Light and Reflection

Light is a form of energy. Light is needed to see things around us. We detect light with our eye. Light enables us
to see objects from which it comes or from which it is reflected.
Luminous objects Non-luminous object
The objects which emit their own light are Those objects which do not emit light themselves but
called luminous objects only reflect (or scatter) the light which falls on them, are
called
The sun, other stars, electric bulb, tube-light, A flower, chair, table, book, trees, other plants, human
torch, candle and fire, etc. beings, fan, bed, mirror, diamond, walls, floor, and road
We can see the luminous objects due to the light We can see the non-luminous objects because they reflect
emitted by them. light (which they received from a luminous object) into eyes
Nature of Light: There are two theories about the nature of light:
According to wave theory According to particle theory
Light consists of electromagnetic waves which do Light is composed of particles which travel in a straight
not require a material medium (like solid, liquid or line at very high speed.
gas) for their propagation
For example, the phenomena of The phenomena of
diffraction reflection and
interference and refraction of light, and
polarization of light can only be explained if light casting of shadows of objects by light, can be explained
is considered to be of wave nature only if light is thought to be made of particles.
Explain that light has a dual nature (double nature) :
 Light exhibits the properties of both waves and particles (depending on the situation it is in).
 The modern theory of light called ‘Quantum Theory of Light’ combines both the wave and particle models of
light.
Reflection of light:
 Reflection is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light into the same medium on striking the surface
of any object.
 The objects having polished, shining surfaces reflect more light than objects having unpolished, dull surfaces.
 Example: Silver metal is one of the best reflectors of light. For example, a polished block of silver
metal reflects all the light falling on it and does not transmit any light through it.
How can we make a mirror?
 Ordinary mirrors are made by depositing a thin layer of silver metal on the back side of a plane glass sheet.
 The silver layer is then protected by a coat of red paint. The reflection of light in a plane mirror (or any other
mirror) takes place at the silver surface in it.
 But the surface of silver metal is easily scratched and soon becomes rough. So,
 These days mirrors are being made increasingly by depositing a thin coating of aluminium metal at the
back of a glass sheet (instead of silver coating). This is because aluminium is much cheaper than silver and it
reflects light very well.
‘Beam of light’: A ‘bundle of light rays’ is called a ‘beam of light’.
Reflection of light from plane surfaces: plane mirror
Incident ray. The ray of light which falls on the mirror surface is called the incident ray.
Point of incidence The point at which the incident ray falls on the mirror is called the point of incidence.
Reflected ray The ray of light which is sent back by the mirror is called the reflected ray
Normal The ‘normal’ is a line at right angle to the mirror surface at the point of incidence.
The angle of incidence It is the angle made by the incident ray with the normal at the point of incidence
The angle of reflection It is the angle made by the reflected ray with the normal at the point of incidence.
Laws of Reflection of Light:
1. First Law of Reflection. According to the first law of reflection of light:
The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal (at the point of incidence), all lie in the same plane.
2. Second Law of Reflection. According to the second law of reflection of light:
The angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence i = r
What happens when a ray of light falls normally (or perpendicularly) on the surface of a mirror
It is reflected back along the same path (because the angle of incidence as well as the angle of reflection for
such a ray of light are zero)
The laws of reflection of light apply to all kinds of mirrors, plane mirrors as well as spherical mirrors (like
concave mirrors and convex mirrors
Types of Reflection
Regular Reflection Diffuse Reflection
Also called as specular reflection Also known as irregular reflection or scattering.
It occurs from smooth surfaces like that of a plane It takes place from rough surfaces like that of
mirror (or highly polished metal surfaces). paper, cardboard, chalk, table, chair and walls
The reflected rays remain parallel even after The reflected rays do not remain parallel after
reflection and go only in one direction reflection, they are scattered in different directions
a plane mirror produces regular reflection of light. Paper chalk table chair
Images are formed by regular reflection

Object Image
Anything which gives out light rays (either its own It is an optical appearance produced when light rays
or reflected by it) is called an object. coming from an object are reflected from a mirror
A bulb, a candle, a pin-head, an arrow, our face, tree, when we look into a mirror, we see the image of our face.

Real Image Virtual Image

The image which can be obtained on a screen is The image which cannot be obtained on a screen is
called a real image called a virtual image
Example: the images formed on a cinema screen Example: the image of our face in a plane mirror
It is formed when light rays coming from an object It is formed when light rays coming from an object
actually meet at a point after reflection from a mirror only appear to meet at a point when produced
backwards (but do not actually meet) after reflection
from a mirror (or refraction through a lens)
Characteristics of an image formed by a plane mirror.
 The image formed in a plane mirror is virtual. It cannot be received on a screen.
 The image formed in a plane mirror is erect. It is the same side up as the object.
 The image in a plane mirror is of the same size as the object.
 The image formed by a plane mirror is at the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the
mirror.
 The image formed in a plane mirror is laterally inverted (or sideways reversed).
Uses of Plane Mirrors
(i) To see ourselves. The mirrors on our dressing table and in bathrooms are plane mirrors.
(ii) fixed on the inside walls of certain shops (like jewellery shops) to make them look bigger.
(iii) Plane mirrors are fitted at blind turns of some busy roads so that drivers can see the vehicles coming from
the other side and prevent accidents.
(iv) Plane mirrors are used in making periscopes.
A spherical mirror is that mirror whose reflecting surface is the part of a hollow sphere of
glass. The spherical mirrors are of two types : Concave mirrors, and Convex mirrors.
Concave Mirrors Convex Mirrors
Also called converging mirror Also called diverging mirror
In Concave mirrors the reflecting surface is curved In Convex mirrors reflecting surface is curved
inwards. outwards.
 Curvature and focus lie in front of mirror Curvature and focus lie behind the mirror
A concave mirror has a real focus. A convex mirror has virtual focus.

Some terms related to spherical mirrors:

Centre of curvature It is the center of the hollow sphere of glass of which the mirror is a part.
Radius of curvature It is the radius of the hollow sphere of glass of which the mirror is a part.
Pole The center of a spherical mirror is called its pole
Principal axis. The straight line passing through the center of curvature and pole of a spherical
mirror is called its principal axis.
Aperture That portion of a mirror from which the reflection of light actually takes place is
called the aperture of the mirror
Principal focus It is a point on its principal axis to which all the light rays which are parallel and
close to the axis, converge after reflection from the concave mirror.
Focal length The focal length of a concave mirror is the distance between its pole and principal focus.
Relation between Radius of Curvature and Focal Length of a Spherical Mirror
 For a spherical mirror having small aperture, the principal focus (F) lies exactly mid-way between the pole
(P) and centre of curvature (C).
 So, the focal length of a spherical mirror (a concave mirror or a convex mirror) is equal to half of its radius
of curvature.
 If f is the focal length of a spherical mirror and R is its radius of curvature, then :

Rules for obtaining images formed by concave mirrors

Rule 1. A ray of light which is parallel to the
principal axis of a concave mirror, passes
through its focus after reflection from the
mirror.

Rule 2. A ray of light passing through the

focus of a concave mirror becomes parallel to
the principal axis after reflection

Rule 3. A ray of light passing through the

centre of curvature of a concave mirror is
reflected back along the same path

Rule 4. A ray of light which is incident at the

pole of a concave mirror is reflected back
making the same angle with the principal axis.
 Formation of different types of images by a concave mirror:
 The type of image formed by a concave mirror depends on the position of object in front of the mirror.
 We can place the object at different positions (or different distances) from a concave mirror to get
different types of images. For example, we can place the object :
Case 1: When the (i) at the focus (F), (ii) real
Object is at Infinity and inverted, and (iii) much
smaller than the object (or
highly diminished).

Case 2. When the (i) between the focus and

object is beyond the centre of curvature, (ii) real
center of curvature and inverted, and (iii) smaller
of the concave than the object (or
mirror (Object diminished).
beyond C)

Case 3. When the the image formed is : (i) at

object is placed at the centre of curvature (C),
the centre of (ii) real and inverted, and (iii)
curvature of a same size as the object.
concave mirror
(Object at C)

Case 4. When the (i) beyond the centre of

object is placed curvature, (ii) real and
between focus and inverted, and (iii) larger than
centre of curvature the object (or magnified).
(Object between F
and C)

Case 5. When the the image formed is : (i) at

object is placed at infinity, (ii) real and inverted,
the focus of a and (iii) highly magnified (or
concave mirror highly enlarged).
(Object at F)

Case 6. Image the image formed is : (i)

formed by a concave behind the mirror, (ii) virtual
mirror when the and erect, and (iii) larger than
object is placed the object (r magnified)
between pole and
focus of the
mirror (Object
between P and F
 Rules for obtaining images formed by convex mirrors
Rule 1. A ray of light which is parallel to
the principal axis of a convex mirror,
appears to be coming from its focus after
reflection from the mirror.

Rule 2. A ray of light going towards

the centre of curvature of a convex
mirror is reflected back along the
same path

Rule 3. A ray of light going towards the

focus of a convex mirror becomes parallel
to the principal axis after reflection.

Rule 4. A ray of light which is incident at

the pole of a convex mirror is reflected
back making the same angle with the
principal axis.

Formation of image by a convex mirror. There are two main positions of an object in the case of a convex.
Please note that whatever be the position of object in front of a convex mirror, the image formed by a convex
mirror is always behind the mirror, it is virtual, erect and smaller than the object (or diminished

When an object is placed (i) behind the mirror

anywhere between pole between pole (P) and focus
(P) and infinity in front of (F), (ii) virtual and erect,
a convex mirror, the and (iii) diminished
image formed is : (smaller than the object).

When an object is at the image formed is : (i)

infinity from a convex behind the mirror at focus
mirror, (F), (ii) virtual and erect,
and (iii) highly diminished
(much smaller than the
object)

Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a rear-view mirror in vehicles ? Ans. We prefer a convex mirror as a rear-
view mirror in vehicles because: (i) A convex mirror always produces an erect image (right side up image) of the
objects. (ii) The image formed in a convex mirror is highly diminished or much smaller than the object, due to which a
convex mirror gives a wide field of view (of the traffic behind).
  Also, they have a wider field of view as they are curved outwards. Thus, convex mirrors enable the driver
to view much larger area than would be possible with a plane mirror.
How to Distinguish Between a Plane Mirror, a Concave Mirror and a Convex Mirror Without Touching
Them:
 We can distinguish between these mirrors just by looking into them, that is, by bringing our face close to
each mirror, turn by turn.
 All of them will produce an image of our face but of different types.
 A plane mirror will produce an image of the same size as our face and we will look our normal self.
 A concave mirror will produce a magnified image and our face will look much bigger (like that of a
giant).
A convex mirror will produce a diminished image and our face will look much smaller (like that of a
small child).
Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors:
 Definition: While dealing with the reflection of light by spherical mirrors, we shall follow a set of sign conventions
called the New Cartesian Sign Convention. In this convention, the pole (P) of the mirror is taken as the origin.
 The principal axis of the mirror is taken as the x-axis (X’X) of the coordinate system.
The conventions are as follows –
1. The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. This implies that the light from the object falls on the
mirror from the left-hand side.
2. All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.
3. All the distances measured to the right of the origin (along + x-axis) are taken as positive while those
measured to the left of the origin (along – x-axis) are taken as negative.
4. Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis (along + y-axis) are taken as positive.
5. Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis (along –y-axis) are taken a Uses of Concave

Uses of concave Mirrors (i) Concave mirrors are used as shaving mirrors to see a large image of the face.
This is because when the face is held within the focus of a concave mirror, then an enlarged image of the face is
seen in the concave mirror. This helps in making a smooth shave negative.
(ii) Concave mirrors are used by dentists to see the large images of the teeth of patients. This is because
when a tooth is within the focus of a concave mirror, then an enlarged image of the tooth is seen in the concave
mirror. Due to this, it becomes easier to locate the defect in the tooth.
iii) Concave mirrors are used as reflectors in torches, vehicle head-lights and search lights to get powerful
beams of light. This is because when a lighted bulb is placed at the focus of a concave reflector, then the concave
reflector produces a powerful beam of parallel light rays. This helps us see things up to a considerable distance in
the darkness of night
Concave mirrors are used as doctor’s head-mirrors to focus light coming from a lamp on to the body parts of
a patient (such as eye, ear, nose, throat, etc.) to be examined by the doctor.
The concave dish collects a lot of TV signals and focusses them on to an antenna (or aerial) fixed at its focus,
so as to produce strong signals to run the television
 u The distance of the object from its pole is called the object distance (u). It is always negative.
v The distance of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the image distance (v).
If an image is formed behind a concave mirror (to the right side), the image distance (v) is positive
if the image is formed in front of the mirror (on the left side), then the image distance will be negative
f The distance of the principal focus from the pole is called the focal length (f)
For concave mirror it is considered negative (and written with a minus sign, say, –10 cm
ho The height of an object is always considered positive.
hi An image can be formed above the principal axis or below the principal axis.
If an image is formed above the principal axis, its height is taken as positive
If an image is formed below the principal axis, then its height is taken as negative.
Height of all the virtual and erect images is considered positive.
Height of all the real and inverted images is taken as negative.
Convex mirror
u The object distance (u) is always negative.
v In a convex mirror, the image is always formed on the right hand side (behind the mirror), so the image
distance (v) for a convex mirror will be always positive.
f In a convex mirror, the image is always formed on the right hand side (behind the mirror), so the
image distance (v) for a convex mirror will be always positive.
ho The height of an object is always considered positive.
hi The height of all the virtual and erect images is considered positive.
Mirror formula:
 A formula which gives the relationship between image distance (v), object distance (u) and focal length (f) of
a spherical mirror is known as the mirror formula.

 This formula is valid in all situations for all spherical mirrors for all positions of the object.
Magnification:
 It is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. It is usually represented by the letter m.
 Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent to which the image of an object is
magnified with respect to the object size.
 If ho is the height of the object and hi is the height of the image, then the magnification m produced by a
spherical mirror is given by
 It is also related to the object distance (u) and image distance (v). It can be expressed as:
If m is negative Image is real and inverted
If m is positive Image is virtual , erect
If hi= ho or m = 1 Size of the image is equal to size of object
If hi>ho or m>1 Image is enlarged
If hi<ho or m<1 Image is diminished
Magnification of a plane mirror is always 1 Size of the image is equal to the size of the object
+ sign indicates virtual images
If m is positive less than 1 It is convex mirror
If m is negative more than 1 It is concave mirror
If m is negative It is concave mirror
 Refraction: The bending of light when it goes from one medium to another obliquely is called refraction of
light.
Cause of Refraction:
The refraction of light is due to the change in the speed of light on going from one medium to another the speed of light
is different in different media (or substances). For example, the speed of light in air is 3 × 108 m/s whereas that in glass is
2 × 108 m/s.
Why a Change in Speed of Light Causes Refraction of Light / Bending of Light
It can be explained by using the wave theory of light.
 A beam of light is made up of tiny waves.
 When a beam of light consisting of light waves and travelling in a certain medium
 It falls obliquely (at an angle) on the boundary of another medium, then one part of the light waves enters into
the other medium first and its speed changes first but the rest of waves enter the other medium a little later
and hence its speed changes a little later.
 The fact that the speed of light waves on one side of a beam of light changes a little before the change in speed of
light waves on its other side, causes a change in the direction of light
Effects of refraction of light:
 Stick (or pencil) held obliquely and partly immersed in water appears to be bent at the water surface.
 An object placed under water appears to be raised.
 A pool of water appears to be less deep than it actually is.
 When a thick glass slab is placed over some printed matter, the letters appear raised when viewed from the top.
 A lemon kept in water in a glass tumbler appears to be bigger than its actual size, when viewed from the sides.
 The stars appear to twinkle on a clear night.
Medium: A transparent substance in which light travels is known as a medium . Examples Air, glass,
certain plastics, water, kerosene, alcohol, etc.
Different media are said to have different optical densities
Rarer medium Denser medium
A medium in which the speed of light is more is known as A medium in which the speed of light is less, is
optically rarer medium (or less dense medium) known as optically denser medium
Air is an optically rarer medium as compared to glass and Glass is an optically denser medium than air
water. and water.
Two rules which give the direction of bending of a ray of light when it goes from one medium to another. It
has been found that :
 When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a  When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to
denser medium, a rarer medium,
 It bends towards the normal (at the point of incidence)  It bends away from the normal (at the point of
 In this case angle of i > angle of r. incidence)
 In this case angle of r > angle of i.

 When a ray light is passing from air to glass, that is, from a rarer medium to a denser medium, the
refracted ray bends towards the normal drawn at the point of incidence. In this case angle of i > angle
of r.
 When the ray of light is passing from glass to air, that is, from a denser medium to a rarer medium the
refracted ray bends away from the normal. In this case angle of r > angle of i.
 The emergent ray, BC which is nothing but the refracted ray emerging out of the glass slab is parallel to
the incident ray.
 This means that the refracted ray (emergent ray) has been displaced from its original path by a distance
XY. This displacement is referred to as lateral displacement.

Incident ray A ray of light AO travelling in air is incident on a rectangular glass slab PQRS at point O.
Refracted ray On entering the glass slab, it gets refracted along OB and bends towards the normal ON
Point of Incidence (O) The point at which the incident ray strikes the surface of separation of the two media is
called the point of incidence.
Normal (N) The perpendicular drawn to the surface of separation at the point of incidence is called the
normal.
Angle of Incidence The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence, is called
angle of incidence.
Angle of The angle which the refracted ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence, is called
Refraction (r) angle of refraction.
A ray of light refracts or deviates from its original path as it passes from one optical
medium to another because the speed of light changes.
Angel of The angle which the emergent ray makes with the normal is called the angle of
emergence emergence. In Figure 6, the angle N1BC is the angle of emergence
Since the incident ray AO and the emergent ray BC are parallel to one another, so the angle
of emergence (e) is equal to the angle of incidence (i)

The following are the laws of refraction of light.

 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
 The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a given colour
and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of refraction. (This is true for angle 0 < i < 90o
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, sine/sine r= constant
 This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first

Refractive Index: the refractive index (n) can also be written as a ratio of speeds of light in the two media.. It is
represented by n
 Absolute refractive index: When light is going from vacuum to another medium, then the value of refractive
index is called the absolute refractive index.
Since the speed of light in air is almost equal to the speed of light in vacuum, so for all practical purposes we
can also say that :
The ratio of speed of light in air to the speed of light in a medium, is called refractive index of that medium. That is :

 The absolute refractive index has only one subscript with its symbol n on its right side which indicates
the name of the medium.
 Example, for the light going from vacuum into glass, the absolute refractive index of glass is represented as n glass
The symbol n glass means that it is the refractive index of glass with respect to vacuum, that is, it is the refractive
index of glass for light entering from vacuum into glass. Please note that the symbol n glass is also written in short as n
g
Let us take ‘glass’ as the medium and write a relation for its refractive index. Now, the speed of light in
air is 3 × 108 m/s and the speed of light in common glass is 2 × 108 m/s. So :

Thus, the refractive index of this glass is 1.5. By saying that the refractive index of glass is 1.5 we mean that the
ratio of the speed of light in air (or vacuum) to the speed of light in glass is equal to 1.5

Relative refractive index. When light is going from one medium (other than vacuum or air) to another
medium, then the value of refractive index is called relative refractive index.
 For example, when the light is going from water into glass, then the value of refractive index will be the relative
refractive index of glass with respect to water.
 The relative refractive index has always ‘two subscripts’ with its symbol n which indicate the two media
in which the light travels.
 For example, for the light going from water to glass, the refractive index is written as water n glass (or
wng). The symbol water n glass means that it is the refractive index of glass with respect to water, that
is, it is the refractive index of glass for light entering from water into glass
 We will now show that the refractive index for light going from medium 1 to medium 2 is equal to
the reciprocal of the refractive index for light going from medium 2 to medium 1
(i) For the light going from medium 1 to medium 2 ii) And for the light going from medium 2 to medium 1
(Figure 19), the refractive index is given by : (Figure 20), the refractive index is given by
 Let us take reciprocal of this equation. This will give us :

 Now, if we compare equations (1) and (2), we find that their right hand sides are equal, so their left hand sides
should also be equal. Thus,

 This can also be written as :

 This means that the refractive index for light going from medium 1 to medium 2 is equal to the reciprocal of
refractive index for light going from medium 2 to medium 1. If medium 1 is air and medium 2 is glass, then the
above relation can be written as :

 Thus, the refractive index of glass for light going from air to glass is the reciprocal of the refractive index for light
going from glass to air.
 if any two media are optically exactly the same, then no bending occurs when light passes from one medium to
another.
 In other words, if the refractive indices of two media are equal, then there will be no bending of light rays when
they pass from one medium to another
 A substance having higher refractive index is optically denser than another substance having lower refractive
index.
 For example, the refractive index of one type of glass is 1.52 and that of water is 1.33. Since glass has a higher
refractive index than water, therefore, glass is optically denser than water, and more bending of light rays takes
place in glass than in water.
 From this we conclude that higher the refractive index of a substance, more it will change the direction of a beam
of light passing through it.
 Refraction of light by spherical lenses
A lens is a piece of transparent glass bound by two spherical surfaces.
The working of a lens is based on the refraction of light rays when they pass through it.
There are two types of lenses: Convex lens and Concave lens
Convex lens Concave lens
A convex lens is thick at the centre but thinner at A concave lens is thin in the middle but thicker at
the edges the edges.
It is also known as a converging lens because it It is also known as a diverging lens because it diverges a
converges a parallel beam of light rays passing through it parallel beam of light rays.
A convex lens has real focus. A concave lens has a virtual focus

Terms A lens, either a convex lens or a concave lens, has two spherical surfaces. Each of these
surfaces forms a part of a sphere.
Centre of The centres of these spheres are called centres of curvature of the lens. The centre of curvature of
curvature a lens is usually represented by the letter C. Since there are two centres of curvature, we may
represent them as C1 and C2 .
Principal axis An imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of curvature of a lens is called its
principal axis.
Optical The central point of a lens is its optical centre. It is usually represented by the letter O. A ray of
centre light through the optical centre of a lens passes without suffering any deviation.
Aperture The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is called its aperture.
Thin lenses The lenses whose aperture is much less than its radius of curvature and the two centres of
curvatures are equidistant from the optical centre O. Such lenses are called thin lenses with
small apertures
The principal The principal focus of a convex lens is a point on its principal axis to which light rays parallel
focus of a to the principal axis converge after passing through the lens.
convex a lens has two foci. The two foci of a lens are at equal distances from the optical centre, one on
lens either side of the lens. The two foci of a lens are usually denoted by the letters F and F
The principal The principal focus of a concave lens is a point on its principal axis from which light rays,
focus of a originally parallel to the axis, appear to diverge after passing through the concave lens.
concave lens
Focal The distance of the principal focus from the optical centre of a lens is called its focal length.
length The letter f is used to represent the focal length.
Rules for Obtaining Images Formed by Convex Lenses : When an object is placed in front of a convex lens,
an image is formed. The image is formed at that point where at least two refracted light rays meet (or appear to
meet).
CONVEX LENS CONCAVE LENS
Rule 1. A ray of light which is parallel to the principal Rule 1. A ray of light which is parallel to the
axis of a convex lens, passes through its focus after principal axis of a concave lens, appears to be
refraction through the lens. coming from its focus after refraction through the
lens

.
Rule 2. A ray of light passing through the focus of a Rule 2. A ray of light going towards the focus of a
convex lens becomes parallel to its principal axis after concave lens, becomes parallel to its principal axis
refraction through the lens. after refraction through the lens

Rule 3. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of Rule 3. A ray of light passing through the optical centre
a convex lens goes straight after refraction through the of a concave lens goes straight after passing through the
lens.

Formation of different types of images by a convex lens

The type of image formed by a convex lens depends on the position of the object in front of the lens. We can place
the object at different positions (or distances) from a convex lens to get different types of images. We can place the
object :

Case 1. At infinity
then the image formed is : (i) at the focus, (ii) real and
inverted, and (iii) much smaller than the object (or
highly diminished).

Case 2. When the object is beyond 2F (Object

beyond 2f)
then the image formed is : (i) between f and 2f on
the other side of the lens, (ii) real and
inverted, and iii) smaller than the object (or
diminished).
Case 3. When the object is at 2F' (Object at 2f)
(i) at a distance 2f on the other side of the lens,
(ii) real and inverted, and (iii) of the same size as the
object.

Case 4. When the object is between F and 2F

(Object between f and 2f
)the image formed is : (i) beyond 2F, (ii) real and
inverted, and (iii) larger than the object (or
magnified

Case 5. When the object is placed at the focus of a

convex lens (Object at F)
the image formed is : (i) at infinity, (ii) real and
inverted, and (iii) highly enlarged.

Case 6. Image formed by a convex lens when the

object is placed between optical centre and focus
(Object between C and F)
the image formed is : (i) behind the object (on the
left side of lens), (ii) virtual and erect, and
(iii) larger than the object (enlarged or
magnified).

Uses of Convex Lenses (i) Convex lenses are used in spectacles to correct the defect of vision called
hypermetropia (or longsightedness). (ii) Convex lens is used for making a simple camera. (iii) Convex
lens is used as a magnifying glass (or magnifying lens) (by palmists, watchmakers, etc.). (iv) Convex
lenses are used in making microscopes, telescopes and slide projectors (or film projectors).
Sign Convention for Spherical Lenses: For lenses, we follow sign convention, similar to the one used for spherical
mirrors. We apply the rules for signs of distances, except that all measurements are taken from the optical centre of the
lens
According to the New Cartesian Sign Convention: (i) All the distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens.
(ii) The distances measured in the same direction as that of incident light are taken as positive. (iii) The distances
measured against the direction of incident light are taken as negative. (iv) The distances measured upward and
perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive. (v) The distances measured downward and perpendicular to the
principal axis are taken as negative.
The object is always placed on the left All the distances measured from the optical centre (C) of the lens to the
side of the lens so that the direction of right side will be considered positive
incident light is from left to right All the distances measured from the optical centre (C) of the lens to the
left side are considered negative
Focal Length The focal length of a convex lens is considered positive
The focal length of a concave lens is considered negative
. You must take care to apply appropriate signs for the values of u, v, f, object height h and image height h
′

Lens Formula A formula which gives the relationship between image distance (v), object distance (u),
and focal length (f ) of a lens is known as the lens formula. The lens formula can be written as :
 The lens formula given above is general and is valid in all situations for any spherical lens.
Magnification: It is defined as the ratio of the height of the image and the height of the object. It
is represented by the letter m. If h is the height of the object and h′ is the height of the image given
by a lens, then the magnification produced by the lens is given by

The linear magnification produced by a lens is equal to the ratio of image distance to the object
distance. That is : m=h’/h=v/u
Formation of Image by a Concave Lens
When an object is at infinity from a concave lens, the image
formed is : (i) at focus (F ), (ii) virtual and erect, and (iii) highly
diminished (much smaller than the
object).
When an object is placed anywhere between optical
centre (C) and infinity in front of a concave lens, the
image formed is : (i) between optical centre (C) and
focus (F), (ii) virtual and erect, and (iii) diminished
(smaller than the object).