characteristics of behavior in organizations is that it involves
the interrelationships between people. After all, employees don't work in a vacuum.
Even security guards assigned to remote outposts eventually must have contact
with others in their organization. When it comes to the world of work, the old adage,
"no one is an island," is most certainly true.

The dynamics of how people relate to each other in organizations will be

explored throughout this section of the book, which focuses on group processes. In
particular, in this chapter, we will focus on two key aspects of interpersonal
relations on the job: communication – the processes through which people send
information to others and receive information from them, and power – the capacity
that people have to influence others. We are describing these processes in the
same chapter because they are so closely related.

THE BASIC NATURE OF COMMUNICATION

For an organization to function, individuals and groups must carefully coordinate

their efforts and activities. Waiters must take their customers' orders and pass them
along to the chef. Store managers must describe special promotions to their sales
staffs. Clearly, communication is the key to these attempts at coordination. Without
it, people would not know what to do, and organizations would not be able to
operate effectively—if at all!

With this in mind, it should not be surprising that communication has been referred
to as "the social glue ... that continues to keep organizations tied together," and
"the essence of organizations.'' Given the importance of communication in
organizations, you may not be surprised to learn that managers spend as much as
80 percent of their time engaged in one form of communication or another (e.g.,
writing a report, speaking to others, etc.). We will begin our discussion of
organizational communication by formally describing the communication process
and then describing some of the forms it takes. Then, building on this foundation,
we will 51 describe several ways of improving organizational communication.

The Communication Process and Its Role in Organizations

Formally, we define communication as the process by which a person, group, or
organization (the sender) transmits some type of information (the message) to
another person, group, or organization (the receiver).

Exhibit 7 clarifies this definition and further elaborates on the process.

EXHIBIT 7
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The process of communication consists of the steps summarized here. It begins
when a sender has an idea that he or she wishes to send to a receiver.
Encoding
The communication process begins when one party has an idea that it wishes to
send to another (either party may be an individual, a group, or an entire
organization). It is the sender's mission to transform the idea into a form that can
be sent to and understood by the receiver. This is what happens in the process of
encoding – translating an idea into a form, such as written or spoken language, that
can be recognized by a receiver. We encode information when we select the words
we use to send an e-mail message or when we speak to someone in person.

Transmission via Communication Channels

After a message is encoded, it is ready to be transmitted over one or more channels
of communication to reach the desired receiver. There are many different pathways
through which information travels, including telephone lines, radio and television
signals, fiber-optic cables, mail routes, and even the airwaves that carry our voices.
Thanks to modern technology, people can choose from a wide variety of
communication channels to send both visual and oral information. Whichever
channel used, the communicator's goal is the same: to send the encoded message
accurately to the desired receiver.

Decoding
Once a message is received, the recipient begins the process of decoding – that is,
converting the message back to the sender’s original form. This can involve many
different processes, such as comprehending spoken and written words or
interpreting facial expressions (omit). To the extent that a sender's message is
accurately reconstructed by the receiver, the ideas 52 understood will be the ones
intended.
As one might imagine, the process of comprehending and interpreting information
communicated by others can be highly complex and thus likely prone to errors. This
would be the case if, for example, we were conducting business in a foreign country
and were unfamiliar with the language spoken by the client. However, it is not
uncommon for misunderstandings to occur even when communicating within one’s
own native language. It is likely that any English speaker can easily recall a time
when they misconstrued someone’s intentions because of their words, or lack
thereof.

Feedback
Once a message has been decoded, the process of communication can continue if
the receiver responds with a message to the sender. In other words, the person
receiving the message now becomes the sender of a new message. This new
message is then encoded and transmitted along a communication channel to the
intended recipient, who then decodes it. This part of the communication process is
known as feedback – providing information about the impact of messages on
receivers. Receiving feedback allows senders to determine whether their messages
have been correctly understood. Of course, once received, feedback can trigger
another idea from the sender, initiating yet another cycle of communication and
triggering yet another round of feedback. It is because of this cyclical nature that
we call Exhibit 1 a continuous communication process.

Noise
Despite its apparent simplicity, it probably comes as no surprise that the
communication process rarely operates as flawlessly as the feedback loop
describes. As we will see, there are many potential barriers to effective
communication. Noise refers to the factors that distort the clarity of messages that
are encoded, transmitted, and decoded in the communication process. Whether
noise results from unclear wording, a listener's inattentiveness, or static along a
telephone line, ineffective communication is inevitably the result.

Oral and Written Communication: The Power of Words

Verbal communication involves transmitting and receiving ideas using words. It can
be either oral, using spoken language (e.g., face-to-face talks, telephone
conversations) or written (e.g., memos, letters, e-mail messages). Written
communication is often best expressed when the message is routine and
impersonal. A non-routine message can be better communicated orally. While
written communication offers the advantage of providing a permanent record of the
message, it inhibits immediate feedback because the two parties are not in direct
contact. Future breakthroughs in electronic technology, such as computers that can
recognize the human voice, may offer a new method of communication that offers
the best of both worlds.
Despite existing differences, these two forms of communication share a key feature:
They all involve the use of words.

A Continuum of Verbal Media

Organizations rely on a wide variety of verbal media. Some forms are considered
rich because they are highly interactive and foster the exchange of a great deal of
information. A face-to-face discussion is a good example. A telephone conversation
may be considered a little less rich because it doesn't allow the parties to see each
other. At the other end of the continuum are communications media that are
considered lean because they are static (one-way) and involve much less
information. Flyers and bulletins are good examples insofar as they are broadly
aimed and focus on a specific issue. Letters also are a relatively lean form of
communication. However, because letters are aimed at a specific individual, they
are not usually considered as lean as bulletins. Exhibit 8 summarizes this
continuum.

Although organizations rely on a wide variety of written media, two particular forms
— newsletters and employee handbooks—deserve special attention because of the
important roles they play. Newsletters are regularly published internal documents
describing information of interest to employees regarding an array of business and
no business issues. Although newsletters are targeted at general audiences, they
serve the important function of supplementing other forms of communication in
organizations. For example, many companies have found newsletters to be useful
devices for explaining official policies and reminding everyone of important
decisions made at group meetings.

Employee handbooks also are important vehicles of internal organizational

communication. These are formal documents describing basic information about the
organization – its policies, mission, and underlying philosophy. Handbooks are
widely used today. Not only are they effective at socializing new employees into the
company, but the explicit statements they provide may also help to avoid serious
misunderstandings and conflicts between employees and the company's top
management.

EXHIBIT 8
THE INFORMATION RICHNESS OF COMMUNICATION MEDIA
Communication media may be characterized along a continuum ranging from highly
rich, interactive media (e.g., telephone and face-to-face discussions) to lean, static
media (e.g., flyers and bulletins).
The Effectiveness of Verbal Media
Matching the Medium and the Message. Given that people in organizations spend so
much of their time using both oral and written communication, it is helpful to
analyze and determine which is most effective. As you might imagine, it's
impossible to provide a simple answer to this question. However, research has
provided a great deal of insight into the matter.

For example, we know that communication is most effective in organizations when

it uses multiple channels—that is, both oral and written messages. Oral messages
help get people's 54 immediate attention. Then, written follow-ups are useful
because they provide permanent documents to which people can later refer. Oral
messages also have the benefit of allowing for immediate two-way communication
between parties, whereas written messages are frequently one-way, or take too
long for a response. Not surprisingly, in organizations, two-way communications
(such as face-to-face discussions and telephone calls) occur more frequently than
one-way communications (e.g., memos).

However, the answer to the question of how effectively a particular communications

medium works depends on the kind of message being sent. In one study
researchers surveyed a sample of managers about the media they preferred using
to communicate two different categories of messages — clear ones and ambiguous
ones. "Giving a subordinate a set of cost figures" was considered an example of a
clear message, whereas "getting an explanation about a complex technical
problem" was an example of an ambiguous message. The findings were interesting:
Managers preferred using oral media when communicating ambiguous messages,
but written media for communicating clear messages.

Apparently, the managers were sensitive to the need to use communications media
that allowed them to take advantage of the rich avenues for two-way oral
communications when necessary, and to use the more efficient one-way, written
communications when they were adequate. In fact, the study found that managers
who followed this pattern were generally considered more effective than those who
did not. Findings such as these suggest that demonstrating sensitivity to
communicating in the most appropriate fashion is an important determinant of
managerial success.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Formal Communication: Messages Directed through Organizational

Structure
Organizations are often described in ways that dictate who may and may not
communicate with whom. The formally prescribed pattern of interrelationships
existing between the various units of an organization is referred to as organizational
structure. Here we describe the many important ways in which organizational
structure influences the communication process in organizations.

An organization's structure is commonly described by using a diagram known as an

organization chart. Such diagrams provide a graphic representation of an
organization's structure, an outline of the planned, formal connections between its
various units. An organization chart 55 revealing the structure of a small part of a
fictitious organization, and an overview of the types of communication expected to
occur within it, is shown in Exhibit 9.

EXHIBIT 9
THE ORGANIZATIONAL CHART: A SUMMARY OF FORMAL COMMUNICATION
PATHS
The organizational chart indicates the formal pattern of communication within an
organization – that is, which individuals are required to communicate with each
other. The types of messages that tend to be communicated across different levels
are identified here.

When looking at an organization chart you immediately notice several boxes

connected by lines. Each box represents a particular job, as indicated by the job
titles noted. The lines connecting the boxes show the formal lines of communication
between the individuals performing those jobs—that is, who is supposed to
communicate with whom. This particular organization chart is typical of most in that
it shows that people communicate formally with those immediately above them and
below them, as well as those at their own levels. Formal communication between
people several levels apart is far less likely to occur. However, such highly restricted
arrangements are giving way to more open forms of organizational structure in
many of today's organizations.

As you might imagine, the nature of formal communication that occurs differs
according to people's positions in an organization. Even a quick look at Exhibit 9
shows that information flows in three different directions—upward, downward, and
sideways. What type of communication typically travels in each direction?

Downward Communication
To answer this question, suppose that you are a supervisor. How would you
characterize the formal communication that occurs between you and your
subordinates—that is, communication down the organization chart? Typically,
downward communication consists of instructions, directions and orders—generally,
messages that tell subordinates what they should be doing. We would also expect
to find feedback on past performance flowing in a downward direction. A sales
manager, for example, may tell the members of her sales force what products they
should be promoting. As formal information 56 slowly trickles down from one level
of an organization to the next level (occurs when information is said to "go through
channels''), it becomes less accurate. This is especially true when that information
is spoken. In such cases, it is not unusual for at least part of the message to be
distorted and/or omitted as it works its way down from one person to the next.
(Anyone who has ever played the game of "telephone" has experienced this
firsthand.) To avoid these problems, many companies have introduced programs in
which they communicate formal information to large numbers of people at different
levels all at one time.

Upward Communication
When information flows from lower levels to higher levels within an organization,
such as messages from subordinates to their supervisors, it is known as upward
communication. Typically, such messages involve information that managers need
to do their jobs, such as data required to complete projects. This may include
suggestions for improvement, status reports, reactions to work-related issues, and
new ideas.

Although upward communication is the logical opposite of downward

communication, there are some important differences between them. These arise
because of the difference in status between the communicating parties. For
example, it has been established that upward communication occurs far less
frequently than downward communication. In fact, one classic study found that 70
percent of assembly-line workers initiated communication with their supervisors
less than once a month. And, when people do communicate upward, their
conversations tend to be far shorter than the ones they have with others at their
own level.

Horizontal Communication
Within organizations, messages don't only flow up and down the organization chart,
but sideways as well. Horizontal communication is the term used to identify
messages that flow laterally, at the same organizational level. Messages of this type
are characterized by efforts at coordination, attempts to work together. Consider,
for example, how a vice president of marketing would have to coordinate his or her
efforts with people in other departments when launching an advertising campaign
for a new product. This would require the coordination of information with experts
from manufacturing and production (to see when the products will be available) as
well as those from research and development (to see what features people really
want).

Unlike vertical communication, in which the parties are at different organizational

levels, horizontal communication involves people at the same level. Therefore, it
tends to be easier and friendlier. It also tends to be more casual in tone and occur
more readily given that there are fewer social barriers between the parties. This is
not to say that horizontal communication is 57 without its potential pitfalls. Indeed,
people in different departments sometimes feel that they are competing against
each other for valued organizational resources, leading them to show resentment
toward one another. And when an antagonistic, competitive orientation replaces a
friendly, cooperative one, work is bound to suffer.

Strategies for Improving Organizational Communication

Given how important it is for people in organizations to communicate with each
other in a clear, open, and accurate fashion, it is worthwhile to consider ways of
improving organizational communication. With this in mind, we will describe several
tried-and-true techniques.
Encourage Open Feedback
In theory, it's simple: If accurate information is the key to effective communication,
then organizations should encourage feedback since, after all, feedback is a prime
source of information. However, we say "in theory" because it is natural for workers
to be afraid of the repercussions they may face when being extremely open with
their superiors. Likewise, high-ranking officials may be somewhat apprehensive
about hearing what's really on their workers' minds. In other words, people in
organizations may be reluctant to give and to receive feedback—a situation that
can wreak havoc on organizational communication.

These problems would be unlikely to occur in an organizational climate in which top

officials openly and honestly seek feedback and in which lower-level workers
believe they can speak their minds with impunity. But how can this be
accomplished? Although this is not easy, several successful techniques for opening
feedback channels have been used by organizations. Among these are the
following:

360-degree feedback—Formal systems in which people at all levels give

feedback to others at different levels and receive feedback from them, as
well as outsiders—including customers and suppliers.

Suggestion systems—Programs that invite employees to submit ideas

about how something may be improved. Employees are generally rewarded
when their ideas are implemented.

Corporate hotlines—Telephone lines staffed by corporate officials ready to

answer questions and listen to comments. These are particularly useful
during times when employees are likely to be full of questions because their
organizations are undergoing change.

Use Simple Language-No matter what field you're in, chances are good
that it has its own special language also known as jargon. Although jargon
may greatly help communication within specialized groups, it can severely
interfere with communication among the uninitiated.

The trick to using jargon wisely is to know your audience. If the individuals with
whom you are communicating understand the jargon, using it can help facilitate
communication. However, when addressing audiences whose members are
unfamiliar with specialized language, simple, straightforward language is bound to
be most effective. In either case, the rationale is the same: Know your audience.
Although you may be tempted to try to impress your audience by using big words,
you may have little impact on them and may even appear condescending if they
don't understand you.

Avoid Overload
Imagine this scene: You're up late one night at the end of the term as you're writing
a paper and studying for finals (or at least trying to) all at the same time. Your desk
is piled high with books when your roommate comes in to explain what you should
do to prepare for the end-of-semester party. If this sounds at all familiar to you,
then you probably know only too well that it's unlikely that you'd be able to give
everything you're doing your utmost attention. After all, when people are
confronted with more information than they can process at any given time, their
performance tends to suffer. This condition is known as overload.

Staying competitive in today's hectic world often requires doing many things at
once— but without threatening the performance that often results when
communication channels are overloaded. Fortunately, several things can be done to
avoid, or at least minimize, the problem of overload. Among these are the following:

Rely on gatekeepers- People whose jobs require them to control the flow of
information to potentially overloaded individuals, groups, or organizations are
known as gatekeepers. In making appointments for top executives,
administrative assistants are providing a gatekeeping service.

Practice queuing- A "queue" is a line. So, queuing involves lining up

incoming information so that it can be attended to in an orderly fashion. Air
traffic controllers do this when they "stack" incoming planes in a holding
pattern so as to prevent them from tragically "overloading" the runway.

Walk the Talk- When it comes to effective communication, action definitely

speaks louder than words. Too often, communication is hampered by the
practice of saying one thing 60 but meaning another. And, whenever implicit
messages (e.g., "we may be cutting jobs") contradict official messages (e.g.,
"don't worry, the company is stable"), confusion is bound to result.

This is especially problematic when the inconsistency comes from the top. In fact,
one of the most effective ways of fostering effective organizational communication
is for CEOs to "walk the talk" that is, to match their deeds to their words. After all, a
boss would lose credibility if she told her employees "my door is always open to
you," but then was never available for consultation. Good communication demands
consistency. And, for the words to be heard as loud as the actions, they must match
up.

Be a Good Listener
Effective communication involves more than just presenting messages clearly. It
also involves doing a good job of comprehending others. Although most of us take
listening for granted, effective listening is an important skill. In fact, given that
managers spend about 40 percent of their time listening to others, but are only 25
percent effective, listening is a skill that could stand to be better developed in most
of us. When we speak of effective listening we are not referring to the passive act of
just taking in information that so often occurs. Rather, effective listening involves
three important elements.
 Being non-judgmental while taking in information from others.
 Acknowledging speakers in ways that encourage them to continue
speaking.
 Attempting to advance the speaker's ideas to the next step.

It is worthwhile to consider what we can do to improve our own effectiveness as

listeners. Fortunately, experts have offered several good suggestions, some of
which are summarized in Exhibit 10. Although it may require some effort,
incorporating these suggestions into your own listening habits will provide
surprising benefits.

Given its importance, it should not be surprising that many organizations are
working hard to improve their employees' listening skills. For example, Unisys has
long used seminars and self-training audiocassettes to train thousands of its
employees in effective listening skills. Such systematic efforts at improving listening
skills represent a wise investment for the outcome shows that good listening
definitely pays off. Indeed, research has shown that the more effective one is as a
listener, the more likely he or she is to get promoted to a management position and
perform effectively in that role.
EXHIBIT 10
TIPS FOR IMPROVING YOUR LISTENING SKILLS
Being a good listener is an important skill that can enhance the effectiveness of
communication in organizations. Although it may be difficult to follow the
suggestions outlined here, the benefits may be worthwhile.

POWER: HAVING AN IMPACT ON OTHERS

If you were to think about the most effective managers you have known, chances
are good that you'd recognize that they were all pretty good at one important thing
—getting others to do as they wished. That is, they have power over others—the
capacity to influence others in some desired fashion.

Now, if you thought about it further, you'd probably recognize that despite being so
highly influential, these powerful managers accomplished what they wanted using
very different strategies. For example, one manager may have been very
straightforward, explaining why it is best to behave a certain way (e.g., "This works
best because..."). Another may have brought pressure to bear (e.g.. "Do it this way,
or else..."). This raises an important question that we will examine in this section of
the chapter: How do people influence others in organizations? Put differently, from
where do they draw their power?
In answering this question we will focus on two major categories of power—that
which comes from the position that someone holds, and that which comes from the
person's individual qualities.

Influence That Comes with the Office: Position Power

A great deal of the power that people have in organizations comes from the posts
they hold in those organizations. In other words, they are able to influence others
because of the formal power associated with their jobs. This is known as position
power.

For example, there are certain powers that the president of the United States has
simply due to the authority given to the office holder (e.g., signing bills into law,
making treaties, and so 62 on). These formal powers remain vested in the person
and are available to anyone who holds that position. When the president's term is
up, these powers transfer to the new office holder. There are four bases of position
power: legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, and information power.

Legitimate Power
The power that someone has because others recognize and accept his or her
authority is known as legitimate power. Let's consider an example to which all
students can easily relate. You recognize that your instructors have the authority to
make class policies and to determine grades. In other words, they have legitimate
power over the class. However, if someone were to challenge the teacher's
decision, saying, "who are you to do that?" the answer might be, "I'm the instructor,
that's who!" This exchange would clarify the legitimacy of the office holder's
behavior.

It is important to note that legitimate power covers a relatively narrow range of

influence, and that it is considered inappropriate to overstep these bounds. For
example, whereas a corporate executive may rely on her legitimate power when
requiring her secretary to type and fax a company document, it would be an abuse
of power to ask that same individual to type her son's homework. This is not to say
that the secretary might not take on the task as a favour, but doing so would not be
the direct result of the boss's formal authority. Legitimate power applies only to the
range of behaviors that are recognized and accepted as appropriate by the parties
and institutions involved.

Reward Power
Associated with holding certain jobs comes the power to control the rewards others
receive. This is known as reward power. Extending our teacher-student example,
instructors have reward power over their students insofar as they may reward them
with high grades and glowing letters of recommendation. In the case of managers,
the rewards available may be either tangible (e.g., raises and promotions) or
intangible (e.g., praise and recognition). In both cases, access to these desired
outcomes gives power to the individuals who control them.

Coercive Power
In contrast, power also results from the capacity to control punishment. This is
known as coercive power. Although most managers do not like using the threat of
punishments, it is a fact of organizational life that many people rely on coercion. If
any boss has ever directly told you to do something "my way or else," or even
implied it, then you are probably all too familiar with coercive power.

Often, people have power simply because others know that they have the
opportunity to punish them, even if the threat of doing so is not made explicit. For
example, in the military, when your commanding officer asks you to do something,
you must comply since that request can turn into an order, with severe
consequences for not going along. In private organizations too, threats of
demotions, suspensions without pay, and assignments to undesirable duties may
enhance the coercive power of many managers.

Information Power
The fourth source of power available to people by virtue of their positions is based
on the data and other knowledge at their disposal. This is known as information
power. Traditionally, people in top positions have available to them unique sources
of information that are not available to others (e.g., knowledge of company
performance, market trends, and so on). 63 As they say, "knowledge is power," and
such information greatly contributes to the power of people in many jobs.

Although information power still exists, it is becoming a less potent source of power
in many of today's organizations. The reason is that technology has made it
possible for more information to be available to more people than ever before. As a
result, information is generally no longer the unique property of a few individuals
holding special positions. Extending this thought, however, when you consider the
unique skills of those individuals who develop new technology, it is easy to
understand why they are often so very powerful members of today's organizations.

Tips for Gaining Position Power

As you read these descriptions of the different sources of position power you may
have found yourself wondering what you could do to enhance your own position
power where you are working. If so, don't feel self-conscious about being "power
hungry." On the contrary, you may find it comforting to know that building a strong
power base is an important first step toward becoming a successful leader. Learning
to use (but not abuse!) the power at your disposal is key in this regard.

Influence That Comes from the Individual: Personal Power

Thus far, we've discussed power based on an individual's position in an
organization. Although this is an important source of power, it is not the only one.
People also derive power from their own unique qualities or characteristics. This is
known as personal power. There are four sources of personal power: rational
persuasion, expert power, referent power, and charisma.

Rational Persuasion
Suppose you are chair of the board of a large high-tech company. Based on your
business savvy, you don't like what you see when you look into the future. Some of
your products are doing okay, but others are faltering. Something has to be done.
You see the need to invest in several new products, which, although unproven, you
believe hold the key to the company's success—indeed, its survival. How do you go
about convincing the company's other directors and its Chief Operating Officer to
move in the direction you favour? People facing such situations tend to rely on
rational persuasion – that is, using logical arguments and factual evidence to
convince others that a certain idea is acceptable.

As you might imagine, rational persuasion is highly effective when the parties
involved are intelligent enough to make their cases strongly and to comprehend
them clearly. Given that it is based on clear logic, good evidence, and the desire to
help the company, rational persuasion is likely to be highly effective. Not
surprisingly, rational persuasion is widely used among top executives all the time.

Expert Power
Returning to our example, it's easy to imagine that as chair of the board you have
considerable expertise in the business—and, that everyone around you knows and
appreciates this. As such, it also may be said that you possess expert power—that
is, power based on recognized superior knowledge of a particular field. Athletic
coaches may be considered a good example of people with expert power. After all,
such individuals have power over athletes to the extent that they are recognized as
knowing what is best (and have the winning record to back it up!). Once experts
have proven themselves, their power over others can be considerable.

Should a supervisor's expertise be doubted, however, any power he or she may

have based on that expertise is threatened. Insofar as no one is expected to be an
expert on everything, this is not necessarily problematic. The less-than-expert
person (even the boss!) simply can admit his or her shortcomings and seek
guidance from others. Problems develop, however, if someone in a formal position
of power has not yet developed a level of expertise that is acknowledged and
respected by lower-ranking persons. Those who have not demonstrated their
expertise clearly lack this important source of personal power. However, people
whose expertise is highly regarded are among the most powerful people in
organizations.
Referent Power
As you know from experience, it is not only someone's expertise, but his or her
personal qualities, that form the basis of our admiration for others in organizations.
Individuals who are liked and respected can get others to go along with them simply
because of that fact alone—a type of influence known as referent power. When you
go along with something your friends want to do (e.g., go to a certain movie that
you might not prefer to see) you are influenced by their referent power. This occurs
in organizations all the time. For example, senior managers who possess desirable
qualities and good reputations may have referent power over younger managers
who identify with them and who wish to emulate them. Because they like this
individual, they may go along with his or her influence attempts.

Charisma
Finally, some people are liked so much by others that they are said to have the
quality of charisma—an engaging and magnetic personality. There's no ignoring the
fact that some people become highly influential because of their charismatic ways –
that is, because of how they inspire others to do things.

What makes such individuals so influential?

Four major factors appear to be involved.
1. Highly charismatic people have definite visions of the future of their
organizations and how to bring them to reality. Mary Kay Ash, the founder of
Mary Kay Cosmetics, for example, is widely regarded to be such a visionary.
2. People with charisma tend to be excellent communicators. In fact, they tend
to rely on colourful language and exciting metaphors to excite the crowd.
3. Charismatic individuals inspire trust. Their integrity is never challenged, and
is a source of their strength. Former U.S. President John F. Kennedy has been
so described by many historians.
4. People with charisma make others feel good about themselves. They are
receptive to others' feelings and acknowledge them readily. "Congratulations
on a job well done" is a phrase that may flow freely from a charismatic
individual.

As we have reviewed here, people may influence others by virtue of both the jobs
they have and their individual characteristics.

Organizational Politics: Possible Abuses of Power

Underlying our discussion of power has been the assumption that people attempt to
influence others so as to get the job done—that is, for the good of the organization.
Although this is generally true, sometimes however, people purposely influence
others in ways that actually harm the organization, but that help them personally.
Such acts are known as organizational politics – behaviors that are not officially
approved by an organization that people take to promote their own self-interest at
the expense of the organization's interest. Politically motivated acts often represent
abuses of power.

As you might imagine, acts of organizational politics do not occur at random.

Rather, they tend to occur under certain conditions. Specifically, politically
motivated acts are most likely to occur in organizational units in which clear policies
are non-existent or lacking, as opposed to those in which there exist more clearly
defined rules and regulations. When there are clear-cut rules about what to do, it is
unlikely that people will be able to abuse their power by taking political action.
However, when people are working under highly novel and ambiguous situations –
those in which the prevailing rules are unclear – the stage is set for political
behavior to result, which raises a question regarding the specific forms that such
behavior may take.

What Forms Do Organizational Politics Take?

To best understand organizational politics, we must recognize its various forms.
Specifically, five major techniques of organizational politics are most often seen.
These are as follows.

Restricting access to information. Although people don't always engage in

outright lying and falsification, they may be inclined to control others' access to
information in ways that enhance their own power. For example, people may
withhold information that makes others look bad, avoid contact with others who are
expected to press them for things they don't want to say, and so on.

Cultivating a favourable impression. People interested in being highly

influential tend to go out of their way to engage in some degree of image building –
attempts to enhance the goodness of one's impressions on others. This may take
the form of associating oneself with others' successful accomplishments and
drawing attention to one's own successes.

Developing a base of support. To successfully influence others, it is often useful

to gain the support of others in the organization. With this in mind, managers may
"lobby" for their ideas before they officially present them at meetings, and "call in
favors" they have done for others in the organization.

Blaming and attacking others. A commonly used political tactic involves finding
a scapegoat— that is, someone to put blame on for some failure or wrongdoing.
Explaining that something is really someone else's fault, making another "take the
fall," gets the real culprit "off the hook" for it—until the truth comes out, of course.

Aligning with those more powerful. One of the most direct ways to gain power
is by associating oneself with those that are higher in power. This may be done by
finding a more powerful person to serve as one's mentor, and by banding together
informally with others to form coalitions.
How Do You Deal with Organizational Politics?
Given how fundamental the desire and need for power appears to be among people,
and how differences in power are widespread in organizations, it seems safe to say
that organizational politics is inevitable. And, as the effects of organizational politics
generally tend to be negative, this is not good news. Although it may be impossible
to totally eliminate organizational politics, it is important for managers to consider
ways of minimizing the effects of political behavior. Fortunately, several tactics
have proven effective.
 Clarify job expectations. To the extent that political behavior is nurtured
by ambiguity, it follows that reducing ambiguity may help reduce political
activity. With this in mind, it behoves managers to give well-defined work
assignments and to explain in detail exactly how work performance will be
evaluated. Such efforts may help insofar as they allow employees to gain
power by meeting their job expectations instead of by playing political
games.
 Open the communication process. People find it difficult to foster their
own goals at the expense of organizational goals when the communication
process is open to scrutiny by all. For example, when budget allocations are
made openly (i.e., announced to all) it is much more difficult to make
questionable deals with others than when the communication process is
closed.
 Be a good role model. It is well established that higher-level personnel set
the standards by which lower-level employees operate. As a result, any
manager who is openly political in the use of power is likely to send the
message that it is acceptable for subordinates to behave the same way.
Engaging in dirty political tricks teaches subordinates that such behaviors are
the accepted practice.
 Do not turn a blind eye to game players. Suppose you see one of your
subordinates attempting to gain power over another by taking credit for that
individual's work. Immediately confront this individual and do not ignore what
he or she did. If the person believes that he or she can get away with it, that
individual this behavior.

TEXTBOOK:
Robins, S. 2016. Organization and Organizational Behavior. Prentice Hall Publications.
Bauer, T., Berrin. E. 2017. An Introduction to Organizational Behaviors. Prentice Hall
Publications.
ADDTITIONAL:
UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORS Delta Publishing Copyright
2019 by DELTA PUBLISHING COMPANY P.O. Box 5332, Los Alamitos, CA 90721-5332.
JOURNAL:
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-behaviors-and-human-decision-processes
CHAPTER VI GROUPS AND TEAMS IN ORGANIZATIONS
 THE NATURE OF GROUPS
To understand the operation of groups in organizations, it is necessary to define
exactly what a group is and the types of formal and informal groups that exist.

What is a Group?
Imagine waiting in a line at the bank one day along with five other people. Now
compare this collection of individuals to your company's board of directors.
Although in our everyday language we may refer to the people waiting in line as a
group, they certainly are not a group in the same sense as the members of the
board. Obviously, a group is more than simply a collection of people.

Social scientists have formally defined a group as a collection of two or more

interacting individuals with a stable pattern of relationships between them who
share common goals and who perceive themselves as being a group.

Second, groups must possess a stable structure. Although groups can change, and
often do, there must be some stable relationships that keep group members
together and functioning as a unit. A collection of individuals that constantly
changes (e.g., those waiting on the bank line with you) would not be considered a
group.

A third characteristic of groups is that members share common interests or goals.

For example, members of a company's safety committee all share a common goal
in keeping the workplace free of danger.

Fourth, and finally, to be a group, the individuals involved must perceive

themselves as a group. Groups are composed of people who recognize each other
as a member of their group and they can distinguish these individuals from non-
members. Whether it's the members of a corporate board of directors or a company
softball team, people know who is in their group and who is not. In contrast, the
people waiting with you in line at the bank probably don't think of each other as
being members of a group. Although they stand close together and may have
passing conversations, they have little in common (except, perhaps, a shared
interest in reaching the front of the line) and fail to identify themselves with the
others in the line.
As these four characteristics suggest, groups are very special collections of
individuals. Despite these specific requirements, there are a wide variety of
different types of groups that may be identified within organizations.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUPS

Although a military combat unit, the president's cabinet, and the three-person
cockpit crew of a commercial airliner are certainly all very different from each other,
they are all groups. So, to clarify our understanding of the nature of groups, it is
helpful to describe the different types of groups that exist. In this regard, it is useful
to distinguish between formal groups and informal groups (see Exhibit 11).
Formal Groups
Groups created by the organization and that are intentionally designed to direct
members toward some important organizational goal are known as formal groups.
One type of formal group is referred to as a command group—a group determined
by the connections between individuals who are a formal part of the organization
(i.e., those who can legitimately give orders to others). For example, a command
group may be formed by the vice president of marketing, who gathers together her
regional marketing directors from around the country to hear their ideas about a
new national advertising campaign. Command groups are determined by the
organization's rules regarding who reports to whom, and they usually consist of a
supervisor and his or her subordinates.

A formal organizational group also may be formed around some specific task. Such
a group is referred to as a task group. Unlike command groups, task groups may be
composed of individuals with some special interest or expertise in a specific area
regardless of their positions in 69 the organizational hierarchy. For example, a
company may have a committee on equal employment opportunities whose
members monitor the fair hiring practices of the organization. It may be composed
of personnel specialists, corporate vice presidents, and workers from the shop floor.
Whether they are permanent committees, known as standing committees, or
temporary ones formed for special purposes (such as a committee formed to
recommend solutions to a parking problem), known as ad hoc committees or task
forces, task groups are commonly found in organizations.

Informal Groups
Not all groups are as formal as those we have identified; many are informal in
nature. Informal groups develop naturally among an organization's personnel
without any direction from the management of the organization within which they
operate. One key factor in the formation of informal groups is a common interest
shared by its members. For example, a group of employees who band together to
seek union representation, or who march together to protest their company's
pollution of the environment, may be called an interest group. The common goal
sought by members of an interest group may unite workers at many different
organizational levels. The key factor is that membership in an interest group is
voluntary – it is not dictated by the organization, but encouraged by an expression
of common interests.

EXHIBIT 11
TYPES OF GROUPS
Within organizations there are likely to be both formal groups (such as command
groups and task groups) and informal groups (such as interest groups and
friendship groups).

Of course, sometimes the interests that bind individuals together are far more
diffuse. Groups may develop out of a common interest in participating in sports, or
going to the movies, or just getting together to talk. These kinds of informal groups
are known as friendship groups. Friendship groups extend beyond the workplace
because they provide opportunities for satisfying the social needs of workers that
are so important to their wellbeing.

Informal work groups are an important part of life in organizations. Although they
develop without direct encouragement from management, friendships often
originate out of formal organizational contact. For example, three employees
working alongside each other on an assembly line may get to talking and discover
their mutual interest in basketball, and decide to get together after work to shoot
hoops. As we will see in Chapter 8, such friendships can bind people together,
helping them cooperate with each other, and may have beneficial effects on
organizational functioning. (Our discussion thus far has suggested that people have
many different reasons for joining groups.
 GROUP DEVELOPMENT OVER TIME: THE FIVE-STAGE MODEL
All groups change over time as group members come and go; group tasks and goals
change; and group members gain experience in interacting with each other. One
well-known model of group development is Bruce Tuckman’s five-stage model. The
model’s stages are:
1. Forming—group members try to get to know each other and establish a
common understanding as they struggle to clarify group goals and
determine appropriate behavior within the group.
2. Storming—characterized by considerable conflict—group members resist
being controlled by the group and disagree about who should lead the
group or how much power the leader should have.
3. Norming—group members really start to feel that they belong to the
group, and they develop close ties with one another.
4. Performing—the group is ready to tackle group tasks and work toward
achieving group goals—the real work gets accomplished in this stage.
5. Adjourning—the group disbands after having accomplished its goals.

Research indicates that though possible in some cases, not all groups go through
the Tuckman's five stage model or in the order suggested.

GROUP DYNAMICS: PEOPLE WORKING WITH OTHERS

To understand the dynamics of groups it is essential to consider the way groups
influence individuals and the way individuals influence groups. We will examine
precisely how this occurs in this section of the chapter.

Group Norms: Unspoken Rules of Group Behavior

From your own experiences in groups you probably already know one important
way in which groups influence people—that is, by imposing ways of thinking and
acting that are considered acceptable. If anyone has ever told you, "that's not the
way we do things around here," then you probably already know how potent these
effects can be. What you might not know, however, is that such informal forces
constitute a key aspect of group dynamics known as norms. Specifically, a norm is a
generally agreed-upon set of roles that guides the behavior of group members.

Norms differ from organizational policies in that they are informal and unwritten. In
fact, norms may be so subtle that group members may not even be aware that they
are operating. Yet, their effects can be quite profound. For example, group norms
may regulate such key behaviors as honesty (e.g., whether or not to steal from the
company), manners of dress (e.g., a coat and tie is required), and the punctuality of
meetings and appointments (e.g., whether or not they generally begin on time). In
so doing, norms help regulate groups, and keep them functioning in an orderly
fashion.
It is important to note that norms can be either prescriptive—dictating what should
be done—or proscriptive—dictating the behaviors that should be avoided. For
example, groups may develop prescriptive norms to follow their leader, or to help a
group member who needs assistance. They also may develop proscriptive norms to
avoid absences, or to refrain from blowing the whistle on each other. Sometimes
the pressure to conform to norms is subtle, as in the dirty looks given a manager by
his peers for going to lunch with one of the assembly line workers. Other times,
normative pressures may be quite severe, such as when one production worker
sabotages another's work because he is performing at too high a level, making his
co-workers look bad.

How Do Norms Develop?

Why do norms come about? Several key factors appear to be involved.

First, norms develop due to precedents set over time. Whatever behaviors emerge
at a first group meeting usually will set the standard for how that group is to
operate. Initial group patterns of behavior frequently become normative, such as
where people sit, and how formal or informal the meeting will be. Such routines help
establish a predictable, orderly interaction pattern.

Second, norms develop because of carryovers from other situations. Group

members usually draw from their previous experiences to guide their behaviors in
new situations. The norms governing professional behavior apply here. For
example, the norm for a physician to behave ethically and to exercise a pleasant
bedside manner is generalizable from one hospital to another. Such carryover
norms, ones that generalize between different contexts, can assist in making
interaction easier in new social situations.

Third, sometimes norms also develop in response to an explicit statement by a

superior or co-worker. Newcomers to groups quickly "learn the ropes" when people
describe what is expected of them. Such an explanation is an explicit statement of
the group's or organization's norms insofar as it describes what one should do or
avoid doing to be accepted by the group.

Fourth and finally, group norms may develop out of critical events in the group's
history. If an employee releases an important organizational secret to a competitor,
causing a loss to the company, a norm to maintain secrecy may develop out of this
incident. To the extent that norms guide people away from similar mistakes, they
may be a helpful way of ensuring that the group or organization learns from its past
experiences.

Social Facilitation: Performing in the Presence of Others

Imagine that you have been taking piano lessons for 10 years, and you are now
about to go on stage for your first major solo concert performance. You have been
practicing diligently for several months, getting ready for the big night. But now,
you are no longer alone in your own living room, but on stage in front of hundreds
of people. Your name is announced, and silence breaks the applause as you take a
seat in front of the concert grand. This means that there are some employees who
are not comfortable working while others are watching due to consciousness.

Social Loafing: "Free Riding" When Working with Others

Have you ever worked with several others helping a friend move into a new
apartment, each carrying and transporting part of the load from the old place to the
new one? Or, how about sitting around a table with others stuffing political
campaign letters into envelopes and addressing them to potential donors? Although
these tasks may seem quite different, they actually share an important
characteristic: Performing each requires the efforts of only a single individual, but
several people's work can be pooled to yield greater outcomes. Because each
person's contributions are summed together with another's, such tasks have been
referred to as additive tasks.

If you've ever performed additive tasks – such as the ones described here – there's
a good chance that you found yourself working not quite as hard as you would have
if you did them alone. Does this sound familiar to you'? Indeed, a considerable
amount of research has found that when several people combine their efforts on
additive tasks, each individual contributes less than he or she would when
performing the same task alone.

As suggested by the old saying, "Many hands make light the work," a group of
people would be expected to be more productive than any one individual. However,
when several people combine their efforts on additive tasks, each individual's
contribution tends to be less. Five people working together raking leaves will not be
five times more productive than a single individual working alone; there are always
some who go along for a "free ride." In fact, the more individuals who are
contributing to an additive task, the less each individual's contribution tends to be—
a phenomenon known as social loafing.

Tips for Eliminating Social Loafing

Obviously, the tendency for people to reduce their effort when working with others
could be a serious problem in organizations. Fortunately, research has shown that
there are several ways in which social loafing can be overcome. One possible
antidote to social loafing is to make each performer identifiable. Social loafing
may occur when people feel they can get away with "taking it easy"—namely, under
conditions in which each individual's contributions cannot be determined.

A variety of studies on the practice of "public posting" support this idea. This
research has found that when each individual's contribution to a task is displayed
where it can be seen by others (e.g., weekly sales figures posted on a chart), people
are less likely to slack off than when only overall group (or companywide)
performance is made available. In other words, the more one's individual
contribution to a group effort is highlighted, the more pressure each person feels to
make a group contribution. Thus, social loafing can be overcome if one's
contributions to an additive task are identified: Potential loafers are not likely
to loaf if they fear getting caught.

Another way to overcome social loafing is to make work tasks more important
and interesting. Research has revealed that people are unlikely to go along for a
free ride when the task they are performing is believed to be vital to the
organization. For example, it has been found that the less meaningful salespeople
believed their jobs were, the more they engaged in social loafing— especially when
they thought their supervisors knew little about how well they were working. To
help in this regard, corporate officials should deliberately attempt to make jobs
more intrinsically interesting to employees. To the extent that jobs are interesting,
people may be less likely to loaf.

It also has been suggested that managers should reward individuals for
contributing to their group's performance—that is, encourage their interest in
their group's performance. Doing this (e.g., giving all salespeople in a territory a
bonus if they jointly exceed their sales goal) may help employees focus more on
collective concerns and less on individualistic concerns, increasing their obligations
to their fellow group members. This is important, of course, in that the success of an
organization is more likely to be influenced by the collective efforts of groups than
by the individual contributions of any one member.

TEAMS: EMPOWERED WORK GROUPS

In recent years as organizations have been striving to hone their competitive
advantage, many have been organizing work around specific types of groups known
as teams. Because the team movement frequently takes different forms, some
confusion has arisen regarding exactly what teams are. In this section we will clarify
the basic nature of teams by describing their key characteristics and then
identifying the various types of teams that exist.

What is a Team?
Key Characteristics At the Miller Brewing Company in Trenton, Ohio, groups ranging
from 6 to 19 employees work together to perform all operations, including brewing
(Miller Genuine Draft beer is made at this facility), packaging, and distribution. They
schedule their own work assignments and vacations, conduct assessments of their
peers' performance, maintain the equipment, and perform other key functions. Each
group is responsible for meeting pre-specified targets for production, quality, and
safety. Data regarding costs and performance are made available.
Clearly, these groups are different in key respects from the ones we have been
describing thus far, such as a budget committee or company ski club. The Miller
employees are all members of special kinds of groups known as teams. Formally,
we define a team as a group whose members have complementary skills and are
committed to a common purpose or set of performance goals for which they hold
themselves mutually accountable. Applying this definition to our description of the
way work is done at Miller's Trenton plant, it's clear that teams are in use at this
facility. Given the complicated nature of teams, we will highlight some of their key
characteristics and distinguish them from the traditional ways in which work is
structured (for a summary, see Exhibit 12).

First, teams are organized around work processes rather than functions. So, for
example, instead of having traditional departments each focusing on a specialized
function, (such as engineering, planning, quality control, and so on) team members
have many different skills. They come together to perform key processes, such as
designing and launching new products, manufacturing, and distribution.

EXHIBIT 12
TEAMS VERSUS TRADITIONAL WORK STRUCTURES: SOME KEY
DISTINCTIONS
Teams differ from traditional work structures with respect to the six key distinctions
identified here.

Second, teams "own" the product, service, or processes on which they work. By
this, we mean that people feel part of something meaningful, and that they
understand how their work fits into the big picture. For example, employees at
many hospitals work in teams within four minihospitals (surgical, general, specialty
medical, and outpatient)—not only to boost efficiency, but to help them feel more
responsible for their patients. By working in small units, team members have
greater contact with patients and are more aware of the effects of their work on
patient care. This is in contrast to the traditionally more distant way of organizing
hospital work, in which employees tend to feel less connected to the results of their
actions.

Third, members of teams are trained in several different areas and have a variety of
different skills. For example, at insurance companies, policies are now processed by
team members who rate policies, underwrite them, and then enter them into the
system. Before the switch to teams, these three tasks were performed by specialists
in three separate departments. In fact, this is typical. Traditionally, people only
learned single jobs and performed them over and over again, unless there was
some need for retraining.

Fourth, teams govern themselves. And, as a result, team leaders may be thought of
as coaches who help members of the team, rather than bosses who use more
authoritarian means of leadership.

Fifth, in teams, support staff and responsibilities are built-in. traditionally, such
functions as maintenance, engineering, and human resources operate as separate
departments that provide support to other groups requiring their services. Since this
often causes delays, teams may contain members who have expertise in needed
support areas. For example, at some companies, there are no longer any quality
inspectors. Instead, all team members are all trained in matters of inspection and
quality control. Or sometimes, organizations hire people with highly advanced or
specialized skills who are assigned to work as members of several different teams
at once. For example, teams at Texas Instruments have access to specialized
engineering services in this way. Regardless of how it's done, the point is that
teams do not rely on outside support services to help get their jobs done; they are
relatively self-sufficient.

Sixth, and finally, teams are involved in company-wide decisions. This is in contrast
to the traditional practice of using managers to make all organizational decisions.

TYPES OF TEAMS
In view of their widespread popularity, it should not be surprising to learn that there
are many different kinds of teams. To help make sense out of these, scientists have
categorized these along three major dimensions.

The first has to do with their major purpose or mission. In this regard, some
teams—known as work teams—are concerned primarily with the work done by the
organization, such as developing and manufacturing new products, providing
services for customers, and so on. Their principal focus is on using the
organization's resources to effectively create its results (goods or services). The
several examples of groups noted thus far are of this type. Other teams—known as
improvement teams—are primarily oriented toward the mission of increasing the
effectiveness of the processes that are used by the organization.

A second dimension has to do with time. Specifically, some teams are only
temporary, and are established for a specific project with a finite life. For example, a
team set up to develop a new product would be considered temporary. As soon as
its job is done, it disbands. However, other teams are permanent, and stay intact as
long as the organization is operating. For example, teams focusing on providing
effective customer service tend to be permanent parts of many organizations.

The third dimension reflects the team's connection to the organization's overall
authority structure—that is, the connection between various formal job
responsibilities. In some organizations, teams may cross over various functional
units (e.g., marketing, finance, human resources, and so on.), and are said to be
overlaid (i.e., their activities are superimposed over the functioning of various
organizational units). For example, a quality improvement team may be expected to
get involved with the activities of several different organizational units (the mission
of improving quality does not belong to any one unit working alone). A research-
and-development team is usually a cross-functional team because many different
skills are needed to identify and create a new product.

Such arrangements are often difficult because of ambiguities regarding authority. In

contrast, some organizations use teams that are intact with respect to the existing
structure of the organization. Note that the boundaries between all teams must be
considered permeable. Indeed, people are frequently members of more than one
team—a situation often required for organizations to function effectively. For
example, members of an organization's manufacturing team must carefully
coordinate their activities with members of its marketing team. To the extent that
people are involved in several different kinds of teams, they may gain broader
perspectives, and make more important contributions to their various teams.

TEXTBOOK:
Robins, S. 2016. Organization and Organizational Behavior. Prentice Hall Publications.
Bauer, T., Berrin. E. 2017. An Introduction to Organizational Behaviors. Prentice Hall
Publications.
ADDTITIONAL:
UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORS Delta Publishing Copyright
2019 by DELTA PUBLISHING COMPANY P.O. Box 5332, Los Alamitos, CA 90721-5332.
JOURNAL:
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-behaviors-and-human-decision-processes
FINAL COVERAGE (27 hours)

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the completion of this coverage, the students shall
be able to:

1. Define leadership and distinguish between leadership and management.

2. Describe the trait approach to leadership.
3. Describe the leader-member exchange model of leadership.

Specific Instructions in the completion of this Chapter:

8. Student must read and understand the Intended Learning Outcomes
specified above and make it as a checklist of acquired knowledge and
skills after completing the entire chapter. This shall be the basis of the
teacher in the formulation of the Summative evaluation given at the end
of the chapter.
9. Students must carefully study the given lecture notes and take note of the
topics that were not clearly stated or understood by the student. This
areas can be referred to the subject teacher during consultation hours
provided for the students to contact the teacher.
10.Study the discussions and insights given and follow instructions for
activities if there are.
11.After completely reading all the materials, open the video links of the
lessons given along with this learning package and watch the given videos
to supplement your reading. (Please check your flash drive content).
12.Upon completion of all the lessons and topics presented, answer the self-
reflection questions given to you. Check the instruction of to answer and
what to do to comply with required answers.
13.Compile you outputs in your Learning Portfolio to be submitted at specific
date by your teacher.
14.Should the student have any queries or clarifications with the topics, the
student should contact the subject teacher in the given consultation hours
which can be found in the preliminaries of this material.

Key Terms:
 Human Behavior
 Organization
 Organizational Behavior
 Leadership
 Team
CHAPTER VII LEADERSHIP

CHAPTER LEADERSHIP
(6 Hrs.)
VII

If you asked a group of top executives to identify the single most important
determinant of organizational success, chances are good that the vast majority
would reply "effective leadership." Indeed, it is widely believed in the world of
business that leadership is the key ingredient in the recipe for corporate
achievement. And this view is by no means restricted to organizations. As you
know, leadership also is important when it comes to politics, sports, and many other
activities.

WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?
When you think of a leader, what image comes to mind? For many, a leader is an
individual—often with a title reflecting a high rank in an organization (e.g.,
president, director, etc.)—who is influential in getting others to behave as required
by the organization. Indeed, social scientists think of leaders as people who have a
great deal of influence over others. Formally, we define leadership as the process
by which an individual influences others in ways that help attain group or
organizational goals.

The sources of leader power are:

• Legitimate power
• Reward power
• Coercive power
• Expert power
• Information power
• Referent power
The skills leaders need include:
• Flexibility
• Communication
• Human resource management
• Conceptualization

Typically, when we speak of leaders we are referring to people who influence others
without threat, using non-coercive means. In fact, this characteristic distinguishes a
leader from a dictator. Whereas dictators get others to do what they want by using
threats of physical force, leaders do not. Our point is that leadership rests, at least
in part, on positive feelings between leaders and their subordinates. In other words,
subordinates accept influence from leaders because they respect, like, or admire
them as well as because they hold positions of formal authority.

Our definition implies that leadership is a two-way process. That is, leaders both
influences subordinates in various ways and are influenced by them. In fact, it may
be said that leadership exists only in relation to followers. After all, one cannot lead
without followers. Not surprisingly, several of the approaches to leadership
described in this chapter focus on the relationships between leaders and followers.

The confusion between these two terms is understandable insofar as the distinction
between establishing a mission and implementing it is often blurred in practice. This
is because many leaders, such as top corporate executives, are frequently called
upon not only to create a vision, but also to help implement it. Similarly, managers
often are required to lead those who are subordinate to them while also carrying
out their leader's mission. With this in mind, it has been observed that too many so-
called "leaders" get bogged down in the managerial aspects of their job, creating
organizations that are "over managed and under lead.”

THE TRAIT APPROACH: ARE SOME PEOPLE REALLY "BORN LEADERS"?

Common sense leads us to think that some people have more of "the right stuff'
than others, and are just naturally better leaders. And, if you look at some of the
great leaders throughout history, such as Martin Luther King, Jr., Alexander the
Great, and Abraham Lincoln, to name just a few, it is clear that such individuals
certainly have characteristics in common that differ from ordinary folks. The
question is "what is it that makes great leaders so great?”

For many years scientists have devoted a great deal of attention to this question,
advancing the great person theory. According to this approach, great leaders
possess key traits that set them apart from most others. Further, the theory
contends that these traits remain stable over time and across different groups.
Thus, it suggests that all great leaders share these characteristics regardless of
their role in history. Although these suggestions make a great deal of intuitive
sense, they have not always been supported by research, leading some scientists to
conclude that leaders do not differ from followers in clear and consistent ways.

Today, however, it is popularly believed that traits do matter – namely, that certain
traits, together with other factors, contribute to leaders' success in business
settings? What are these traits? In Exhibit 13 we list and describe some of the key
ones. Although you will readily recognize and understand most of these
characteristics (e.g., drive, honesty and integrity, self-confidence), some require
further clarification.

EXHIBIT 13
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL LEADERS
Research indicates that successful leaders demonstrate the traits listed here.

First, consider leadership motivation. This refers to leaders' desire to influence

others – essentially, their interest in assuming leadership roles. Leadership
motivation can take two distinct forms. On the one hand, it may cause leaders to
seek power as an end in itself. Leaders who demonstrate such personalized power
motivation wish to dominate others, and their desire to do so is often reflected in an
excessive concern with status. In contrast, leadership motivation also can cause
leaders to seek power as a means to achieve desired, shared goals. Leaders who
evidence such socialized power motivation cooperate with others, develop
networks, and generally work with subordinates instead of attempting to dominate
or control them. Needless to say, socialized power motivation is usually far more
adaptive for organizations than personalized leadership motivation.

With respect to cognitive ability, it appears that effective leaders must be intelligent
and capable of integrating and interpreting large amounts of information. However,
mental genius does not seem to be necessary and may, in some cases, prove
detrimental. Still, leaders must be intelligent enough to perform their jobs at high
levels.

A final characteristic, flexibility, refers to the ability of leaders to recognize what

actions are required in a given situation, and then, to act accordingly. Evidence
suggests that the most effective leaders are not prone to behave in the same ways
all the time, but rather, to be adaptive, matching their styles to the needs of
followers and to the demands of their situations they face.

In short, current research supports the great person theory. It has been summarized
as follows:

Regardless of whether leaders are born or made... it is clear that leaders are not like
other people. Leaders do not have to be great men or women by being intellectual
geniuses or omniscient prophets to succeed, but they do need to have the "right
stuff' and this stuff is not equally present in all people. Leadership is a demanding,
unrelenting job with enormous pressures and grave responsibilities. It would be a
profound disservice to leaders to suggest that they are ordinary people who
happened to be in the right place at the right time. In the realm of leadership, the
individual does matter.

Given this conclusion, it may be useful to examine the extent to which certain
individuals possess the traits and characteristics associated with great leaders.

THE BEHAVIOR APPROACH: WHAT DO LEADERS DO?

The great person theory paints a somewhat fatalistic picture, suggesting that some
people are, by nature, more prone to being effective leaders than others. After all,
some of us have more of "the right stuff' than others. However, other approaches to
leadership—particularly, those focusing on what leaders do, rather than who leaders
are—paint a more encouraging picture for those of us who aspire to leadership
positions. This orientation is known as the behavior approach. By emulating the
behavior of successful leaders the possibility exists that just about anyone may
become an effective leader.

Two Critical Leadership Behaviors

Precisely what behaviors are key to leadership success? Although the answer to this
question is quite complex, we can safely point to two very important leadership
behaviors. The first is showing a concern for people, also known as
consideration. In describing your boss, would you say that he or she cares about
you as a person, is friendly, and listens to you when you want to talk? If so, he or
she may be said to demonstrate a high degree of consideration.

The second main type of leadership behavior is showing a concern for getting
the job done, also known as initiating structure. In describing your leader, would
you say that he or she gives you advice, answers your questions, and lets you know
exactly what is expected of you? If so, he or she may be said to have a bent for
initiating structure.

LEADERS AND FOLLOWERS

Thus far we have focused on leaders, ignoring followers. However, to understand
leadership, we must understand leaders' relations with followers. After all, "Without
followers leaders cannot lead.” Without followers, even John Wayne becomes a
solitary hero. The importance of followers, and the complex, reciprocal relationship
between leaders and followers, is widely recognized by organizational researchers.
Several major approaches to leadership take this approach.

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model: The Importance of Being in

the "In-Group"
As you know from experience, leaders do not treat all their subordinates in the
same manner. This fact is central to an approach known as the leader-member
exchange (LMX) model.

This theory suggests that for various reasons leaders form different kinds of
relationships with various groups of subordinates. One group, referred to as the “in-
group,” is favoured by the leader. Members of in-groups receive considerably more
attention from their leader and larger shares of the resources they have to offer
(such as time and recognition). In contrast, other subordinates fall into the out-
group. These individuals are disfavoured by leaders. As such, they receive fewer
valued resources from their leaders. Leaders distinguish between in-group and out-
group members very early in their relationships with them. More often than not, this
occurs on the basis of surprisingly little information. For example, perceived
similarity with respect to personal characteristics, such as age, gender, or
personality, is sufficient to categorize followers into a leader's in-group. Similarly, a
particular follower may be granted in-group status if the leader believes that person
is especially competent at performing his or her job.

According to LMX theory, members of in-groups perform their jobs better and hold
more positive attitudes toward their jobs than do members of out-groups. Not
surprisingly, good relationships with followers can be very valuable, enhancing
followers' job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Charismatic Leaders: That "Something Special"
World history and the history of organizations are replete with leaders that have
had extraordinary success in generating profound changes in their followers.
Indeed, it is not extreme to suggest that some such people (e.g., Napoleon, Bill
Gates, and John Lennon, to name a few) have changed entire societies through their
words and actions. Individuals who accomplish such feats have been referred to as
charismatic leaders. These are individuals who exert especially powerful effects on
followers by virtue of their commanding confidence and clearly articulated visions.

Researchers have found that charismatic leaders tend to be special in a number of

important ways. Several specific factors differentiate charismatic leaders from non-
charismatic leaders. These are as follows:
 Self-confidence: Charismatic leaders are highly confident in their ability and
judgment. Others readily become aware of this.
 A vision: A leader is said to have vision to the extent that he or she proposes
a state of affairs that improves upon the status quo. He or she also must be
able to clearly articulate that vision, and to show willingness to make
sacrifices to make it come true.
 Extraordinary behavior: Charismatic leaders are frequently
unconventional. Their quirky ways, when successful, elicit admiration.
 Recognized as change agents: The status quo is the enemy of charismatic
leaders. They make things happen.
 Environmental sensitivity: Charismatic leaders are highly realistic about
the constraints imposed upon them and the resources needed to change
things. Consequently, they know what they can and cannot do.

At first glance, it is tempting to assume that charismatic leaders are special merely
because of the traits they possess. However, it also makes sense to look at
charismatic leadership as involving a special relationship between leaders and their
followers. It is a special kind of leader-follower relationship, in which a leader can, in
the words of one author, "make ordinary people do extraordinary things in the face
of adversity.”

TEXTBOOK:
Robins, S. 2016. Organization and Organizational Behavior. Prentice Hall Publications.
Bauer, T., Berrin. E. 2017. An Introduction to Organizational Behaviors. Prentice Hall
Publications.
ADDTITIONAL:
UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORS Delta Publishing Copyright
2019 by DELTA PUBLISHING COMPANY P.O. Box 5332, Los Alamitos, CA 90721-5332.
JOURNAL:
https://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-behaviors-and-human-decision-processes