AERODYNAMICS OF ROAD VEHICLES

Name: Rabia Saeed

ID: 225028
Supervisor’s Name Noshaba Faraz

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

AIR UNIVERSITY AEROSPACE & AVIATION CAMPUS KAMRA
 Abstract
Recent spikes in fuel prices and concern regarding greenhouse gas emissions, automotive design
engineers are faced with the immediate task of introducing more efficient aerodynamic designs
vehicles. The aerodynamic drags of a road vehicle is responsible for a large part of the vehicle’s
fuel consumption and contribute up to 50% of the total vehicle fuel consumption at highway
speeds. Review on the research performance of active and passive flow control on the vehicle
aerodynamic drag reduction is reported in this paper. This review intends to provide information
on the current approaches and their efficiency in reducing pressure drag of ground vehicles. The
review mainly focuses on the methods employed to prevent or delay air flow separation at the
rear end of vehicle. Researches carried out by a number of researchers with regard to active and
passive flow controls method on vehicle and their effect on aerodynamic drag in terms of drag
coefficient (CD) was highlighted. Passive methods i.e. Vortex Generator (VG), spoiler and
splitter and active flow controls i.e. steady blowing, suction and air jet are among the methods
had been reviewed. In addition, several attempts to couple these flow control methods were also
reviewed. Several aspects of aerodynamic drag that need for further investigation as to assist for
vehicles aerodynamic design and for practical reasons were highlighted. Progressive research on
active flow control was observed due to its flexibility for wide range of application without body
shape modification. The aerodynamics analysis on a vehicle has become a major concern nowadays.
This is due to its effect on vehicle driving characteristics, fuel consumption, etc. This study will analysis
the aerodynamics characteristics of a multi-purpose vehicle (MPV) generic design using ANSYS
Workbench. Fluent is utilized in this study in order to investigate the aerodynamics of generic MPV
design, attaining coefficient of drag and lift and observing the airflow streamline across the body of the
vehicle. The turbulence modelling selected is realizable k-ε with enhanced wall treatment. Based from
the result obtained, the coefficient of drag and lift recorded for the car modelled is 0.28 and 0.05
respectively after the solution converged. This study can be used as reference for car manufacturers and
designers especially when designing a multi-purpose vehicle (MPV) design.

Keywords:

1. Performance
2. Gurney flaps
3. Effect of downward force
4. Drag effect Ground effect
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
This section of the study deals with the background of the research, major concepts /
terminologies and the significance of the study. Moreover, it also provides the research gap for
the present study.

1.1 Introduction
In fluid mechanical terms, road vehicles are bluff bodies in very close proximity to the ground.
Their detailed geometry is extremely complex. Internal and recessed cavities which
communicate freely with the external flow (i.e. engine compartment and wheel wells,
respectively) and rotating wheels add to their geometrical and fluid mechanical complexity.

1.2 Aerodynamics of a Vehicle

Automotive aerodynamics is the study of the aerodynamics of road vehicles. Its main goals are
reducing drag and wind noise, minimizing noise emission, and preventing undesired lift forces
and other causes of aerodynamic instability at high speeds. Air is also considered a fluid in this
case.

1.2.1 Consumption of Fuel

The rapidly increasing fuel prices and the regulation of greenhouse gasses to control global
warming give tremendous pressure on design engineers to enhance the current designs of the
vehicle using the concepts of aerodynamics as to enhance the efficiency of vehicles [1]. Fuel
consumption due to aerodynamic drag consumed more than half of the vehicle’s energy. Thus,
the drag reduction program is one of the most interesting approaches to cater this matter.

1.2.2 Contribution of Drag

Aerodynamic drag consists of two main components: skin friction drag and pressure drag.
Pressure drag accounts for more than 80% of the total drag and it is highly dependent on vehicle
geometry due to boundary layer separation from rear window surface and formation of wake
region behind the vehicle. The location of separation determines the size of wake region and
consequently, it determines the value of aerodynamic drag. According to Hucho [2], the
aerodynamic drag of a road vehicle is responsible for a large part of the vehicle’s fuel
consumption and contributes up to 50% of the total vehicle fuel consumption at highway speeds.
Reducing the aerodynamic drag offers an inexpensive solution to improve fuel efficiency and
thus shape optimization for low drag become an essential part of the overall vehicle design
process [3]. It has been found that 40% of the drag force is concentrated at the rear of the
geometry [4].
1.3 Consequences of Drag
The drag force acting on the vehicle is the consequence of vehicle surface in motion with
stationary air in the surrounding. The sum of pressure differences mostly at the front and at the
rear of the vehicle will result in the production of drag force. As the vehicle move forward, it will
push the air to the side. This will increase the static pressure at the front of the vehicle.
Meanwhile at the rear section of the vehicle, the air flow is unstable due to wake thus resulting in
pressure drop. According to research by Juhala [5], the airflow surrounding a vehicle in motion
is asymmetric with respect to its longitudinal axis. This is due to wind condition while driving
and approaching traffic. The relative flow speed is the combination of driving speed and speed of
wind.

1.4 Effective Aerodynamic Design

A stable aerodynamic design requires the balance of forces comprising lift, drag, thrust, and gravity.
Airfoil design accounts for the speed, lift, and performance aspects of flight. The Coanda effect studies
the airfoil shape and its influence over the flow jet in achieving the desired lift.

1.4.1 Improvements
In order to improve vehicle aerodynamics features, numbers consideration have been taken into
account such as increasing the angle between the hood and the front windshield to get a better
airflow around the car [6]. According to Hucho [2], the size of separation at the windshield base
is determined by the inclination angle between the bonnet and the windshield. When the
inclination angle is larger, the air flowing outward to the A-pillar is smaller thus reducing the
vortices produced. Another method proposed by [7] to reduce the value of coefficient of drag is
by arching the roof in the longitudinal direction. This method somehow will change the frontal
area thus increasing the drag force.

1.5 Objectives of Aerodynamics

Depending on the specific purpose of each type of vehicle, the objectives of aerodynamics differ
widely. While low drag is desirable for all road vehicles, other aerodynamic properties are also
significant. Negative lift is decisive for the cornering capability of race cars, but is of no
importance for trucks. Cars and, even more so, vans are sensitive to cross wind, but heavy trucks
are not. Wind noise should be low for cars and buses, but is of no significance for race cars.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
This section of study deals with the major concepts, research background and the previous
studies conducting in the same field.

2.1 Research scope

Vehicle aerodynamics is a multidisciplinary field that investigates the interaction between
vehicles and the air they move through. This research encompasses a broad scope, aiming to
enhance vehicle performance, efficiency, and safety. One key focus of aerodynamics research is
reducing aerodynamic drag, the force that opposes a vehicle's motion through the air. By
optimizing the shape of vehicles, such as cars, trucks, and aircraft, researchers seek to minimize
drag, resulting in improved fuel efficiency and reduced emissions. This is especially crucial in
the automotive industry as the push for greener technologies intensifies. Additionally,
aerodynamics plays a vital role in vehicle stability and handling. Researchers delve into
understanding how airflow influences a vehicle's response to steering inputs, ensuring stability at
high speeds and various driving conditions. This aspect is pivotal for both conventional and
autonomous vehicles to guarantee safe and predictable behavior on the road. In the realm of
motorsports, aerodynamics research is instrumental in designing vehicles that maximize
downforce, enhancing traction and cornering capabilities. Formula 1 cars, for example, undergo
extensive aerodynamic optimization to achieve a delicate balance between speed and stability.
Moreover, aircraft aerodynamics contribute significantly to the aviation industry's advancements.
Researchers explore wing design, airflow over surfaces, and overall aerodynamic efficiency to
enhance fuel economy and maneuverability. This extends to innovations in drone technology,
influencing applications ranging from surveillance to package delivery. As electric vehicles
become more prevalent, aerodynamics research is increasingly focused on optimizing the airflow
around battery packs and managing the associated thermal challenges. Efficient aerodynamic
design becomes integral to extending the range of electric vehicles and ensuring optimal battery
performance. In conclusion, the scope of vehicle aerodynamics research spans various industries
and facets, from improving fuel efficiency and stability in conventional vehicles to shaping the
future of electric and autonomous transportation. As technology evolves, ongoing research in this
field continues to drive innovations that reshape the way we perceive and interact with vehicles.

2.2 Analysis of previous study

To the contrary, a road vehicle’s shape is primarily determined by functional, economic and, last
but not least, aesthetic arguments. The aerodynamic characteristics are not usually, generated
intentionally; they are the consequences of, but not the reason for, the shape. These "other than
aerodynamic" considerations place severe constraints on vehicle aerodynamicists. For example,
there are good reasons for the length of a vehicle being a given. Length for a passenger car is a
measure of its size, and thus its class. To place a car in a specific market niche means
recognizing length as an invariant in design. Furthermore, mass and cost are proportional to
length. In the same sense all the other main dimensions of a vehicle, such as width and height
(which define frontal area), are frozen very early the design process. Even the details of a car’s
proportions are prescribed to close limits for reasons of packaging and aesthetics (Figure 2).
course, some maneuvering room must be left to the aerodynamicists (the hatched regions).
Otherwise, they would do no more than just measure the aerodynamic characteristics of
configurations designed by others. Depending on the specific purpose of each type of vehicle, the
objectives of aerodynamics differ widely. While low drag is desirable for all road vehicles, other
aerodynamic properties are also significant. Negative lift is decisive for the cornering capability
of race cars, but is of no importance for trucks. Cars and, even more so, vans are sensitive to
cross wind, but heavy trucks are not. Wind noise should be low for cars and buses, but is of no
significance for race cars. While the process of weighing the relative importance of a set of needs
from various disciplines is generally comparable to that in other branches of applied fluid
mechanics, the situation in vehicle aerodynamics is unique in that an additional category of
arguments has to be taken into account: art, fashion, and taste. In contrast to technical and
economic factors, these additional arguments are subjective in nature and cannot be quantified.

2.3 previous studies

The drag force acting on the vehicle is the consequence of vehicle surface in motion with
stationary air in the surrounding. The sum of pressure differences mostly at the front and at the
rear of the vehicle will result in the production of drag force. As the vehicle move forward, it will
push the air to the side. This will increase the static pressure at the front of the vehicle.
Meanwhile at the rear section of the vehicle, the air flow is unstable due to wake thus resulting in
pressure drop. According to research by Juhala [6]. In order to improve vehicle aerodynamics
features, numbers consideration have been taken into account such as increasing the angle
between the hood and the front windshield to get a better airflow around the car [3]. According
to Hucho [4], the size of separation at the windshield base is determined by the inclination angle
between the bonnet and the windshield. When the inclination angle is larger, the air flowing
outward to the A-pillar is smaller thus reducing the vortices produced. Another method proposed
by [4] to reduce the value of coefficient of drag is by arching the roof in the longitudinal
direction. This method somehow will change the frontal area thus increasing the drag force. A
research by Sneh [7] found that to get a good performance of a vehicle, it has to be
aerodynamically efficient by reducing the drag force and increasing the down force for better
handling.
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLGY
A brief description of the methodology is as follows. Initially, the identification and definition of
Problem is the first step of methodology then according to the problem definition approximate
model is created using UNI-GRAPHICS modeling software. The created model is to be meshed
using for that it was imported into the meshing software ICEM-CFD in the required format. The
model which represents a single volume is being segregated into two volumes, fluid and solid.
Then the two volumes where meshed separately with Quad elements and the necessary cell
zones were specified. In the next step, model in the required format is to be imported into the
analysis software then required boundary conditions are to be applied. Finally, the problem is
being initialized and an efficient, iterative scheme with solution algorithm was used to solve the
problem. The analysis is to be carried out repeatedly until the optimal result is obtained (i.e.) the
efficient yaw angle of the vortex generator. In order to reduce lift and drag co-efficient of
selected car model.

3.1Vehicle Aerodynamics, 2018:

This collection of technical papers published by SAE International includes articles

on various aspects of vehicle aerodynamics, such as wind tunnel testing,
computational fluid dynamics, and unsteady flow control.

3.1.1Wind tunnel testing:

Aerodynamicists use wind tunnels to test models of proposed aircraft and engine components.
During a test, the model is placed in the test section of the tunnel and air is made to flow past the
model. Various types of instrumentation are used to determine the forces on the model.

3.1.1.1Angle of lift:
Longitudinal trim involves the simultaneous adjustment of elevator angle and thrust to give the
required airspeed and flight path angle for a given airframe configuration.

3.2Aerodynamic Design Considerations of a Formula 1 Racing Car:

This technical paper from SAE International provides an overview of the current methods of
investigation of the aerodynamics of a racing car, including wind tunnel testing and
computational methods.
3.3-Aerodynamic Performance Prediction of a Car using GEKO Turbulence
Model:

This technical paper from SAE International describes a method for predicting and improving
the aerodynamics of a car using rigorous wind tunnel and test track testing.

3.4-Vehicle Aerodynamics | Aeronautical and Automotive

Engineering:

This webpage from Loughborough University’s Department of Aeronautical and Automotive

Engineering provides information on the research activities of the Vehicle Aerodynamics group,
which includes experimental and computational studies on a range of test cases and problems.

3.5-Proceedings of the Institute of Vehicles 3(99)/2014:

This paper from the Institute of Vehicles in Poland describes a methodology for aerodynamic
analysis, numerical models, and drag forces for a high-performance, eco-urban car designed to
take part in the Shell Eco-marathon competition.

CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS/RESULTS

4.1 Automotive aerodynamics

The study of automotive aerodynamics started as a step-by-step for similar

research in the field of aviation, using wind tunnels and technologies developed for
aircraft from the 1920s. In the first place the pioneers of low-drag cars
demonstrated models which were both industry's ability to build and public's
readiness to buy well ahead of the first time. The 1930s introduced a novel
approach to automotive aerodynamics, focusing basic automotive engineering and
achieving the first, serious production applications.
4.2 Drastic changes:

Drastic changes to automobile design occurred in the 1950s, due to aerodynamic

concerns. After World War II in the 1950s, most of the aerodynamic research was
aimed at prototype designs and race cars as well as production vehicles were
almost entirely influenced by appearances. In the next decade, new wind tunnels
were opened in a more promising way, for both climate and aerodynamic research.
Car stability around the corners at high speed became an important part.

4.2.1 Car stability:

Stability is the ability to resist external forces, and this applies to your car too. It is at its most
stable when travelling in a straight line at constant speed with the weight evenly distributed
across all the wheels.
4.2.1.1 Resist external forces:
Stability refers to the ability of a structure to maintain its equilibrium and resist any external
forces or loads without experiencing excessive deformation or failure.

4.3 Overview

The manufacturers, who took this topic seriously, built their own internal tunnel
facilities at the end of the 1960's, which has seen a record number of automotive
aerospace applications. In the initial 50 years’ aerodynamics of automotive came
closer to wind tunnels with the help of universities and industries. These methods
challenged researchers to find new test programs and manufacturers make more
aerodynamic product with high efficiency, quicker and even silent model.

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[4] Hucho W. 1998. Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles. SAE.

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