WEEK 1:

REVISION OF PLANT CELLS AND PLANT TISSUE

e structure of a cell

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell. It consists of up to 90% water. It also contains
dissolved nutrients and waste products. Its main function is to hold together the organelles which make up
the cytoplasm. It also nourishes the cell by supplying it with salts and sugars and provides a medium for
metabolic reactions to occur.

Nucleus
The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and contains all the cell’s genetic information in the form of
DNA. The presence of a nucleus is the primary factor that distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes.

A nucleus has four main parts:

1. the double nuclear membrane – it encloses the nucleus and contains small pores to allow for the passage
of substances in and out of the nucleus.
2. the nucleoplasm – this is a jelly-like fluid within the nucleus
3. the nucleolus – a dark body suspended in the nucleoplasm which contains free nucleotide bases and
produces ribosomes
4. the chromatin network – found in the nucleoplasm, contains the DNA which forms the chromosomes
containing the genetic code of a person / organism

Mitochondria
A mitochondrion is a membrane bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. This organelle generates the cell’s
supply of chemical energy by releasing energy stored in molecules from food and using it to produce ATP
(adenosine triphosphate). ATP is a special type of” energy carrying” molecule.

Plastids
Plastids are organelles found only in plants. There are three different types:
1. Leucoplasts: White plastids found in roots.
2. Chloroplasts: Green-coloured plastids found in plants and algae.
3. Chromoplasts: Contain red, orange, or yellow pigments and are common in ripening fruit, flowers, or
autumn leaves.

Chloroplast
The chloroplast is a double-membraned organelle. Within the double membrane is a gel-like substance called
stroma. Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis. Suspended in the stroma are stack- like structures
called grana (singular = granum). Each granum is a stack of thylakoid discs. The chlorophyll molecules
(green pigments) are found on the surface of the thylakoid discs. Chlorophyll absorbs energy from the sun in
order for photosynthesis to take place in the chloroplasts. The grana are connected by lamellae (intergrana).
The lamellae keep the stacks apart from each other.

4
Watch the following videos:
Cell structure: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8
Chloroplast structure: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c8wA_0pfBu8

Structure of a leaf

The leaf is a collection of tissues which include:

1. The epidermis which covers the upper and lower surfaces.
2. The mesophyll inside the leaf which is rich in chloroplasts.
3. The veins contain the vascular tissue (where xylem and phloem are present).
Epidermis
Epidermal cells form the outer layer covering a leaf, separating internal tissues from the external
environment. Guard cells forming stomata are found in the lower epidermis.
Epidermis tissue has several functions:
 protection against water loss via stomata and a waxy cuticle
 regulation of gaseous exchange

Mesophyll cells
The mesophyll is located between the upper and lower layers of the leaf epidermis, and is mostly made up
of parenchyma (ground tissue) or chlorenchyma tissue. The mesophyll is the primary location for
photosynthesis and is divided into two layers, the upper palisade layer and the spongy mesophyll layer.

 The upper palisade layer lies beneath the upper epidermis and consists of vertically elongated cells
that are tightly packed together to maximise the number of cells exposed to sunlight. In addition,
these cells contain many chloroplasts, thus, maximising their photosynthetic ability.
 Beneath the upper palisade layer is the spongy mesophyll. The cells in the spongy mesophyll are
slightly rounder and less densely packed and have air spaces to allow for gaseous exchange.

Vascular Tissue 4
Vascular tissue is made up of the xylem and phloem vessels.
 Xylem transports water and minerals to the leaf.
 Phloem transports dissolved sucrose made in the leaf out of its site of synthesis to the rest of the leaf.
Most leaves have a bundle sheath around the xylem and phloem, consisting of sclerenchyma or
collenchyma, for extra support.

Watch the following videos:

Leaf structure: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HxoAAmFT5A4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J7vgZI1COoE

4
 1. EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS

Activities
1. Complete the crossword puzzle on plant and animal cells.

4
 2. Fill in the labels of the following diagrams and give each diagram a heading.

A.

B.

10
C.

D.

16
EXAM QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1(Questions taken from various sources)
Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions. Choose the correct answer and
write only the letter (A to D) next to the question number (1.1 to 1.3) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example, 1.4
D.
1.1 The basic unit of life is a…
A zygote.
B protoplasm.
C nucleus.
D cell.

1.2 Material used to store genetic information in a cell is the …

A ribosome.
B deoxyribonucleic acid.
C endoplasmic reticulum.
D centrioles.

1.3 The … are only found in animal cells.

A cellulose cell wall
B endoplasmic reticulum
C centrioles
D vacuole (3 x 2) (6)

QUESTION 2 (Questions taken from various sources)

Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write only the term next to
the question number (2.1 to 2.3) in your ANSWER BOOK.
2.1 Cell organelles that are the site of protein synthesis
2.2 Pigment found in green plants
2.3 Organelle that serves as a storage site for water and mineral salts (3)

QUESTION 3 (Questions taken from various sources)

Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY, B ONLY, BOTH A AND B or
NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A only, B only, both A and B, or none next to the question number
(3.1 to 3.3) in the ANSWER BOOK.

COLUMN I COLUMN II

3.1 Cells in the leaf that A Palisade parenchyma

contain chloroplasts B Spongy parenchyma

3.2 Responsible for gaseous A Guard cells

exchange in a leaf B Epidermal cells

3.3 ‘Powerhouse’ of the cell A Nucleus

B Mitochondria

(3 x 2) (6)

16
 QUESTION 4 (Grade 10 topic tests: Cell and mitosis)
4 Study the diagram of a cell shown below

4.1 Write down the LETTER only of the:

(a) Nucleus (1)
(b) Endoplasmic reticulum (1)
(c) Vacuole (1)
(d) Mitochondrion (1)
(e) Cytoplasm (1)
(f) Part that contains cellulose. (1)
4.2 Provide one observable reason as to why this cell cannot be from the root of a plant. (1)
(7)
QUESTION 5 (EC Grade 10 P1 Nov 2019)
5 The following diagrams represent different types of cells.

5.1 Identify the type of cells represented by diagrams I and II. (2)
5.2 Give the NUMBER and the NAME of the organelle which serves as a storage site
for water and mineral salts. (2)
5.3 Provide labels for parts A, B and C. (3)
5.4 State whether part D is a permeable, impermeable or selectively permeable membrane.
Give ONE reason for your answer. (3)
5.5 A plant cell in a photograph measures 15 mm across. If the actual size of the cell is 0,015
mm, what is the magnification in the photograph? Show all your workings (3)
(13)

16
 WEEK 2:
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

All living organisms require energy to survive.

This energy can either be obtained directly from the sun (plants) or from the food that is eaten (animals).

DEFINITION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The term photosynthesis means light (photo) to manufacture (synthesize) energy in the form of (glucose)
carbohydrates stored in plants in the form of starch and to release oxygen into the atmosphere.

A SIMPLIFIED PRESENTATION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

16
 PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The process of photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast in two phases:

 LIGHT PHASE : phase where light is required

 DARK PHASE : phase where no light is required but occurs when there is light.
 Both the light and dark phase occur in the organelle called the chloroplast.

LIGHT PHASE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS (REQUIREMENTS AND PRODUCTS)

The light phase of photosynthesis takes place in the grana of chloroplasts as follows:

1. The required radiant energy is absorbed by chlorophyll in the grana.

2. Water is absorbed into the grana of the chloroplast.
3. Radiant energy causes the water (H2O) molecule to split (photolysis), into H+ and O2. This oxygen is
released into the atmosphere via the stomata.
4. Energy rich hydrogen (H+) ions formed during photolysis are carried by NADP ( H- carrier) to form
NADPH .
5. Radiant energy causes the energy carrier ATP to be formed by phosphorylation.
6. NADPH + ATP formed during light phase will be used in the dark phase

16
 DARK PHASE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The dark phase of photosynthesis takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts as follows:

1. Carbon dioxide (CO2) enters leaves via stomata from the atmosphere
2. Carbon dioxide(CO2) and energy rich Hydrogen (H+ ) atoms, from the light phase, are combined using
ATP, to from carbohydrates (glucose)
3. Excess glucose is stored as starch in starch granules in the stroma of chloroplasts.

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE PHASES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

LIGHT PHASE DARK PHASE

Occurs in the grana Occurs in the stroma

Light is required Light is not required
Radiant energy and water are absorbed and used Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere
for the reactions of photolysis & phosphorylation
Photolysis occurs hydrogen and oxygen formed Hydrogen and carbon dioxide combine by using
by splitting H2O.Phosphorylation occurs: ATP is ATP to form glucose. Glucose is formed and
produced and oxygen is released to the excess is stored as starch
atmosphere

THE IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is important for the following reasons:

1. It supplies energy to almost all living organisms. Plants are the only organisms that can convert the sun’s
energy into organic compounds.
2. Plants convert the simple sugars made during photosynthesis into more complex organic compounds
such as starch, fats, proteins and vitamins which form food source for all living organisms.
3. Photosynthesis regulates the concentrations of carbon dioxide, and oxygen in the atmosphere, and plays
a key role in the carbon cycle in preventing global warming.
4. Plants absorb more carbon dioxide during photosynthesis than they release during cellular
respiration.Organisms require the oxygen released during photosynthesis for cellular respiration to provide
energy to all cells and organs.

16
 2. EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS

QUESTION 1
Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions. Choose the correct answer and
write only the letter (A to D) next to the question number (1.1 to 1.3) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.4
D.

1.1. Plants use oxygen…

A continuously.
B during the day only.
C during the night only.
D during photosynthesis only

1.2. Test tubes A and B below were placed in bright light.

Which of the following is correct regarding the test tubes?

A The amount of CO2 in test tube A will decrease.

B The amount of CO2 in test tube B will increase.
C The amount of O2 in test tube B will increase.
D The amount of O2 in test tube A will increase.

1.3. What are the products of the light reactions of photosynthesis that are used in the light independent
phase?
A CO2 and glucose
B ATP and H+
C H2O and O2
D ADP and CO2 (3x2=6)

20
QUESTION 2

Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write only the term next
to the question number (2.1 to 2.3) in your ANSWER BOOK.

2.1 The green, light-trapping pigment in photosynthesis found in plant leaves.

2.2 The splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen in the presence of light
2.3 Site of reactions of the light - independent phase in the chloroplast.
(3x1=3)
QUESTION 3 (Questions taken from various sources)

Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY, B ONLY, BOTH A AND
B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A only, B only, both A and B, or none next to the
question number (3.1 to 3.3) in the ANSWER BOOK.

COLUMN I COLUMN II

3.1 Molecule that stores energy A ATP

B ADP
3.2 Storage of chlorophyll A Grana
B Lamella

3.3 Hydrogen carrier in light phase A NAD

B NADP

(3 x 2) (6)

QUESTION 4

21
4.1. Identify the phases labelled as Phase 1 and Phase 2 (2)
4.2. Provide the two raw materials labelled as A and B. (2)
4.3. Name the by-product labelled as C. (1)
4.4. Which substance labelled as D is essential for Phase 2? (1)
4.5. Name the product E that is produced during Phase 2. (1)
4.6. In what form is E stored in plants? (1)
(8)

WEEK 3:
PHOTOSYNTHESIS FACTORS

The rate or speed at which photosynthesis takes place depends on the following three factors:
 Light intensity
 Concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Temperature

The graphs below show how different factors affect the rate of photosynthesis

1. Light intensity

 When light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis also increases to an optimum level.
If light intensity continues to increase, there will be no effect on the rate of photosynthesis.
 When light intensity decreases, the rate of photosynthesis also deceases.
 When the light intensity is low, the rate of photosynthesis is low.

21
 2. Concentration of carbon dioxide

 As the carbon dioxide concentration level increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases.
 If the carbon dioxide concentration is higher than the optimum amount, photosynthesis will remain
constant.
 When carbon dioxide concentration is low, the rate of photosynthesis is low.
 Light independent phase cannot take place more quickly than what it does at the optimum level of carbon
dioxide concentration.

3. Temperature

 When temperature is low, the rate of photosynthesis is low.

 As temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis also increases.
 When temperature is at the optimum amount, the rate of photosynthesis will reach a maximum.
 If the temperature is higher than the optimum amount, rate of photosynthesis will decrease.
 The enzymes used in the process will denature at high temperatures and will no longer function.

3. EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS

21
QUESTION 1
Scientists set up an apparatus to investigate the effect of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide
concentrations on plant growth. Using this apparatus, they could control each factor.

 The scientists set different temperatures, CO2 concentrations and light intensity for four different
groups of lettuce plants.

 The average mass of lettuce plants serves as an indication of the rate of photosynthesis.

Study the results below and answer the questions that follow.

1.1 What is the influence of light intensity on average mass of lettuce plants? (3)
1.2 Name two limiting factors that influence the rate of photosynthesis as the light intensity increase (2)
1.3 How were the scientists able to increase the rate of photosynthesis to the maximum level? (3)
1.4 What would happen to the rate of photosynthesis if the temperature is raised beyond 35°C? (1)
1.5 Give a reason for your answer in QUESTION 1.4. (1)
(10)

QUESTION 2
The diagram below shows the apparatus that was used to investigate the rate of photosynthesis in a
submerged plant. The light intensity to which the plant is subjected was decreased at a regular interval
by moving the light source away from the plant. The average number of bubbles minute was counted
and recorded for each distance.

21
The results were recorded in a table:

Distance of lamp Number of bubbles

from the plant (cm) per minute
10 60
20 60
30 60
40 60
50 55
60 50
70 45
80 40
90 35
100 30

2.1 What is the aim of the investigation? (1)

2.2 Name the gas released by the plant. (1)
2.3 Describe a test to verify your answer in QUESTION 2.2. (2)
2.4 Describe the relationship between the gas released and light intensity. (2)
2.5 Name TWO other environmental factors, except light intensity which you think could change the
rate of bubbles production. (2)
2.6 Draw a graph representing the results in the table above. (6)
(14)

WEEK 4:
GREENHOUSES

How does a greenhouse work?

A greenhouse can help increase plant growth and fruit production and even allow you to grow
plants that wouldn't normally survive in your climate.

Step 1: Light Comes In

In order to provide light, greenhouses need to have some way for the light to come in. This is why
greenhouses are made of mostly translucent materials, like glass or clear plastic. This gives the plants
inside maximum access to sunlight. 21
 Step 2: Heat Is Absorbed
When the light comes in the glass walls of the greenhouse, it is absorbed by the plants, ground and
anything else in the greenhouse, converting it to infrared energy (heat) in the process. The darker
the surface, the more energy it can absorb and turn into heat.

Step 3: Heat Gets Trapped

Once the light energy gets converted into infrared energy (heat), it has a different "shape" than light
energy - what scientists refer to as wavelength. The change in the wavelength makes it so that the
heat can't easily escape out of the greenhouse's glass walls. So while getting in was easy, getting out
is harder.

Step 4: Warming the Greenhouse

The trapped heat warms the air inside the greenhouse and because a greenhouse is relatively air-
tight, the warmer air stays inside, raising the entire building's temperature.

Step 5: Staying Warm

With sufficient sunlight, the temperature inside a greenhouse may become much higher than the
outdoor temperature; in fact, on a hot sunny day you may need to ventilate the greenhouse all day to
keep from literally cooking the plants inside. On overcast days, less sunlight means that the
greenhouse will heat up more slowly, if at all. For that reason, greenhouses are most useful in areas
that have plenty of sun.

Step 6: Promoting Photosynthesis

All this light and warm temperatures give plants ample access to the sunlight and temperatures need to
grow. This is because they have the right conditions for photosynthesis to occur. On average, plants need
about six hours of sunlight per day, although this varies depending on the type of plant; placing your
greenhouse where it will get full sun all day will ensure that the plants inside get enough light.

ATP as energy carrier in cells:

 ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate (Energy carrier)

 When a cell needs energy, ATP is broken down and the energy is released. Cells use this energy to
produce important molecules such as proteins, fats etc.
 During photosynthesis the energy from ATP is used in the reaction that make energy-rich glucose
from the raw material CO2 and H2O. When this happens, ATP loses a phosphate and ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) is formed. Radiant energy from sunlight can then be used to change the
less active ADP back to high energy ATP so that there is more energy available to do more work.

Investigation: Light is required for photosynthesis

Light is one of the requirements for photosynthesis. An investigation can be performed to show that
without light, starch will not be produced and therefore no photosynthesis took place.
Hypothesis: Light is needed for photosynthesis.
Aim: To prove that light is required for photosynthesis

21
Materials/apparatus
 destarched plant alcohol
 water bath test tube
tripod & gauze iodine
solution
 white spotting tile tweezers
 test tube holder, tinfoil

Method:
1. Destarch a potted plant by placing it in a dark cupboard for 48 hours
2. Cover a portion of the leaf, still attached to the plant, with aluminium foil with a pattern cut
out.

3. Place the plant in a sunny area for 48 hours

4. Pick the leaf and remove the foil
5. Test for the presence of starch using the starch test.

The experiment is the part of the leaf covered by the foil, as it does not receive light. The part of
the leaf left uncovered is the control as it receives all of the requirements for photosynthesis,
including light.

Results:

Experiment (leaf covered with tinfoil): The parts of the leaf covered with foil remains light brown and
the S-shape turns blue-black.

Control (leaf left uncovered): The complete leaf turns blue-black.

Conclusion: The parts that turn blue-black in colour contain starch. The part which remains light
brown does not contain starch. Light is essential for photosynthesis to take place.
Watch the video: Investigating the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=id0aO_OdFwA

Starch Test Procedure

1. Bring water bath to boil.

2. Put leaf to be tested in the boiling water for about 30 seconds.
(This softens and kills the leaf)
3. Remove the leaf from the water and place in tube of alcohol.
310
 4. Put the tube back into the beaker of hot water. (The alcohol will remove the chlorophyll).
5. When the leaf is white, (about ten minutes) remove the leaf from the alcohol and place it once again in the
hot water for a few seconds. (The leaf will be brittle when you take it out of the alcohol and the hot water
softens it).
6. Place the leaf on the spotting tile and cover it with iodine. Leave for a minute or two.
7. The presence of a blue/black colour indicates the presence of starch.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Make sure that there is no naked flame lighting anywhere near the alcohol. It is particularly
important if using a bunsen for the water bath that the bunsen is turned off before putting the alcohol
into the bath.
2. Do not pour the alcohol down the sink.

4. EXAM TYPE QUESTIONS

QUESTION 1
The following table diagrams represent investigations involved in a process which takes place in green
plants. The plant/leaves represented as A and C were exposed to sunlight for 4-5 hours.

310
1.1 Which investigation (A, B or C) is designed to test the following?
a) Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis
b) Light is required for photosynthesis
c) Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

1.2 Give the letter of the investigation that does not show a control.
1.3 Which investigation(s) needs a chemical to test for whether photosynthesis took place?

QUESTION 2
A tomato farmer was able to produce crops in greenhouse which were heated to between 15oC and 22oC. in
addition, the carbon dioxide level was increased from the normal 0,03% to 0,1%.
2.1 State ONE way in which the farmer could have enriched the air inside the greenhouse with CO2, without
burning any fuel.
2.2 Explain how increasing the CO2 levels up to 0,1% can lead to an increased production of tomatoes.
2.3 Name TWO other factors which might have to be increased to obtain an even greater yield when the
CO2 level is increased to above 0,1%.
2.4 The additional CO2 is only provided during the daylight hours. Suggest a reason for this.
2.5 Predict what would happen if the CO2 concentration within the greenhouse is increased to 0,5% for
between 10 to 15 days if all other factors are kept constant.

310