Section D- Architecture

SESSION- 4

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COURSE CONTENT
S.N. TOPIC REMARKS
1 History of architecture
2 Contemporary world architecture
3 Contemporary Nepalese architecture
4 Traditional architecture of Nepal
5 Architecture of Kathmandu Valley
6 Principles of architectural design
7 Factors to be considered while designing buildings
8 Standards to be followed while designing buildings in Nepal
9 Contemporary world architects and their works
10 Architectural landmarks in Nepal
11 Conservation of historic buildings
12 Ethics of architects in professional practice.

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PAST QUESTIONS
2067/68

9) The contribution of Le-Corbusier in the evolution of world contemporary architecture is found to be always
revolutionary. Explain with the help of sketches that his ideas are translated in to reality in High Court Building at
Chandigarh.

10) What is context based design? How is this applied in the bulding design and by-laws in the heritage cores of the
tradiotional towns of Kathmandu?

2068/69
9) Explain the vernacular architecture of Nepal ins different from place to place. Discuss the issue with reference to
topography, ethnicity, culture, geology and vegetation.

10) How does contemporary architecture effect the ecological systems of the region?

2070/71
9) “Art and artifact of the Kathmandu valley are reflected in monuments and dwellings which became basis for the
exploration of architecture in the context”. Explain with your agreement and disagreement with reasons.

10) State briefly the main problems in standardization of government building in Nepal.

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2071/72
9)What are the matters to keep in mind while designing and building a house? Describe briefly about each matters.

10) Which building has been designed by LOUIS KAHN in Kathmandu? What are the main features of that building?

2072/73
9) Write on vernacular architecture of Nepal in general and Kathmandu in particular.

10) What do you understand by traditional architecture in Nepal? Illustrate three architectural landmarks in Nepal.

2073/74
9) Draw the construction of roof of traditional buildings of Kathmandu Valley.

10) Compare broadly on the designing principles between Frank Llyod Wright and Mies –Vande Rohe.

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4. Traditional
architecture of Nepal
REFERENCES:
Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj, IOE, Lecture Notes
Bonapace ,Caterina ;Sestini ,Valerio, Traditional Materials and Construction Technologies used in the Kathmandu Valley (2003), UNESCO

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Gopals – Cow-herd rule- 505 yrs >

Mahishapals – Buffalo-herd rule – 161 yrs

Kirats – 700 yrs?
Lichchhavis – 78 AD
◦ 2nd century AD – Jayaverma (died 184 AD)
◦ 5th century AD - Manadeva (464 AD)
◦ 7th century AD – Amshuverma
◦ Bhrikuti & Srongchan Gompo
◦ 7th century AD – Narendradeva
◦ 8th century AD – Jayadeva II
◦ [NEPAL SAMBAT STARTS 879 October 20]

Lichchhavi period – 78 AD – 733 – 879AD

◦ Nepal sambat starts 879 AD

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 Dark Period – 8th – 12th century – Limited Information
Thakuri ?
Gunakamadeva 950-990 AD
Malla – 12th – 18th century
Shah (Rana)
Nepal Valley at Socio-Cultural-Religious Cross-roads!

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KIRAT PERIOD
Economy
Pastoral, Agro-forestry
Exporting Radi… Carpet… Chanakya’s Arthasashtra
Oil, Cloth, Leather industries
Religion
Ancestor worship : Yumi, Ajima, theba, Ajju, Bhairav
Social organization
18 crafts, Astadasaprakritin
Material > Brick and wood > stones?
Settlements
Hilltops and ridges : Pringga

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LICHCHHAVI PERIOD
Licchavi (also Lichchhavi, Lichavi) was a kingdom which existed in the Kathmandu Valley in
modern-day Nepal from approximately 400 to 750 CE.
The Lichchhavis elected an administrator and representatives to rule them.

The language of Licchavi inscription was Vajjika, and the particular script used is closely
related to official Gupta scripts, suggesting that the kingdoms to the south were a
significant cultural influence.

It maintained close ties to India and also had economic and political relations with Tibet,
thus becoming a cultural centre linking central and southern Asia.

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LICHCHHAVI PERIOD
Palace Centric Town: Capital
Palace, Gates as Tax Collectorate, Water Conduits
Classical Hindu planning
Hadigaun
Palaces: Managriha, Kailashkut Bhawan
Use of Bricks in Temples: Fairly advanced
Matindevakula: Brick and Wood
Satyanarayan Excavations: Foundation for square temples
Use of copper tiles, clay tiles
Multi-tiered roof style may have existed: Kuta and plan form
Use of Stone
Tamralep: Copper polish, burnishing on hard stone
Major Temple Types
Avarana temples (stone)
Mandapa Temples (brick and wood and tiered)
Devakula Temples (from Kirat times)
Temples in Shikhara style (stone)
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 Avarana Temples

Prasada temples
◦ Sri mat samsthana rupam bhavana
◦ Laxmi bat akara bhavana

Miniature temples
◦ Square plan
◦ Most contained within a cube of 1mx1mx1m
◦ Modeled after wooden prototypes
◦ Plinth band, posts and monolith roof
◦ Dowel holes, concave cut in posts, bell-gajur

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Plinth Band: Avarana Temples

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Avarana Temple
at Rajarajesvori

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 Wood structure of the Kasthamandap first roof

Kasthamandap, ground floor plan and section, Kathmandu

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• Architecture of the pit
• Artistry in stone
• Technology of supply, pit and
drainage
• Filter bed 19
A manuscript drawing of Hiti (Very Late Malla)

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Chaitya, Mahachaitya, Vihara
Vihara
◦ Gung Vihara, Sankhu
◦ Arjika Vihara, Chabel
◦ Mana V, Raja V, Sivadeva V, Jibaverma Vihara
◦ Prakara, Quadrangle

Mahachaitya
◦ Pulchowk and Lagankhel Stupa
◦ Chabel Chaitya (Dhando Chaitya)
◦ Svayambhu Mahachaitya

Lichchhavi Chaitya
◦ Recognized through
Inscriptions, dates, tamralep technique, art and design character

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 Lichchhavi Chaitya
Base square
usually two tiers
'with four gateways' in each level
hemispherical dome
ht 2-3 ft
Polish
'gateway' décor
Trayodasabhuvan
Chattri

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MALLA PERIOD

Sequence of Development so far

KIRAT:
Brick and Wood Temples (?>Devakula>Dyochhe)
LICHCHHAVI:
AVARANA Temples (Prasada) in stone
[SHIKHARA (Nagara group) Temples in stone]
MANDAPA Temples >
Tiered Temples in brick and wood (Vesara/Varata group)
MALLA:
TIERED Temples
[SHIKHARA granthakuta Temples]

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MALLA PERIOD
The Malla dynasty emerged in the last part of the dark ages. After the fall of the Lichchhavis came the Malla
period during which the foundation of the city of Kantipur (later Kathmandu) was laid.
The early Malla rule started with Ari Malla in the early 13th century.
When Ari Dev was wresling (called Malla Yudha in Nepali), he was informed that his first son was born, so he
decided to put "Malla" at the end of their names.
Over the next two centuries grew into a large empire before disintegrating into small principalities, which
later became known as the Baisi (i.e. the 22 principalities).
This was more or less coincidental with the emergence of the Chaubisi (i.e. 24 principalities).
The history of these principalities remains shrouded up until the time when they joined other kingdoms, both
large and small, to form the unified Kingdom of Nepal.
Jayasthiti Malla, with whom commences the later Malla period in the Kathmandu Valley, reigned towards the
end of the 14th century. Though his rule was rather short, his place among the rulers in the Valley is eminent
for the various social and economic reforms mainly in the measurement of goods by standard units Mana and
Pathi.
The last rulers were Jaya Prakash Malla, Tej Narsingh Malla and Ranjit Malla of Kathmandu, Patan and
Bhaktapur respectively.

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Navakunda Foundation (Satyanarayan)

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 A History of Pashupati Temple
SUPUSPA DEV: at the start of Lichchhavi period
Pashupati bhattaraka temple built (– 5 Tiered?)
(Pashupat Kshetra – first mentioned 533AD)
King Supuspa verma (4th century AD) built the temple again >
possibly only two tiered on a single step plinth >
Reconstructed on installation of Nepal Sambat, 879 AD
(as it was also called Pashupati Bhattaraka Samvat)
Repair by Ananta Malla in the 13th century: rebuilt the roofs
and lined them in gold
1349 AD – Shams-ud-din Ilyas breaks up the Linga
1360 AD – new Linga consecreted by Jayasimharam of Banepa

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 Malla History
267NS (1146AD) ANANDA DEV makes Bhaktapur capital + 7 satellite towns
1202-1216 AD ARIMALLA
Ananta Malla > repair of Pashupati temple
1324 Devaldevi from Simraungarh arrives with Taleju in the reign of Rudramalla
Jayarudramalla > d Nayakdevi > d Rajalladevi
Jayasthiti ‘Malla’ marries Rajalladevi in 1354 (ruled up to 1395) – wide reforms – 64 jaats
Yakshya Malla – 1428-1480 – builds Yakshyeswor Mahadev Temple in Bhadgaun
Nepal splits into many kingdoms after Yakshya Malla

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 Other Malla kings
Kathmandu – Mahendra Malla built Taleju 1563AD, Pratap Malla (1650s) built Degutale
Patan – Siddhinarasimha Malla (1630s) built
Bhaktapur – Bhupatindra Malla (1690s)

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 Influencing factors
Material
◦ Mud, brick, tile (and stone – a little)
Climate
◦ Monsoon rains, vegetation and wood
◦ Roof slope and struts
◦ Narrow span rooms
Socio-cultural > Kirat plus Lichchhavi developments
Religious
◦ Tantric Saivism > Shakti-cult
◦ Tantric Buddhism > Mahayana+tantra> Bajrayana

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Malla Palace Architecture

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General Characteristics
Courtyard System
2-3-4 floors, No towers in early days
◦ Temple towers of the Mallas
◦ Living towers of the Shahs

House- Palace
Main Entrance
Construction
◦ Brick wall, gable jhingati-tile roof, doors, windows, struts

Use of courts: Residence, worship, bath, garden, ponds, entertainment, etc.

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 Early Palaces
Palaces of the Lichchhavi
◦ Pundri Rajakula, Daxina Rajakula, Madhyama Rajakula
◦ Mangriha > built 5th century (first mention 506AD)
◦ Kailashkut Bhavan > built end of 6th century (598AD)
◦ Bhadradhivasbhavan
◦ Salambu Rajavasaka
◦ Both were in TRIPURA format – 3 courts stretching N-S

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Malla Palaces
Palace and Taleju +Degutale
+Agam+Hanuman
Palace as a group of courtyard buildings with
royal temples and secular towers
Palace and the Durbar Square: National
temples
Cosmic imagery
Palace at center
Location
Scale
Main gate

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 Malla Palaces
Bhaktapur Palace at Khauma > Yaksyamalla
◦ 55-windowed Palace (1697)

Kathmandu Palace > Mahendramalla, Pratapmalla

◦ Degutale > tower temples
◦ Nautale durbar (1769) > living towers

Patan Palace > Siddhinarasimhamalla

◦ Sundari chowk (1727)

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Location

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Bhaktapur Durbar Square

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Bhaktapur Palace
Bhaktapur Palace 6 Courts. 99 courts?
12 courtyards in 1842 AD
Taleju temple (E): Mulchowk: 1324 AD
Bhairab Chowk (F): prior to 1580 AD
Nagpokhari : 1
55-windowed palace 1697 AD
No temple temple towers
The Square
◦ Palace parallel to square
◦ The main gate
◦ Temples
◦ Sattals
◦ Festivities

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55 Window Palace

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 Hanuman Dhoka Palace
◦ 170 years ago Hanuman Dhoka palace had 35 courts (at the beginning of Rana time)
◦ Earliest structure Tanadewal

◦ Ratna Malla's Taleju later replaced by the current temple by Mahendra Malla in 1563 AD ca
◦ Mahendreswor temple built on the outside
◦ Mulchowk: 1564 AD
◦ Pratap Malla adds Mohan Chowk in 1649 AD - also the adjacent Sundari Chowk (1651 AD),
Nasal Chowk, Bhandarkhal etc.
◦ Prithvinarayan Shah adds Basantpur tower 1769 AD: Four towers over corners of Lohan
Chowk
◦ Gaddi Baithak 1908.
◦ Traditional, Muslim, Neo-classical (Post-Victorian)

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H
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Nautale Tower

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Patan Palace
Built between 1620-1684 AD
Location
Entrance and Orientation
No axiality.
Tripurasundari Mandala & 
4.69m, 6.62m, 4.69m
16m, 11.31m, 9.38m
16÷ & 2x4.69=9.38
Planned Layout
Architectural Form
Main Street
Main Square

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Tripurasundari
Mandala

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Agam Tower
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 Patan Palace
Gate and falecha, Dalan and Square courtyards
spaces for living,
spaces for worship (Mul chowk/Taleju/Degutale),
spaces for defence (Chaukhat: Kwatha: Kot),
spaces for bathing (ponds/stone conduits),
spaces for garden (Bhandarkhal : flowers for worship)
Interlinking doors
◦ Temple towers

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u
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4 STAIRS : 4 Apartments
Gr Floor Stair & anteroom
access from Peti in Court,
(Corner stair also accessed
directly from outside )
F Floor 2 small rooms, stair
and 1 large room
Units separate
S Floor Living and other
spaces
linked through balcony to
other units.

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Patan Palace
Courtyards: Single bay construction
Dalan, Door and torana
Windows: Sanjhyal, Gaajhyal, Vimanjhyal, Tikijhyal, kujhyal,
Kajhyal, Pashukhajhyal
Roof projection and strutting
Balconied walkways
Facade and treatment
Construction methods and Materials
◦ brick walls, timber doors and windows, mud floor, jhingati roof

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Sundari Chowk

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Sundari Chowk

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Temples of the Malla
Pashupatinath
◦ > rebuilt in 879 AD ?
◦ > Gunkamadev renovated it (12th century)
◦ (Malla Period)
Ananta Malla guilded the roof (1307 AD)
Mahendra Malla made/rebuilt it three tiered 1572 ca
Reduced to two tiers in later Malla period 1600s
Last Reconstruction - 1702 AD/Bhupalendra Malla

Changunarayan
◦ Last Reconstruction - 1694 AD/Bhupalendra Malla

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Temples of the Malla
Kasthamandap 1146 AD
Taleju temple Bhadgaon: residential courtyard format 1324 AD
Kumbheswor Temple Patan: ca 1390 AD (two tiered) : Jayasthiti Malla
◦ Srinivas Malla (1670s) adds three tiers
Minnath Patan: ca 1450 AD Yakshya Malla
Yakshesor Mahadev: ca 1440s AD >> Datatraya temple
Tripurasundari Dyochhe, Bhaktapur: 1467 AD
Mahendra Malla : Taleju Kathmandu >> 1564 AD ca
Charnarayan Patan: 1566 AD
Narasimha Temple, Patan – 1589 > Shikharagranthakuta
Pratap Malla: Degutale - 1660s AD
Siddhinarashimha Malla : Krishna Temple 1630s AD
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 Temple Styles
Four stylistic groups :
Tiered Style
(Dyochhe Style)
Shikhara Style
Gumbaja Style
Dome – Desikaida (in Rana Period)
Ghantakar Style
Bell shaped

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 Tiered, Tallakar, Tale
(and not Pagoda)
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Dyochhe

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 Temple Types
Tiered Tallakar Tale
◦ Brick and Wood
◦ Square Rectangular
◦ Plinth Low, Medium, High, Multiple plinth, over Terrace
Dyochhe
◦ Brick and wood
◦ Rectangular
◦ Single Low plinth
Shikhara Granthakuta
◦ Stone Brick, Square, Low/Medium/High plinth, Multi-level
Gumbaja
◦ Stone Brick, Square, low and medium plinth
Ghantakara
◦ Stone Brick, Square, low plinth

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 The Nepalese Temple
Origins
◦ Kirat Devakula (mat and tech)
◦ Lichchhavi Prasada temples (garbagriha)
◦ Mandapa temples

Three Basic Types

◦ The Square Degah/Devala
◦ The Dyochhen in Residential format
◦ The Rectangular Degah/Devala
◦ Dyochhen + Devala

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Tiered Temple- Typology
No. of Tiers : one, two, three, four, five …
◦ Upper roofs in reducing sizes
◦ Upper core walls in reducing sizes

Plinth tiers: one, three, five, seven, nine … high low

Circumambulatory path
◦ Outside
◦ Outside + one additional inside
◦ Outside + one additional colonnaded outside

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Tiered Temple- Plan Typology
SQUARE with Wall on One side
SQUARE with Wall on Three sides
SQUARE CLOSED SINGLE DOOR – External Circumambulatory
SQUARE CLOSED THREE DOORS – External Circumambulatory
SQUARE CLOSED FOUR DOORS – External Circumambulatory
SQUARE CLOSED TWO CORE WALLS – Internal Circumambulatory
SQUARE EXTERNAL COLLONADE and CLOSED CORE WALL – External Circumambulatory

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 3

1
5

2 4
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Tiered Temples- Rectangular Plans

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Tiered Temples- Square Plans

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Ritual Requirements of the Tiered Temple:
 The Dark Garbagriha for the God

 The Display of Imagery for Darshana- Turning Mental concepts into visual elements

 The circumambulation: For Darshana

 The representation of water, earth , fire, air and void: the Makara & the gajura

 The blind window

 The decoration

The Symbolism of Tiered Temple:

 The cave in the mountain : the Garbagriha

 The Four dimensions: the three axes and time

 The five elements: representation of Water , Earth, Fire, Air and Void in a vertical axis

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Construction Materials and Technology

Temples

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Construction of Substructure
BASIC CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
◦ Brick, Mud, Tiles
◦ Wood
◦ Structural, Architectural and Decorative use
Tradition of Conservation/reconstruction : "recreating as in the past"
Construction of Foundation
◦ Foundations: brick mass over stone boulder making platform/plinth
◦ Nine pit division (Navakunda) of foundation under sanctum floor
◦ Ex Satyanarayan Excavations (Hadigaun), Reconstruction of Chysilin Mandap (Bhaktapur)
Construction of Plinth
◦ Wall raised on stone plinth beam
◦ Plinth beam (Continuous/Extended Sill under Door ways) placed all around the core walls on a
patterned brick string course (Nago)
◦ Plinth in brickwork with stone trimmings

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Pattern Brick String Course

Platform division

Butt joints / No toothing

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 Construction of Superstructure
Construction of Wall
Load Bearing Brick 70 cm or more in Thickness

Brick in mud-mortar with glazed facing bricks

Double leaf construction

Load bearing layer tied together with horizontal (ties at nagpasa, entablatures) and vertical timber
elements (posts at door openings/corners)

string courses at base, over door lintels , mid way through the wall (nagpasa) etc.

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 Construction of Superstructure
Cornice Construction
◦ Elaborate Cornice of Decorative / formed bricks and carved timber ties
◦ Lotus leaves (palepate), Lion faces (simhamah) and book stacks (Khichawa)
◦ Corner detail of cornice
◦ Dog eared bricks

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Construction of
Colonnade
Collonaded plan:
Timber columns (Tham, normally square
base with numerous mouldings/ square/
cylindrical shafts),
Brackets (Metha + bagahmetha),
Beam (Ninah)
Base stone: base timber: Lakasi Lhoh
Base stone: I Lhon

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Construction of Roof
Roofing rafters in fan pattern / tile or timber slats/ mud/ jhingati
Hip edges special tiles/stacked /end raised tiles
Wall plates regular/hanging over corbels
Eaves beam + eaves board
Struts - bird-mouthing/ carving
Wedges -Spacing and tie to adjacent elements
Top roof main rafters along hip edges, also fanning rafters, king posts/
finial

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 Rafter (Musi)
8 Eaves Plate
9 Strut Rail

10 Wedge (Chukul)
11 Eaves Board

1 Joist (Dalin) Strut (Tunal)

12 Board (Chirpat)

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 Doorways
Structural posts and lintels
Threshold or Sill stone
Inner frame, outer frame and Tie
Lintel extension and side details
torana (decorative)
Triple doorways

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shifting walls
◦ sets of timber beams in both directions to transfer load of upper inner wall to
outer wall below

Metal roof: copper sheets on timber boarding with jointing beads,

raised joints and joint end covers, hip edge sheeting

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Malla Architectural:
Residential House

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The Newar House
Function, form and style
Materials and methods of construction
Rules and Rituals
◦ in planning, foundation laying, inaugural etc. Vastushastra and practice
Symbols and symbolism
◦ Meanings and cultural linkages

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The Newar House
Plan type and location in Town
◦ Chuka & Chukache: Courtyard and Courtyard House
◦ Nani: Secondary Courtyard
◦ Yakahche: Isolated single house
◦ Pikhache: street-side house

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 The Courtyard House
Chukache: Courtyard House
◦ House for a large family, extended family or a clan
◦ Access from under the front house on Streetside
◦ Function of the courtyard: play, washing, grain working, sitting,
sunning
◦ Dalans and Stairs

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 Basic Pikhache
Rectangle (Ikha), Ext Façade (Pikha)
Farmhouse origins

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SaJhya

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Axonometric section of a Newar house Overhanging eaves typical of traditional Newar buildings
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Pati frame construction system, Shankhamul complex, Patan Pati frame, Shankhamul Complex, Patan

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 Pikhache: Streetside House
Pikhache: functional layout in the vertical
Chhedi: storage, animals, fodder/raw materials
Shop front/ workshop
Matan: Bed rooms
Chvota: Living room
Baigah: Attic for Kitchen, Worship space, Kitchen Stores
Doors/windows, Dalan: location, function and design

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Pikhache: Streetside House
Pikhache: street/terrace houses- party wall, skyline, cornice
◦ Uniform depth: about 6m, varying width 4- 15m
◦ Shop front double tham construction
◦ 2 and a half, 3 and a half or 4 and a half floors
◦ Gable roof and ridge line
◦ Main facade

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Mikhafusi: eyebrow bricks!

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 Pikhache: Streetside House
Decor: cornice and other brickworks, carvings in doors and windows, tikijhyal, sanjhyal,
bimanjyal etc,
Construction
◦ Uniformity of street façade
◦ Social status differentiation?
◦ Foundation
◦ Triple wall/ double bay construction
◦ Central bay post-lintel (tham/nina) construction in ground floor/ attic floor, second floor
◦ Floor, roof construction
◦ Windows, doors and staircases

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Roof Construction

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 Ridge
Construction

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Ladder

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Details of a connection between floor and wall in a Newar building, and details of a daci appa brick

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