Module 3

PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
(Sensing the Environment)
FSH122 – Physiology of Aquatic
Organisms
Contents from:
Chelmarie Joy S. Clavano
Associate Professor
College of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
Mindanao State University – Main Campus

Revised by:
Sittie Nor Asiah G. Jabir
Instructor
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Mindanao State University – Main Campus

1
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 LESSON 1 SENSING THE ENVIRONMENT
1. The Nervous System
2. Chemoreception
3. Mechanoreception
4. Electroreception
5. Thermoreception
6. Vision

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Module Outcomes:
Discuss how an organisms’ signaling (nervous and endocrine) systems responds to environmental
information or stimuli and how the sensory organs perform their physiological functions.

Lesson Learning Outcome:

1. Identify the different sensory organs which are channels of communication from the external world into
the nervous system.
2. Discuss and give examples on how environmental information is converted into neuronal signals and
how these signals are processed inside the body.

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LESSON 1 SENSING THE ENVIRONMENT
1. The Nervous System
2. Chemoreception
 3. Mechanoreception
4. Electroreception
5. Thermoreception
6. Vision

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If an animal is to survive and prosper it must respond appropriately and effectively to its environment and
to its own internal states. Effective responses often require that different parts of the body, which may be
quite far apart, act in a coordinated fashion. The nervous and endocrine systems act together to initiate
coordinated responses, and the muscles and glands generate an animal’s behavioral responses.

In Module 2 and Module 3, we focus on both signaling systems (nervous and endocrine) and the effector
systems (muscles and glands), respectively. These different types of tissues are composed of highly
specialized cells that work together in groups to integrate information and to generate responses that are
suitable to the perceived situation.

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
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1.Central Nervous System (CNS):

1. The brain and spinal cord are present in fish, just like in other vertebrates.
2. Fish brains are typically smaller and simpler than those of mammals, but
they have specialized regions for processing sensory information, such as
detecting vibrations, sounds, and changes in water pressure.
3. The spinal cord extends from the brain down the length of the body,
transmitting signals to and from different parts of the body.

2.Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

1. Fish have nerves that extend from the CNS to the rest of the body, allowing
them to detect and respond to stimuli.
2. The somatic nervous system in fish controls voluntary movements, such as
swimming, and helps in transmitting sensory information (e.g., touch,
temperature).
3. The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary functions like heart
rate, digestion, and respiration.

Cranial nerves and spinal nerves are two types of nerves that are part of the
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). They play essential roles in transmitting
 information between the central nervous system (CNS) and the rest of the
body. Here's a breakdown of each:

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Cranial Nerves - Cranial nerves are nerves that emerge directly from the
brain, rather than from the spinal cord. They are responsible for connecting the brain to
different parts of the head, neck, and some other regions of the body.
Spinal Nerves - Spinal nerves are nerves that emerge from the spinal cord.
They connect the CNS to various parts of the body, including the skin, muscles, and
internal organs.
In Fish
•Cranial Nerves: Fish also have cranial nerves that serve similar
functions to those in mammals, such as controlling eye
movements, sensory perception (like smell and taste), and other
head functions.
•Spinal Nerves: Fish have spinal nerves that emerge from the spinal
cord and extend to the body, controlling muscle movements and
transmitting sensory information, much like in humans.
Overall, cranial and spinal nerves work together to ensure that the
body can sense, respond, and adapt to changes in the
environment.

3. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

1. Like other vertebrates, fish have a sympathetic and parasympathetic system.
2. These systems control involuntary processes such as blood flow, digestion, and
responses to stress. For example, the sympathetic system might prepare the fish
to escape from predators, while the parasympathetic system helps
with resting and conserving energy.
Fish have a unique sensory organ called the lateral line, which helps them detect water
movements and vibrations, aiding in navigation, hunting, and avoiding predators. This is a
part of their nervous system, showcasing how their sensory capabilities are specialized
for life underwater.
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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

General Function:
 Sensory: gathers information
about changes
occurring within and around
the body; sensory
receptors, at ends of
peripheral nerves, send
signals to CNS.

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
General Function:

Integrative: information is “brought

together,”
interpreted, to create sensations,
create thoughts, add to
memory, make decisions, etc.
Motor: sending of signals to muscles and/or glands to
elicit a response
Ex: Body temperature
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Fish, like other animals, have a nervous system that enables them to sense and respond
to environmental stimuli, including temperature changes. Here's how the sensory,
integrative, and motor functions of the nervous system work together in fish to detect
and respond to temperature changes:
1. Sensory Function
•Detection of Temperature:
• Fish have specialized sensory receptors called thermoreceptors that are
sensitive to temperature changes in their environment.
• These thermoreceptors are located in the skin and other parts of the body. In
some species, there are even specialized structures, like the lateral line
system, that can help detect changes in temperature and water currents.
• When the water temperature changes, these receptors detect the
temperature difference and convert this thermal energy into electrical
signals (nerve impulses). This is similar to how thermoreceptors in humans
detect temperature.
2. Integrative Function
•Processing Sensory Information:
• The electrical signals generated by the thermoreceptors travel through
sensory neurons to the fish's spinal cord and brain.
• In the brain, the signals are processed. The fish integrates this information to
determine the significance of the temperature change. For example, the fish

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 may assess whether the water is too warm or too cold, which can affect its
metabolic processes and overall health.
• The integrative function helps the fish determine the best course of action
based on its current physiological state, species-specific preferences for
temperature, and prior experiences.
3. Motor Function
•Responding to Temperature Changes:
• After processing the sensory information, the fish's nervous system sends
motor signals through motor neurons to specific muscles or glands to elicit a
response.
• Behavioral Responses: If the water temperature is too high, the fish may swim
to a deeper, cooler area of the water (negative phototaxis). Conversely, if the
water is too cold, the fish might seek out warmer areas or adjust its
position in the water column to absorb more heat.
• Physiological Responses: In addition to behavioral changes, the fish's
nervous system can also regulate physiological responses, such as adjusting
metabolic rates or changing gill function to optimize oxygen uptake at
different temperatures.

Summary of Temperature Sensing in Fish

•Sensory Function: Thermoreceptors in the skin detect changes in water temperature
and convert that information into electrical signals.
•Integrative Function: The fish's brain processes this information, evaluating the potential
danger or benefit of the temperature change and deciding how to respond.
•Motor Function: The fish executes a response by moving to a more favorable
temperature or making physiological adjustments to cope with the temperature
change. This coordinated response allows fish to maintain their homeostasis and adapt
to their environment, ensuring their survival in varying thermal conditions.
 7
THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM

General Overview
of the Nervous
System

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Flow of Information

•Input Phase: The process starts with the detection of a stimulus by sensory receptors.
•Transmission Phase: Signals are transmitted through sensory neurons to the CNS.
 •Processing Phase: The CNS integrates and processes the information.
•Output Phase: Efferent neurons convey responses to effectors (muscles and glands),
leading to specific actions or physiological changes.
•Feedback Mechanism: Responses can influence the ongoing state of the body, allowing
adjustments to maintain balance (homeostasis).

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

What makes up the Nervous System

1. Neurons
Do all of
the major
functions
on their
own, are
1. Afferent
2. Interneurons
3. Efferent

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1. AFFERENT nerves conduct impulses to the central nervous system;
2. Interneurons are located entirely within the central nervous system. They intercept
the impulses from the sensory neurons and transmit the signals to the motor
neurons.
3. EFFERENT nerves conduct impulses to the muscles, organs, and glands.

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3 types of neurons

• Sensory Neurons: (afferent

neurons) carry impulses from
inside and outside the body to
brain and spinal
cord.
• Interneurons: found within brain and spinal cord,
process incoming impulses and pass them on to
motor neurons.
• Motor Neurons: (efferent neurons) carry impulses
away from the brain and spinal cord.
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Sensory (afferent) neurons – transmit sensory information from receptors of PNS
towards the CNS most sensory neurons are unipolar, a few are bipolar Motor
(efferent) neurons – transmit motor information from the CNS to effectors
(muscles/glands/adipose tissue) in the periphery of the body all are multipolar
Association (interneurons) – transmit information between neurons within the CNS;
analyze inputs, coordinate outputs are the most common type of neuron (20 billion)
are all multipolar
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
➢ Neurons communicate
information using a
combination of
electrical and
chemical signals.
➢ The
membranes of
most neurons are
electrically
excitable; that is, signals are
generated in and transmitted
along them without
decrement
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- Animal activity depends on the precisely coordinated performance of many individual cells. Perhaps the
most important cells for producing this coordination are nerve cells, called neurons
- Neurons contain organelles common to many other cells, such as a nucleus and mitochondria. They
also have more specialized structures, including dendrites and axons.
- The properties of electrical signals allow neurons to carry information rapidly and accurately to
coordinate actions involving many parts, or even all, of an animal's body

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Neuron structure
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Dendrites: branch-like extensions that receive impulses and carry them toward cell body. Axon:
single extension of the neuron that carries impulses away from the cell body. The axon branches
out at ending to send impulses to many different neurons. Dendrites receive impulses from
many other axons.
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Neurons
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Dendrites: branch-like extensions that receive impulses and carry them toward cell
body. Afferent component of a neuron.
Axon: single extension of the neuron that carries impulses away from the cell body. The
axon branches out at ending to send impulses to many different neurons. Dendrites
receive impulses from many other axons.

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Structural classification

Anaxonic neurons
•Anaxonic neurons have no distinct axon
and appear to have multiple dendrites.
•They do not produce action potentials like
other neuron
•They are primarily involved in the
 modulation of other neuron activity and
are important for local processing within
the CNS.
•Anaxonic neurons are found in the brain
and the adrenal medulla.
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Multipolar neuron
•Multipolar neurons
have many dendrites
(multiple processes)
extending from the cell
body and a single axon.
•This structure is the
most common type of
neuron in the nervous
system​
 •They are primarily involved in motor functions and the
integration of information within the CNS. Multipolar neurons
are responsible for higher-order processing, such as
cognition and decision-making​
•These neurons are found throughout the brain and spinal cord.
For example, motor neurons that innervate muscles are
multipolar.
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Innervate – to supply with nerves

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Bipolar neuron

• Bipolar neurons have two

distinct processes: one
dendrite and one axon,
extending from opposite
sides of the cell body​
 •They are involved in sensory functions, especially
in transmitting signals related to special senses such
as vision and smell​

•Bipolar neurons are primarily located in the retina

of the eye (retinal bipolar cells) and in the olfactory
epithelium of the nasal cavity.
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Unipolar (pseudounipolar) neuron

• Unipolar neurons have a single, elongated process
that extends from the cell body and branches into two
parts: one acts as a dendrite, while the other functions
like an axon​
•These neurons are primarily involved in transmitting
sensory information from peripheral receptors to the
 CNS. They play a crucial role in sensory pathways​
•Unipolar neurons are commonly found in sensory
ganglia of the peripheral nervous system, particularly
in the dorsal root ganglia associated with the spinal
cord.
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Ganglia: Serve mainly as relay points for nerve signals and can integrate sensory
information and coordinate motor outputs. They are involved in reflex actions and the
autonomic functions of the body

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

What makes up the Nervous System

2. Neuroglia or Glial Cells

Play a supporting role to the neurons
Divided into CNS and PNS Neuroglia
Ependymal cells
CNSAstrocytes PNS
Oligodendrocytes Microglia Schwann
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cells
Satellite cells

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1. AFFERENT nerves conduct impulses to the central nervous system;

2. Interneurons are located entirely within the central nervous system. They intercept
the impulses from the sensory neurons and transmit the signals to the motor
neurons.
3. EFFERENT nerves conduct impulses to the muscles, organs, and glands.

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➢ Neurons receive and neurons.
transmit nerve messages
➢ Glial cells surround
neurons and hold them
in place to: (1) supply
nutrients and oxygen;
(2) insulate neuron
from one another; and
(3) destroy pathogens
and remove dead
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Campus

- Glial cells support neurons and maintain their environment.

- Glial cells of the central nervous system include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, and
microglial cells.

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Glial Cells
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- Glial cells support neurons and maintain their environment.

- Glial cells of the central nervous system include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, and
microglial cells.
- Glial cells play diverse and vital roles in maintaining the health and functionality of the nervous
system. They not only support and protect neurons but also participate in essential processes like
myelination, immune defense, nutrient transport, and the maintenance of homeostasis within the
nervous system. By understanding the functions of these glial cells, we gain insight into how the
nervous system operates as a whole and the importance of glia in neurological health and disease.
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Astrocytes
• create supportive
framework for neurons
• create “blood-brain
barrier”
• monitor & regulate
interstitial fluid
surrounding neurons
• secrete chemicals for
embryological neuron
formation

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Oligodendrocytes: •Functions:

• Produce myelin sheaths around CNS axons, similar to Schwann cells, but one
oligodendrocyte can myelinate multiple axons.
• Support neuronal survival and function by providing metabolic support and
neurotrophic factors.
Microglia:
•Functions:
• Act as the immune cells of the CNS, playing a key role in immune defense. •
Scavenge dead cells and debris, helping to maintain a healthy environment for
neurons.
• Respond to injury or disease by becoming activated and may release
cytokines and other molecules that affect neuronal function and repair. Astrocytes:
•Functions:
• Provide structural support to neurons and maintain the blood-brain barrier,
which regulates the passage of substances between the blood and the CNS. •
Secrete neurotrophic factors that promote neuronal growth and differentiation.
• Regulate ion concentrations (e.g., potassium) and neurotransmitter levels in
the synaptic cleft, playing a crucial role in synaptic function.

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• Facilitate communication between neurons by modulating synaptic activity
and nutrient supply.
Ependymal Cells:
•Functions:
• Line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord,
helping to produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• Form barriers between compartments within the CNS.
• Some ependymal cells are involved in the generation of neural stem cells,
which can differentiate into neurons and glial cells.
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Oligodendrocytes
• create myelin sheath around
axons of neurons in the CNS.
 Myelinated axons transmit
impulses faster than
unmyelinated axons

Microglia
• “brain macrophages”
• phagocytize cellular wastes
& pathogens

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•Most axons of the nervous system are surrounded by a myelin sheath (myelinated
axons) •The presence of myelin speeds up the transmission of action potentials along
the axon
•Myelin will get laid down in segments (internodes) along the axon, leaving unmyelinated
gaps known as “nodes of Ranvier”
•Regions of the nervous system containing groupings of myelinated axons make up the
“white matter”
•“gray matter” is mainly comprised of groups of neuron cell bodies, dendrites &
synapses (connections between neurons)

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Ependymal cells
• line ventricles of brain
& central canal of spinal
 cord

• produce, monitor &

help circulate CSF
(cerebrospinal fluid)

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Cerebrospinal Fluid acts as a cushion for the brain, providing mechanical protection
against trauma. It helps absorb shock and prevents the brain from directly contacting the
hard surfaces of the skull.

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Glial Cells
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- Glial cells support neurons and maintain their environment.

- Glial cells of the central nervous system include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, and
microglial cells.
- Glial cells play diverse and vital roles in maintaining the health and functionality of the nervous
system. They not only support and protect neurons but also participate in essential processes like
myelination, immune defense, nutrient transport, and the maintenance of homeostasis within the
nervous system. By understanding the functions of these glial cells, we gain insight into how the
nervous system operates as a whole and the importance of glia in neurological health and disease.

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 Schwann cells
• surround all axons of neurons in the PNS creating
a neurilemma around them. Neurilemma allows for
potential regeneration of damaged axons
• creates myelin sheath around most axons of PNS

Satellite cells
• support groups of cell bodies of neurons within
ganglia of the PNS

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Glial

Cells 1.Satellite Cells:

1. Support the cell bodies of neurons in the PNS.

2. Regulate the microenvironment around neurons, including ion
concentrations and nutrient levels.
3. Provide structural support and assist in the repair of damaged
neurons.
2.Schwann Cells:
1. Form myelin sheaths around peripheral axons, which insulate the
axons and increase the speed of electrical impulses (action
potentials).
2. Aid in the regeneration of damaged axons in the PNS by creating a
favorable environment for growth.
3. Secrete neurotrophic factors that promote neuron survival and
growth.
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How is an impulse transmitted?

1. Stimulus excites sensory neuron.

2. Depolarization (a
change in charge due to sodium
ions) creates a wave
of changing
charges down the axon.
3. Impulse moves across synapse (tiny space between one
neuron’s axon and another’s dendrites) with the help of
neurotransmitters

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Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses from
one neuron to another or to target cells, such as muscle cells or gland cells. They play a
crucial role in communication within the nervous system, influencing a wide range of
physiological functions, including mood, emotion, sleep, and muscle movement. Here’s
a closer look at their characteristics, functions, and types:
Characteristics of Neurotransmitters
1.Synthesis and Storage: Neurotransmitters are synthesized in the neuron, usually
within the cell body or axon terminal, and stored in vesicles until they are released.
2.Release Mechanism: When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers
the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft (the gap between neurons).
3.Binding to Receptors: Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the
postsynaptic neuron (the receiving neuron), leading to changes in the neuron's
membrane potential, which may result in the generation of a new action potential.
Ion channels
1. Voltage-gated channels - only open when the
membrane
potential reaches a certain value and only allow a single ion
to
cross the membrane.
2. Ligand gated ion channels - are triggered to open
when
they are bound by a specific molecule.
3. Mechanically-gated ion channels - open in response to
physical forces, such as changes in length or changes in
pressure.

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ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY IN AXONS
A. RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
• The membrane potential of a real cell that is
not producing impulses is known
as the
resting membrane potential in
which the
inside of the cell is negatively
charged in
comparison to the outside of the
cell (for
example, in neurons it is −70 mV).
• These properties result in an
unequal
distribution of these ions across
the
membrane.
• This potential difference is largely the result
of the permeability properties of the plasma
membrane.
• The membrane traps large, negatively
charged organic molecules within the cell
and permits only limited diffusion of
positively charged inorganic ions.
• These properties result in an unequal
distribution of these ions across the
membrane.

mV - Millivolt

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The Sodium (Na+) Potassium (K+) Pump
• The action of the Na+/K+ pumps also helps to maintain a potential difference
because they pump out 3 sodium ions (Na+) for every 2 potassium ions (K+)
that they transport into the cell.
Partly as a result of these pumps,
Na+ is more
highly concentrated in the
extracellular fluid than inside the
cell, whereas K+
is more highly concentrated within
the cell.
• There is 30 times more K+ inside than
outside and 15 times more Na+
outside than inside.
• As long as the inside remains more negative compared to the outside, the
neuron will stay inactive.
• Resting membrane potential varies according to types of cells
• Skeletal muscle cells: −95 mV
• Smooth muscle cells: −50 mV
• Astrocytes: −80/−90 mV
• Neurons: −70 mV
• Erythrocytes: −12 mV

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B. ACTION POTENTIAL
• An action potential is a rapid change in polarity across a portion of an
axonal membrane as the
nerve impulse occurs.
• Five steps in the formation of
Action Potential
(1) A stimulus from a sensory cell
or another neuron causes the
target cell to
depolarize toward the
threshold potential.
(2) If the threshold of
excitation is reached, all Na+ channels open and the
membrane depolarizes.
(3) At the peak action potential, K+ channels open and K+ begins to leave the
cell. At the same time, Na+ channels close.
(4) The membrane becomes hyperpolarized as K+ ions continue to leave the
cell. The hyperpolarized membrane is in a refractory period and cannot fire.
(5) The K+ channels close and the Na+/K+ transporter restores the resting
potential.

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B. ACTION POTENTIAL
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 Sodium-potassium pump Voltage-Gated ion channel
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Propagation of Action Potentials
Unmyelinated Axon Myelinated Axon
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In nonmyelinated axons, the action potential travels down an axon one small section at a time,
at a speed of about 1 m/second.
In myelinated axons, the gated ion channels that produce an action potential are concentrated
at the nodes of Ranvier. The mode of conduction is called saltatory conduction, which means
that the action potential “jumps” from node to node. Speeds of 200 m/second (450 miles per
hour) have been recorded.

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Saltatory Conduction
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In myelinated axons, the gated ion channels that produce an action potential are
concentrated at the nodes of Ranvier. Just as taking giant steps during a game of “Simon
Says” is more efficient, so ion exchange only at the nodes makes the action potential
travel faster. Saltar in Spanish means “to jump,” and so this mode of conduction called
saltatory conduction, means that the action potential “jumps” from node to node:

❑ Serves as a means of increasing the rate of propagation of an action potential

❑ Speed of impulse transmission
❑ Conserves energy for the axon as depolarization only occurs at nodes
❑ 100 times less movement of ions
❑ Conserving the energy to re-establish the Na+ and K+ concentration differences
across the membranes.
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Transmission of Nerve Impulses

Synaptic transmission

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Dendrites Cell

body

Nucleus

Synapse
hillock direction
Axon
Axon Signal
 Presynaptic cell
Postsynaptic cell
Myelin sheath

Axon
terminals

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Every axon branches into many fine endings, each tipped by a small swelling, called an
axon terminal (Fig. 37.6). Each terminal lies very close to the dendrite (or the cell body)
of another neuron. This region of close proximity is called a synapse. At a synapse, the
membrane of the first neuron is called the presynaptic membrane, and the membrane of
the next neuron is called the postsynaptic membrane.

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Close up look at your synapse AXON
 the membrane?

Transport
protein
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Fisheries
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Sciences
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The next cell’s plasma

membrane

What is this in

A nerve impulse cannot cross a synaptic cleft. Transmission across a synapse is carried
out by molecules called neurotransmitters, which are stored in synaptic vesicles.
When nerve impulses traveling along an axon reach an axon terminal, gated channels
for calcium ions (Ca2) open, and calcium enters the terminal. This sudden rise in Ca2
stimulates
synaptic vesicles to merge with the presynaptic membrane, and neurotransmitter
molecules are released into the synaptic cleft. They diffuse across the cleft to the
postsynaptic membrane, where they bind with specific receptor proteins. Depending on
the type of neurotransmitter and/or the type of receptor, the response of the
postsynaptic neuron can be toward excitation or toward inhibition. Excitatory
neurotransmittersthat use gated ion channels are fast acting. Other neurotransmitters
affect the metabolism of the postsynaptic
cell and therefore are slower acting.
Synaptic Cleft: Information Transfer
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The small gap between the neurons is called the synaptic cleft.

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The synapse carries a signal
from cell to cell

1
 23 4
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40
➢ The Fish Brain
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- Fish brain is similar in its basic components to higher animals, but with many differences in form and
complexity.
- It is divided into several region and serve as center for various functions and is protected by a
cartilaginous of bony skull.
- Information is sent to the brain in the form of nerve impulse.

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directly connected and receive
signals from the nostrils
THE FISH BRAIN ➢ very large in fish that hunt
1. Olfactory by smell (e.g. hagfish,
bulbs/lobes ➢ sharks, catfish).
 ➢Pheromones detection

Figure 2.1.2 Main parts of a fish’ brain

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- directly connected and receive signals from the nostrils via the two olfactory nerves
- this part is very large in fish that hunt by smell (e.g. hagfish, sharks, catfish).
 42

2. Telencephalon
➢ equivalent to
cerebrum in
higher epiphysis or pineal body
vertebrates. Prosencephalon (Forebrain):
➢ responsible
for olfaction
and for aspects
of color vision, memory and
reproductive and feeding
behavior.
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Figure 2.1.2 Main parts of a fish’ brain

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Telencephalon (dogfish) includes the Pallium, olfactory bulbs, olfactory lobes,

cerebral hemispheres, ventricles I and II, part of Anterior Choroid Plexus
Diencephalons (dogfish) - pineal, thalamus, pituitary, optic chiasma, part of Anterior
Choroid Plexus, Ventricle III
 43

3. Mesencephalon
➢ largest portion and contains
the two optic
lobes
➢ process the
information from
visual, auditory,
College of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
and lateral line
systems
➢ turns the fish’ body towards
or away from a stimulus
➢ very large in fish that hunt by
sight (e.g. rainbow trout,
cichlids)
Figure
2.1.2 Main parts of a fish’ brain
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- This is the largest portion and contains the two optic
lobes.
- It process the information from visual, auditory, and
lateral line systems.
- It also turns the fish’ body towards or away from a
stimulus.
- The mesencephalon is very large in fish that hunt by sight
(e.g. rainbow trout, cichlids)

Mesencephalon (Midbrain):

44
Mesencephalon (dogfish) - cerebral aqueduct, optic lobes,
nerves III and IV
44
 4. Metencephalon
or Cerebellum
➢ single-lobed
College of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
➢ responsible
for
maintaining
body posture in
swimming by
coordinating muscular
activities, including
the actions of swim Figure 2.1.2 Main parts of a fish’ brain

bladder Mindanao State University – Main Campus

- This is the single-lobed part behind the optic lobes and varies in size and morphology between species.
- It is responsible for maintaining body posture in swimming by coordinating muscular activities, including
the actions of swim bladder.

Rhombencephalon (Hindbrain):
Metencephalon (dogfish) - cerebellum, part of the fourth ventricle
Myelencephalon (dogfish) - the posterior part of the fourth ventricle, Posterior Choroid Plexus, and
Medulla Oblongata, nerves V to X
 45

5. Myelencephalon
or medulla
oblongata
➢ carries
information
derived from
general sensory,
cutaneous,
vestibular,
lateral line and
trigeminal nerve fibers
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Figure 2.1.2 Main parts of a fish’

brain
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Myelencephalon (dogfish) - the posterior part of the fourth ventricle, Posterior Choroid Plexus,
and Medulla Oblongata, nerves V to X

Sensory Information Processing:

•The myelencephalon is responsible for processing sensory information derived from various
sensory systems. It receives input from:
• General Sensory Fibers: These fibers carry information from the skin and other
sensory receptors throughout the body, allowing the fish to perceive touch,
temperature, and pain.
• Cutaneous Sensory Fibers: Specifically related to sensations from the skin, these
fibers contribute to the fish's ability to detect changes in its environment.
• Vestibular System: The vestibular system helps maintain balance and orientation by
processing information about head position and movement. The medulla oblongata plays
a role in integrating this information to help the fish navigate effectively in
water.
• Lateral Line System: This unique sensory system allows fish to detect water
movements and vibrations, providing critical information about nearby objects,
predators, and prey.
• Trigeminal Nerve Fibers: These fibers transmit sensory information from the face
and head region, contributing to the fish's ability to detect stimuli in its immediate
environment.

46

6. Spinal Cord
➢ the major link to the
brain
for
sensory
input and
brain
mediated
responses
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Figure 2.1.2 Main parts of a fish’ brain
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 47
NERVOUS SYSTEM (NS) OF INVERTEBRATES

➢ simpler NS
➢ neurons are in charge of the
synapse
➢ glial
cells are in
charge of important
functions of neuronal and
homeostatic
modulation
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- The nervous system (NS) of invertebrates and vertebrates is composed of two main types of
cells: neurons and glia. In both types of organisms, nerve cells have similarities in
biochemistry and functionality.
- A ganglion is a group or collection of nerve cell bodies. Ganglia of considerable size at the
anterior (or head) end of the body in many invertebrate species can be considered
a primitive brain.
- A nerve net is a collection of separate, but "connected" neurons. These are primitive nerve arrangement
forming the entire nervous system of many cnidarians and a part of more advanced nervous systems. -
synapse, the site of transmission of electric nerve impulses between two nerve cells (neurons)
or between a neuron and a gland or muscle cell (effector).

48
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- The nervous system (NS) of invertebrates and vertebrates is composed of two main types of
cells: neurons and glia. In both types of organisms, nerve cells have similarities in
biochemistry and functionality
➢invertebrate NSs consist of nerve nets, ganglia, and nerve cords with a variation
in organization across species.
➢A ganglion is a group or collection of nerve cell bodies. Ganglia of considerable size at the
anterior (or head) end of the body in many invertebrate species can be considered a primitive
brain.
➢A nerve net is a collection of separate, but "connected" neurons. These are primitive
nerve arrangement forming the entire nervous system of many cnidarians and a part of
more advanced nervous systems.

49
the squid Loligo pealei are two
examples of marine
key organisms in the
➢sea slug/hare neurosciences field
Aplysia
californica and
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Aplysia californica Sciences Mindanao State University –

Main Campus

- They are also commonly called sea

hares because their posterior
chemosensory tentacles, the
rhinophores, stick up like ears.
- well-known as 'model organisms' in neuroscience,
particularly work on the cellular biology
of learning and memory
- The most obvious advantage of Aplysia is the large neurons
that facilitate physiological, biochemical and genomic studies at
the level of single cells and their compartments.
- Their giant neurons, which are easy to work with and

include 50

the largest found in nature. These neurons are the largest

 somatic cells in the animal kingdom

Loligo pealei
- quid(Loligo pealei) giant fiber system: a model for studying
neurodegeneration and dementia?
- The giant fiber system of the squid Loligo pealei mediates
the escape response and is an important neurobiological
model.

50
 SEA SLUG/HARE

1. buccal ganglia -
responsible for
controlling the feeding
apparatus
2. cerebral ganglion
- receives inputs
from and sends
outputs to most
other ganglia;
may play a critical
role in decision making
3. Pleural ganglion & 4. Pedal
ganglion - play important roles in
controlling locomotion and other
movements of the head of the
animal

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- Although the adaptive behavior of Aplysia is similar to that seen in more complex animals, and in humans, its
nervous system is much easier to analyze. In the entire nervous system, there are only about 20,000 neurons,
organized into discrete collections called ganglia. Each of these ganglia are dedicated to the sensing and control of
particular parts of the animal. For example, the abdominal ganglion controls many important functions, such as
heartbeat, and components of the body responsible for the animal’s breathing behavior, including respiratory
pumping of water over the gill and control of the siphon. The pedal/pleural ganglia play important roles in
controlling locomotion and other movements of the head of the animal. The buccal ganglia control the feeding
apparatus, the buccal mass. The cerebral ganglion controls the head and lips, and is the one ganglion that receives
input from all the other ganglia, and thus is likely to provide overall control signals that allow the animal to choose
among different behaviors as the environment changes.
- Above is a schematic diagram of the nervous system of Aplysia, showing the major collections of nerve cells, which
are referred to as “ganglia”. An inset shows where the ganglia are located in the animal. Each ganglion contains
about 2,000 neurons, and the entire nervous system contains about 20,000 neurons. One ganglion, the cerebral
ganglion (2), receives inputs from and sends outputs to most other ganglia, and thus may play a critical role in
decision making. The buccal ganglia (1) are responsible for controlling the feeding apparatus, and are a major
focus of our laboratory. 1. Buccal ganglion. 2. Cerebral ganglion. 3. Pleural ganglion. 4. Pedal ganglion. 5.
Abdominal ganglion. 6. Branchial ganglion. 7. Osphradial ganglion. 8. Genital ganglion. Credit: Anastasiya Kurylyuk.
 51

5. Abdominal ganglion - controls many

important functions, such as
heartbeat, and
components of the
body responsible for
the animal’s
breathing
behavior,
including
respiratory
pumping of water over the gill
and control of the siphon.
6. Branchial ganglion
7. Osphradial ganglion (osphradium of
molluscs is assumed to be a sensory organ)
8. Genital ganglion
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Sciences
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52
 College of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
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53
without a nervous system.

➢ Sponges are the only

multicellular animals
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Sponges are among the most primitive of all animals. They are immobile, and live by
filtering detritus from the water. They have no brains or, for that matter, any neurons,
organs or even tissues (while sponges have tissues and some regionalization
of the body is present, complex tissues such as conventional muscle and
nerves are absent).

Cells frequently communicate with one another, and neurons do so by passing

electrical or chemical signals through tiny, targeted connections called synapses.
Previous research has found that sponges possess genes encoding proteins that
typically help synapses to function, despite the animals’ lack of neurons.

A study published on 4 November in Science now reveals that sponges use an

intricate cell communication system to regulate their feeding and to
potentially weed out invading bacteria.
 54
LESSON 1 SENSING THE ENVIRONMENT
1. The Nervous System
2. Chemoreception
3. Mechanoreception
4. Electroreception
5. Thermoreception
6. Vision

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 55

➢ Sensory reception begins in

organs containing cells, called
receptor cells

(specialized to
respond to particular kinds of
stimuli)
➢ Sensory receptors:
chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors,
 electroreceptors, thermoreceptors,
and photoreceptors

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- Sensory organs provide the only channels of communication from the external world into the nervous system. -
Sensory input is gathered constantly from the environment, and it interacts with the organization and properties of
the nervous system, to provide each animal with its entire store of "knowledge.“
- Sensory reception begins in organs containing cells, called receptor cells, that are specialized to respond to
particular kinds of stimuli (Figure 2.1.3).
- Sensory organs are positioned at many locations both on the surface and inside of the body, and they constitute
the first step in gathering sensory information.
- The names of receptors are based on the forms of energy to which they are most sensitive: chemical,
mechanical, electrical, thermal, and light.
- (photo) Sensory receptors are specialized to respond to only certain stimuli. Although many forms of energy may
impinge on a receptor (represented by arrows A, B, and C), only one form-in this case, stimulus B-effectively
activates the receptor at weak to moderate levels of stimulus energy. Other kinds of stimuli fail to activate the
receptor at such low energy levels. Often, the signal is chemically amplified within the receptor cell and, in order
for it to be effective, the intracellular chemical signal must cause membrane channels to open (or, in some
cases, to close), producing a neuronal signal that can travel to the central nervous system (CNS).

56
CHEMORECEPTION

➢ olfaction (or smell)

➢ gustation (or taste)
➢ senses of smell and taste both
act as distance receptors
and as contact receptors

distance receptors,
detecting stimuli located remote from receptors,
 similar to hearing and vision
contact receptors, detecting stimuli that are in direct
contact with body surface, similar to touch and pain
receptors
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- Fish, like all other vertebrates, detect chemical stimuli through olfaction (or smell), gustation (or taste), and less
well-defined senses represented by the general chemical senses and the solitary chemosensory cell
- In water, in contrast with terrestrial, the senses of smell and taste both act as distance receptors, detecting stimuli
located remote from receptors, similar to hearing and vision,
- and act as contact receptors, detecting stimuli that are in direct contact with body surface, similar to touch and pain
receptors.

Role in Feeding
•Chemoreception is essential for finding food, especially for fish that live in turbid waters where
visibility is limited. They rely on detecting the scent of prey or the taste of potential food in the
water.
•Predatory fish often use olfactory cues to locate prey, while herbivorous and omnivorous fish
may rely on both smell and taste to find edible plant matter or detritus.

Reproductive Behavior
•Many fish species release pheromones that signal readiness to spawn. These chemical signals
help fish locate potential mates, synchronize spawning, and enhance reproductive success.
•During spawning seasons, males and females can detect pheromones released by the opposite
sex, which helps them find each other in the vastness of their aquatic environment.

57
1. SMELL (OLFACTION)

➢ olfactory
rosette, the
organ that
detects
chemicals
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- The bottom of each nasal pouch bears a series of olfactory laminae which form the olfactory rosette – the organ
that detects chemicals.
- The olfactory rosette is composed of olfactory cells, supporting cells and basal cells.
- (photo) Overview of the fish brain. (A) Dorsal view of the head of a crucian carp showing the brain and the olfactory
system. (B) Schematic drawing of the olfactory tract as it enters the telencephalon, demonstrating three distinct
bundles. The medial part of the medial olfactory tract in blue, the lateral part of the medial olfactory tract in red,
and the lateral olfactory tract in green
- Olfaction results from stimulation of the sensory receptor cells in the olfactory organs, which are innervated by the
olfactory nerve.

58
a
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- The opening of each nostril is divided into 2 parts by a fold of skin. This forms an anterior inlet, and a posterior
outlet. Water enters the anterior naris (pl. nares) and leaves through the posterior naris as the fish swims - (photo)
Fish Olfactory System ; b. Photograph of the head of a preserved northern pike (Esoxlucius) specimen (total length
17 cm), lateral (l.h.s.) aspect. Boxed region highlights the anterior (A) and posterior (P) nostrils.

1. The two nostrils are located on the fish's snout, usually symmetrical and positioned above the
mouth.
2. Inside the fish, both nares lead into a single olfactory chamber, which houses sensory cells
that detect chemical signals in the water.
3. Water enters the nares, passes over the olfactory receptors in the chamber, and then typically
exits through the same nares. This setup helps the fish sense its surroundings, including food
sources and predators.

59
2. TASTE (GUSTATION)

➢ important for the

location and identification
of food ➢ can be a very
highly developed sense (depending on the
ecology of the species)
➢ example, some minnows (Cyprinids) have a
sensitivity to sugars and salts that are 512 and
184 times higher than humans

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60
➢ taste receptors can
be found in more than
one location on the
body
 Schematic drawing of a typical a pear or onion-shaped teleost
taste bud

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- (photo) Schematic drawing of a typical a pear or onion-shaped teleost taste bud (TB): Cd, dark cells with numerous
small microvilli; Cl, light cells with one thick microvillus; Cb, Merkel-like basal cells. Marginal cells (Cm), which do
not belong to the TB proper, form the interface to the epithelial cells (Ce). The TB sits on a dermal papilla (DP). The
TB nerve (TBN) reaches into the TB to form the organ’s nerve fibre plexus (NFP). The small vesicles in the diagram
represent the synaptic contacts. BL, basal lamina; RA, receptor area; VC, capillary vessel. (From Hansen et al.,
2002, with permission from WILEY).

61

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- Besides being found numerously in the head, mouth, tongue, pharynx, skin, gill arches and rakers, some
fish, such as the Siluriformes (Catfish) have well developed barbelsthat have dense concentrations of
taste receptor cells
- Some fish have taste buds on specialized pectoral fin rays

62

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- Tastebuds in fish can actually be found all over the body

- (left photo) A catfish has tastebuds distributed all over its body. Each dot represents 100 tastebuds. Higher
concentrations are found on the lips and barbells and are indicated by small dots and solid black.

- (right photo) The density of tastebuds found on different areas of the body of Amphilius natalensis viewed (●)
dorsally and (○) ventrally. The dashed line separates the dorsal and ventral perspectives. Parts A to C has higher
tastebud density (near lips-barbels-pharynx area).
 - In elasmobranchs, the tastebuds are restricted to the mouth and pharynx only.

63

3. CHEMORECEPTION IN FISH

➢ Feeding
Behavior
-species selectively responds to a
specific mixture of compounds
Ex: juvenile sockeye salmon
(Oncorhynchus nerka) responds
only to extracts of those foods
constituting their current diet

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- Chemoreception is important in the behavioral interactions of fish. The most important are: Feeding Behavior,
Reproductive Behavior, Alarm Substance and Fright Reaction, Homing of Salmon
- Searching for feeding stimulating substances. Each species selectively responds to a specific mixture of compounds. -
For example, an observation on juvenile sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) where they respond only to extracts of
those foods constituting their current diet, but they change their extract preference concomitantly after gradual
weaning to a new diet.
 64
- Feeding behavior is triggered by single amino acids
Ex: Rainbow trout, lake char
(Salvelinus namaycush), lake
whitefish (Coregonus
clupeaformis), and
goldfish respond to 10–6 M
Cys

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- Feeding behavior is triggered by single amino acids.

- For example, Rainbow trout, lake char (Salvelinus namaycush), lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis),
and goldfish respond to 10–6 M Cys, the most potent olfactory stimulating amino acid
- (photo) Diagram showing feeding behavior patterns elicited by food extract and chemical stimulation in
fishes. On detection of stimuli, fish increase locomotor activity (appetitive behavior) followed by
species-specific search behavior patterns: (a) bottom searching in rainbow trout, (b)
 exploratory/escape behavior against the wall in lake whitefish, (c) surfacing/jumping in lake char, and
(d) gravel pecking in goldfish.

Feeding behaviors in fish are often triggered by specific amino acids that they can
detect through olfactory receptors. These chemical cues prompt the fish to begin
searching for food, leading to increased locomotor activity. After detecting the stimuli,
each species demonstrates its unique search behavior:
•Rainbow trout search along the bottom,
•Lake whitefish explore along the edges or walls,
•Lake char surface or jump, and
•Goldfish peck at gravel.

65
-Avoiding and spitting the
noxious/unpalatable

Ex: Alkaloids stimulate the fish

gustatory receptors at extremely
low concentrations or induce
avoidance behavior and suppress
locomotor activities

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- Avoiding and spitting the noxious/unpalatable.

- Alkaloids such as quinine, strychnine, and caffeine stimulate the fish gustatory receptors at extremely low
concentrations, and induce avoidance behavior and suppress locomotor activities in salmonids and goldfish. (photo)
Feeding behavior of goldfish includes: (1) a sectorial intake of food particles, (2) a sorting stage where food is
separated from nonfood within the oropharyngeal cavity, and (3) a final stage involving either acceptance or rejection
of the particles. Modified from Lamb and Finger (1995).

Avoidance and Rejection Behavior:

1.Gustatory Receptors and Detection:
1. Fish have taste receptors located not just in their mouths but also on their
lips, barbels, and even fins. These receptors allow them to detect chemicals
 when they come into contact with food or other substances in the water.
2. When a fish encounters something with a noxious (harmful) or unpalatable
taste, such as certain alkaloids, these taste receptors are stimulated, leading
to an immediate response.
2.Alkaloids as Chemical Deterrents:
1. Alkaloids are naturally occurring compounds that are often bitter and can be
toxic. They are found in many plants and some animals, usually as a defense
mechanism to deter predators.
2. When fish detect alkaloids, even at very low concentrations, their gustatory
receptors are stimulated. This sends signals to the brain indicating that the
substance might be harmful or unpleasant to eat.
3.Behavioral Response - Avoidance:

66
1. Upon detecting the bitter or noxious substance, fish exhibit a behavioral
avoidance response. This can involve:
1. Spitting out the food item to reject it.
2. Ceasing feeding activities if the substance is perceived as harmful.
3. Reduced locomotor activity, meaning the fish may move away from
the source of the chemical and become less active, as a way to avoid
further exposure to the unpleasant substance.
 66
➢ Reproductive role in every aspect of the
Behavior - reproductive
olfaction exerts process
a functional Ex. spawning
 synchrony in goldfish
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- In fish, olfaction exerts a functional role in every aspect of the reproductive process, from initial attraction and
recognition of sexual status to sexual development of the young.
- For example, pre-ovulatory female goldfish sequentially release two hormonal pheromones and prostaglandins. -
The pheromonesinduce female oocyte maturation and is released into the water. This pheromone is detected by
the male olfactory system and stimulates the synthesis of testicular hormone, which in turn evokes an increase in
milt production
- females produce prostaglandins to trigger female spawning behavior. Circulating prostaglandins are subsequently
metabolized and prostaglandins released into the water, where they function as a postovulatory pheromone
that stimulates male, thus resulting in spawning synchrony.

67
➢ Alarm Substance synthetic nitrogen oxide
and Fright Reaction
- Fish exhibit anti
predator responses
when exposed to
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- Putative Alarm Substance. Unlike mucous cells (MC), club cells (alarm substance cells or ASC) lack openings at
the skin surface, and release their contents only when the skin is injured. Fish exhibit anti-predator responses
(increased shoaling and decreased area use), a sign of fright reaction, when exposed to synthetic nitrogen oxide
similar to its alarm substance and to conspecific skin extracts.

- Putative - generally considered or reputed to be; supposed; assumed

- (photo) Photomicrograph showing club cells (alarm substance cells or ASC) in the epidermis of the minnow
(Phoxinus phoxinus). ASC, alarm substance cells; LC, light colored region; M, mucus; N, nucleus. Adapted from
Pfeiffer (1960).

Alarm Substance Cells (ASC) and Their Role:

•Alarm Substance Cells (ASC), also known as club cells, are specialized cells found in
the skin of certain fish species, such as minnows (Phoxinus phoxinus).
•Unlike mucous cells (MC), which secrete mucus onto the skin surface for protection
and lubrication, club cells do not have openings that lead to the outside of the skin.
•These cells are designed to store their contents until the skin is injured. When the
fish is harmed (e.g., by a predator’s bite), the alarm substance is released into the
water.

•Fright Reaction and Anti-Predator Behavior:

 •When these alarm substances are released due to skin injury, they act as a chemical

68

signal to other fish in the area. The alarm substance signals that a predator is nearby,
triggering a fright reaction.
•Fish exposed to these substances show anti-predator behaviors such as:
• Increased shoaling: Fish may come together in tighter groups to reduce the
likelihood of being singled out by a predator. This behavior is known as
schooling or shoaling, which offers safety in numbers.
• Decreased area use: Fish might reduce their movement and avoid open
areas, making it harder for predators to spot and capture them.
 68

➢ Homing of Salmon odors,

and adults later use
- salmon imprint
this odorant
to
memory as a
home-stream
migratory cue to
guide them back to their
natal home stream.

- Salmons are known for their spectacular migration. - This

impressive feat comprises three migratory phases:

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(1) downstream journey of the young to the oceans,

(2) return of spawning adults to the coastal area near the entrance to their home streams, and
(3) the upstream migration. Phases 1 and 2 are thought to rely primarily on non-chemosensory
mechanisms, and will not be discussed here.
- Salmon do not return to the stream to which their parents returned, but return instead to the stream where they
themselves spent the period between the time of transfer and release (olfactory imprinting during PST,
parr-smolt transformation).
- During a developmental period, PST, salmon imprint to home-stream odors, and adults later use this odorant
memory as a migratory cue to guide them back to their natal home stream.
- Smoltification (also known as Parr-Smolt transformation) is a complex series of physiological changes where young
salmonid fish adapt from living in fresh water to living in seawater
- See Ueda 2011 Physiological mechanism of homing migration in Pacific salmon from behavioral to molecular
biological approaches
* amino acids dissolved in the natal stream water are likely natal stream odors (ex. Dissolved free
amino acids or DFAA)
* biofilms are a major source of DFAA in stream water. There are many possible factors affecting
the DFAA compositions both inside and outside of the stream environment, such as soils, vegetation, litter, pollen,
dew, and various microbial activities (Thomas, 1997). Among these factors, the roles of complex microbial
communities called biofilms have been intensively investigated (Costerton et al., 1994; Nosyk et al., 2008). A biofilm
consists of various microorganisms, and is embedded into a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances.
 69
4. Chemoreception in invertebrates

➢ have a well-developed
chemical sense that enables
the animals to monitor
changes in the chemical
composition of the
aqueous environment
➢ detect stimulants of feeding behavior (amino
acids, quaternary ammonium compounds, and
nucleotides)
➢ release specific chemicals serving as sex
pheromones that stimulate aspects of reproductive
behavior

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- chemoreception in aquatic invertebrates, animals that, by the nature of their habitat, sense molecules in solution, as
is typical of vertebrate taste. Many aquatic invertebrates have a well-developed chemical sense that enables the
animals to monitor changes in the chemical composition of the aqueous environment in which they are
immersed. The chemicals most frequently identified as stimulants of feeding behavior in aquatic invertebrates
are some of the simple, common tissue metabolites, especially the amino acids, quaternary ammonium
compounds, and nucleotides. Several aquatic invertebrates are known to release specific chemicals serving as sex
pheromones that stimulate aspects of reproductive behavior in individuals of the opposite sex. The crustaceans
are a diverse group of primarily aquatic invertebrates, but most is known about chemoreception in the larger,
decapod crustaceans since crabs, lobsters, and crayfish provide favorable preparations for neurobiological
research. By analogy with insects, the terms “smell” and “taste” have been applied to chemoreception in decapod
crustaceans. Ache and Carr 1989
 70

Example:
Spiny lobster
as example
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Avoiders have some mechanism of getting away from an environmental problem, either in space (e.g. seeking
unstressed microhabitats in crevices or burrows, or large-scale migration) or in time (using torpor, producing a
resistant egg, pupa or cyst).

Torpor – a state of lowered physiological activity typically characterized by reduced metabolism, heart rate,
respiration, and body temperature that occurs in varying degrees especially in hibernating and estivating animals

Photo: Life cycle of the Caribbean spiny lobster Panulirus argus and the role of chemosensory mediated attraction
and avoidance in its ecology. CL, carapace length. Juvenile P. argus are social but able to discern attractive chemical
cues emanating from shelters containing healthy conspecifics (of the same species) and co-habiting crustaceans
(spider crab Damithrax spinosissimus), from aversive chemical cues emanating from shelters containing competitors
(stone crab Menippe mercenaria), predators (octopus Octopus briarius) and conspecifics infected with the lethal virus
PaV1. Spider crab (left) and octopus drawings used with permission from Helen Casey. All other drawings are public
domain (Behringer, Karvonen, & Bojko, 2018).

71
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- Crustaceans bear multiple parallel chemosensory pathways represented by different populations of unimodal
chemosensory (the aesthetascs for olfaction) and bimodal chemo- and mechanosensory sensilla on the
mouthparts, the walking limbs and primarily on their two pairs of antennae
- (photo) decapod crustacean chemosensory systems. (a, b) Location of aesthetascs mediating olfaction
(white numbers) and bimodal chemo-/mechanosensory sensilla mediating distributed chemoreception
(black numbers) on different body parts and appendages of the spiny lobster, Panulirus argus (1,
lateral flagellum of antennule; 2, medial flagellum of antennule; 3, 2nd antenna; 4, mouthpart
appendages; 5, walking legs; 6, gill chamber; 7, tail fan).
- Note that there is only one type of olfactory sensilla (aesthetascs) restricted to one head appendage
(antennule). Modified from Perry Institute for Marine Science, Life Cycle Poster Series: a; Schmidt
and Mellon (2011): b.

See 2017_Harzsch and Krieger_Crustacean olfactory systems_A comparative review and a crustacean perspective on
olfaction in insects
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LESSON 1 SENSING THE ENVIRONMENT
1. The Nervous System
2. Chemoreception
3. Mechanoreception
4. Electroreception
5. Thermoreception
6. Vision

College of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences

Mindanao State University – Main Campus
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