NETWORK

MODULE 1
1. What is intranet?
An intranet is a private network that can only be accessed by authorized users. The prefix
"intra" means "internal" and therefore implies an intranet is designed for internal
communications. ... For example, a business may create an intranet to allow employees to
securely share messages and files with each other.
2. What are the criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?
Network criteria: A network must be able to meet certain number of criteria. The most
important are Performance, Reliability and Security.
Performance: Can be measured by transit time and response time. Transit time is the
amountof time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response
time is theelapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network
depends onthe number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capacities of the
connectedhardware and the efficiency of the software.
Reliability: Is measured by the frequency of failures, the time it takes a link to recover
fromfailure and the network robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: This refers to the ability to protect data from unauthorized access.
3. What are the key design issues of a computer network?
Connectivity, Cost-effective Resource Sharing, Support for common Services,and
Performance
4. Explain the different transmission medium used in networks.
Transmission media is classified into two types namely wired media & wireless media.
The medium characteristics of wired media are more significant but, in wireless media
the signal characteristics are important.

Guided Media This kind of transmission media is also known as wired otherwise
bounded media. In this type, the signals can be transmitted directly & restricted in a thin
path through physical links.The main features of guided media mainly include secure,
high-speed, and used in small distances. This kind of media is classified into three types
which are discussed below.

Twisted Pair Cable It includes two separately protected conductor wires. Normally, some
pairs of cables are packaged jointly in a protective cover. This is the most frequently used
type of transmission media and it is available in two types.

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)This UTP cable has the capacity to block interference. It
doesn’t depend on a physical guard and used in telephonic applications. The advantage of
UTP is a low cost, very simple to install, and high speed. The disadvantages of UTP is
liable to exterior interference, transmits in fewer distances, and less capacity.

STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) STP cables includes a particular jacket for blocking outside
interference. It is used in rapid data rate Ethernet, in voice & data channels of telephone
lines.The main advantages of STP cable mainly include good speed, removes crosstalk.
The main disadvantages are hard to manufacture as well as install, It is expensive and
bulky also

Coaxial Cable This cable contains an external plastic cover and it includes two parallel
conductors where each conductor includes a separate protection cover. This cable is used
to transmit data in two modes like baseband mode as well as broadband mode. This cable
is widely used in cable TVs & analog TV networks.The advantages of the coaxial cable
include high bandwidth, noise immunity is good, low cost and simple to install. The
disadvantage of this cable is, the failure of cable can disturb the whole network

Optical Fibre CableThis cable uses the notion of light reflected through a core that is
made with plastic or glass. The core is enclosed with less thick plastic or glass and it is
known as the cladding, used for large volume data transmission.The main advantages of
this cable include lightweight, capacity & bandwidth will be increased, signal attenuation
is less, etc. The disadvantages are high cost, fragile, installation & maintenance is
difficult and unidirectional.

Unguided Media It is also known as unbounded otherwise wireless transmission media. It

doesn’t require any physical medium to transmit electromagnetic signals. The main
features of this media are less secure, the signal can be transmitted through air, and
applicable for large distances. There are three types of unguided media which are
discussed below.

Radio waves These waves are very easy to produce as well as penetrate through
buildings. In this, the transmitting & receiving antennas no need to align. The frequency
range of these waves ranges from 3 kHz to 1GHz. These waves are used in AM &FM
 radios for transmission. These waves are classified into two types namely Terrestrial &
Satellite.

Microwaves It is a sightline transmission which means the transmitting & receiving

antennas need to align correctly with each other. The distance which is covered through
the signal can be directly proportional to the antenna’s height. The frequency range of
microwaves ranges from 1GHz to 300GHz. These are extensively used in TV distribution
& mobile phone communication

Infrared WavesInfrared (IR) waves are used in extremely small distance communication
as they cannot go through obstacles. So it stops intrusion between systems. The range of
frequency of these waves is 300GHz to 400THz. These waves are used in TV remotes,
keyboards, wireless mouse, printer, etc.
5. Briefly explain the channel access methods that have been used on local area bus
network.
In telecommunications and computer networks, a channel access method or multiple
access method allows more than two terminals connected to the same transmission
medium to transmit over it and to share its capacity.
Examples of shared physical media are wireless networks, bus networks, ring networks
and point-to-point links operating in half-duplex mode.
A bus network is a network topology in which nodes are directly connected to a common
half-duplex link called a bus. A host on a bus network is called a station. In a bus
network, every station will receive all network traffic, and the traffic generated by each
station has equal transmission priority. A bus network forms a single network segment
and collision domain. In order for nodes to share the bus, they use a medium access
control technology such as carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA) or a bus master.

6. Explain about different network topologies in detail.

OR
Explain different types of topologies used in network.
OR
Give any one disadvantage of bus network topology.
OR
Discuss the four basic topologies in terms of line configuration.
OR
Describe the features of star topology.
Network topologies outline how devices are connected together and how data is
transmitted from one node to another.
A logical network topology is a conceptual representation of how devices operate at
particular layers of abstraction. A physical topology details how devices are physically
connected. Logical and physical topologies can both be represented as visual diagrams.
A network topology map is a map that allows an administrator to see the physical
network layout of connected devices. Having the map of a network’s topology on hand is
very useful for understanding how devices connect to each other and the best techniques
for troubleshooting.
In a computer network, there are mainly five types of physical topology, they are:
Bus Topology
Ring Topology
Star Topology
Mesh Topology
Hybrid Topology

Bus topology is the simplest kind of topology in which a common bus or channel is used
for communication in the network. The bus is connected to various taps and droplines.
Taps are the connectors, while drop lines are the cables connecting the bus with the
computer. In other words, there is only a single transmission line for all nodes.

When a sender sends a message, all other computers can hear it, but only the receiver
accepts it(verifying the mac address attached with the data frame) and others reject it.
Bus technology is mainly suited for small networks like LAN, etc.
In this topology, the bus acts as the backbone of the network, this joins every computer
and peripherals in the network. Both ends of the shared channel have line terminators.
The data is sent only in one direction and as soon as it reaches the end, the terminator
removes the data from the communication line(to prevent signal bounce and data flow
disruption).
Features of Bus Topology
• It transmits data only in one direction.
• Every device is connected to a single cable
 Advantages of Bus Topology
• It is cost effective.
• Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
• Used in small networks.
• It is easy to understand.
• Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
• Cables fails then whole network fails.
• If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
• Cable has a limited length.
• It is slower than the ring topology.

Ring topology is a topology in which each computer is connected to exactly two other computers
to form the ring. The message passing is unidirectional and circular in nature.

This network topology is deterministic in nature, i.e., each computer is given access for
transmission at a fixed time interval. All the nodes are connected in a closed-loop. This topology
mainly works on a token-based system and the token travels in a loop in one specific direction.

In a ring topology, if a token is free then the node can capture the token and attach the data and
destination address to the token, and then leaves the token for communication. When this token
reaches the destination node, the data is removed by the receiver and the token is made free to

carry the next data.

Features of Ring Topology

A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the
data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.

The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections

between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in
them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.

Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through
each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

• Easy Installation.
• Less Cabling Required.
• Reduces chances of data collision(unidirectional).
• Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not pass the token).
• Each node gets the same access time.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

• If a node fails, the whole network will fail.

• Slow data transmission speed(each message has to go through the ring path).
• Difficult to reconfigure(we have to break the ring).

Star topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are connected to a
centralized hub. The hub or switch acts as a middleware between the nodes. Any node requesting
for service or providing service, first contact the hub for communication.

The central device(hub or switch) has point to point communication link(the dedicated link
between the devices which cannot be accessed by some other computer) with the devices.In a
star topology, hub and switch act as a server, and the other connected devices act as clients. Only
one input-output port and one cable are required to connect a node to the central device. This
topology is better in terms of security because the data does not pass through every
node.Example High-Speed LAN
Features of Star Topology

• Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

• Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
• Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

• Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

• Hub can be upgraded easily.
• Easy to troubleshoot.
• Easy to setup and modify.
• Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

• Cost of installation is high.

• Expensive to use.
• If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
• Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

Mesh topology is a computer network topology in which nodes are interconnected with each
other. In other words, direct communication takes place between the nodes in the network.

There are mainly two types of Mesh:

• Full Mesh: In which each node is connected to every other node in the network.
• Partial Mesh: In which, some nodes are not connected to every node in the network.

In a fully connected mesh topology, each device has a point to point link with every other device
in the network. If there are 'n' devices in the network, then each device has exactly '(n-1)' input-
output ports and communication links. These links are simplex links, i.e., the data moves only in
one direction. A duplex link(in which data can travel in both the directions simultaneously) can
replace two simplex links.Example, the Internet(WAN).
Features of Mesh Topology

• Fully connected.
• Robust.
• Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

• Each connection can carry its own data load.

• It is robust.
• Fault is diagnosed easily.
• Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

• Installation and configuration is difficult.

• Cabling cost is more.
• Bulk wiring is required.

A Hybrid topology is a computer topology which is a combination of two or more topologies. In

practical use, they are the most widely used.In this topology, all topologies are interconnected
according to the needs to form a hybrid. All the good features of each topology can be used to
make an efficient hybrid topology.

Features of Hybrid Topology

• It is a combination of two or topologies

• Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology

• Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

• Effective.
• Scalable as size can be increased easily.
• Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

• Complex in design.
• Costly.

7. Explain the characteristic of LAN and WAN in detail.

OR
8. What are the different categories of networks?
OR

9. What are the different categories of networks? Explain each one.

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and
applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of
four types: Computer Network Types
LAN(Local Area Network)
PAN(Personal Area Network)
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
WAN(Wide Area Network)
Local Area Network (LAN)Local area network is a group of computers connected with
each other in a small places such as school, hospital, apartment etc.It is a widely useful
network for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other application. The
simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer in someone's home
or office.
Characteristics of LAN
• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
• LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and
Ethernet.
Advantages of LAN
• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 • You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the
licensed software for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server
computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among
all the LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial
cost of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not
offer good privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin
is not able to secure centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues
related to software setup and hardware failures
Personal Area Network(PAN)PAN is a computer network formed around a person. It
generally consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used
for establishing communication among these personal devices for connecting to a digital
network and the internet.

Characteristics of PAN
• It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.
• Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a single
user.
• PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
• It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
• Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.
Advantages of PAN
• PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
• It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
• Strictly restricted to a small area
Disadvantages of PAN
• It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
• Distance limits.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)MAN network covers larger area by connections LANs to a
larger network of computers. In Metropolitan area network various Local area networks are
connected with each other through telephone lines. The size of the Metropolitan area network is
larger than LANs and smaller than WANs(wide area networks), a MANs covers the larger area
of a city or town.
Characteristics of MAN
• It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
• Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Advantages of MAN
• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
• The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.
• A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers
WAN (Wide Area Network) Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data.
The size of the WAN is larger than LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country, continent or
even a whole world. Internet connection is an example of WAN. Other examples of WAN are
mobile broadband connections such as 3G, 4G etc.
Characteristics of WAN:
• The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the
latest files.
• Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.
Advantages of WAN:
• Centralized infrastructure: One of the main advantage of WAN is the that we do not need
to maintain the backup and store data on local system as everything is stored online on a
data centre, from where we can access the data through WAN.
• Privacy: We can setup the WAN in such a way that it encrypts the data that we share
online that way the data is secure and minimises the risk of unauthorized access.
• Increased Bandwidth: With the WAN we get to choose the bandwidth based on the need,
a large organization can have larger bandwidth that can carry large amount of data faster
and efficiently.
• Area: A WAN can cover a large area or even a whole world though internet connection
thus we can connect with the person in another country through WAN which is not
possible is other type of computer networks.

Disadvantages of WAN:
• Antivirus: Since our systems are connected with the large amount of systems, there is
possibility that we may unknowingly download the virus that can affect our system
and become threat to our privacy and may lead to data loss.
• Expensive: Cost of installation is very high.
• Issue resolution: Issue resolution takes time as the WAN covers large area, it is really
difficult to pin point the exact location where the issues raised and causing the
problem.
Some other important types of networks:
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network):WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) helps you to
link single or multiple devices using wireless communication within a limited area like home,
school, or office building. It gives users an ability to move around within a local coverage
area which may be connected to the network.
Storage Area Network:A Storage Area Network is a type of network which allows
consolidated, block-level data storage. It is mainly used to make storage devices, like disk
arrays, optical jukeboxes, and tape libraries.
Enterprise private network:Enterprise private network (EPN) networks are build and owned
by businesses that want to securely connect numerous locations in order to share various
computer resources.
Campus Area Network:A Campus Area Network is made up of an interconnection of LANs
within a specific geographical area. For example, a university campus can be linked with a
variety of campus buildings to connect all the academic departments.
Virtual Area Network:A VPN is a private network which uses a public network to connect
remote sites or users together. The VPN network uses "virtual" connections routed through
the internet from the enterprise's private network or a third-party VPN service to the remote
site.It is a free or paid service that keeps your web browsing secure and private over public
Wi-Fi hotspots.
10. What are the features provided by layering?
The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
• Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of
services to manage communications and run the applications.
• It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
• It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower
to higher layer without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore,
any modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
• The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to
network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower
to a higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are
implemented.
11. Specify the function of transport layer, network layer and data link layer in OSI reference
model. Discuss the types of address related with these layers and their functions.
OR
Describe the functions of physical layer and data link layer.
OR
Explain the OSI reference model with the help of a neat diagram.
OSI Model
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
The seven layers of the OSI Model are a physical layer, data link layer, network layer,
transport layer, session layer, presentation layer, and application layer, as shown in the
following diagram −
 The physical layer, data link layer and the network layer are the network support layers.
The layers manage a physical transfer of data from one device to another. Session layer,
presentation layer, and application layer are the user support layers. These layers allow
communication among unrelated software in dissimilar environments. Transport layer
links the two groups.
Physical Layer − Its function is to transmit individual bits from one node to another over
a physical medium.
It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:

Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.

Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or

full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.

Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.

Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

Data Link Layer− It is responsible for the reliable transfer of data frames from one node to
another connected by the physical layer.

• This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a
local network.
• It contains two sub-layers:

Logical Link Control Layer

• It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that
is receiving.
• It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
• It also provides flow control.

Media Access Control Layer

• A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the
network's physical layer.
• It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known
as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which
is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.

Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.

Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no
data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher
processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.

Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the
receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.

Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.

Network Layer − It manages the delivery of individual data packets from source to
destination through appropriate addressing and routing.
 • It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.
• It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on
the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
• The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
• Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide
the routing services within an internetwork.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It

provides a logical connection between different devices.

Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.

Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.

Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet
protocol (IP).

Transport Layer −It is responsible for delivery of the entire message from the source host
to destination host.

• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order
in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are: Transmission Control Protocol

• It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
• It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
• When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the
data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet
using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The
 transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the
receiving end.

User Datagram Protocol

• User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.

• It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this

reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one
computer to another computer but also from one process to another process. The
transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as a service-point
address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data
from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is
to transmit the message to the correct process.

Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from
the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the
message has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the
message based on their sequence numbers.

Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented

service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as
an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A
connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all
the packets travel in the single route.

Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed
end-to-end rather than across a single link.

Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer
ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.

Session Layer − It establishes sessions between users and offers services like dialog
control and synchronization.

• It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

 • The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between
two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes
which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.

Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

Presentation Layer − It monitors syntax and semantics of transmitted information

through translation, cA Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between the two systems.

• It acts as a data translator for a network.

• This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding
methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different
encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the
receiving end.

Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of

converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.

Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces

the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in
multimedia such as text, audio, video compression, and encryption.

Application Layer − It provides high-level APIs (application program interface) to the

users.
 • An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to
access network service.
• It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
• An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
• This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to
manage the files in a remote computer.

Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.

Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is

used to provide that global information about various objects.

12. Name and explain the layers in TCP/IP Protocol suite.

OR
13. Explain the functionalities of all the layers in TCP\IP protocol suite.
The TCP/IP model, it was designed and developed by Department of Defense (DoD) in
1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol.
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike
seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
Process/Application Layer
Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
Internet Layer
Network Access/Link Layer
 Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

• A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
• A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network. o This
layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the same network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
• The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame
relay.
Internet Layer
• This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols
which are responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network.
The main protocols residing at this layer are :
IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source
host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2
versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared to the
number of users.
ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams
and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a
host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous
ARP and Inverse ARP.
Host-to-Host Layer –
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-
end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications
from the complexities of data. The two main protocols present in this layer are :
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and error-free
communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and segmentation of data. It
also has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data through flow control
mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due to such features.
Increased overhead leads to increased cost.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any such features. It is
the go-to protocol if your application does not require reliable transport as it is very cost-
effective. Unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.
Application Layer –
This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application,
Presentation and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication and
controls user-interface specifications. Some of the protocols present in this layer are: HTTP,
HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window,
LPD.
HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for
HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in
cases where the browser need to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate and carry out bank
transactions.
TELNET- It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between
the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
FTP- FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports
the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data
to another e-mail address.
14. Compare and contrast OSI reference model and TCP/IP reference model.
TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission OSI refers to Open Systems

Control Protocol. Interconnection.

OSI is a generic, protocol TCP/IP model is based on

independent standard, standard protocols around which
acting as a communication the Internet has developed. It is a
gateway between the communication protocol, which
network and end user. allows connection of hosts over a
 network.

TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.

TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable

TCP/IP does not have very

strict boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries

TCP/IP follow a horizontal

approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.

TCP/IP uses both session

and presentation layer in OSI uses different session and
the application layer itself. presentation layers.

TCP/IP developed OSI developed model then

protocols then model. protocol.

Transport layer in TCP/IP In OSI model, transport layer

does not provide assurance provides assurance delivery of
delivery of packets. packets.

Connection less and connection

TCP/IP model network oriented both services are
layer only provides provided by network layer in OSI
connection less services. model.

While in OSI model, Protocols are

Protocols cannot be better covered and is easy to
replaced easily in TCP/IP replace with the change in
model. technology.

15. What are the two types of switches used in circuit switching?
OR
What is circuit switching?
OR
What is message switching?
OR
Explain packet switching.
OR
What is switching? Explain about different switching techniques in detail.
Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching
technique will decide the best route for data transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one
communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques
1. Circuit Switching
2. Message Switching
3. Packet Switching
Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between
sender and receiver.
• In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
• Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
• In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
• Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
• Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.
It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
• Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.
• It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no
data can be transmitted.
• It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is
required for each connection.
• It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is
transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
• In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred
even if the channel is free.
Message Switching
• Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as
a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
• In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path
between the sender and receiver.
• The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides
a dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based
on the information available in the message.
• Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the
most efficient routes.
• They have 2 important characteristics:

Store & forward: since the users aren't directly connected, the intermediate nodes
are then responsible for transferring the entire message to the next node in the
path. To do so, each node must have a storage capacity, because a message will
only be delivered if the next node and the link between them are available to
connect otherwise it will be stored indefinitely. A store-and-forward switch thus
forwards a message only if sufficient resources are available and the next node is
ready to accept the data. Hence, it's called store-&-forward property. The store-
and-forward was earlier used in telegraph message switching centers.
 Message delivery: here the entire information is compiled into a single message
and then that message is transmitted from source to destination. To successfully
reach its destination each message must contain the routing information in its
header section.

Advantages of Message Switching

• Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency
of using available bandwidth.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
• Message priority can be used to manage the network.
• The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it
supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages of Message Switching
• The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store
the messages until the message is forwarded.
• The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the
message switching technique.
Packet Switching
• The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but
it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
• The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.
• Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
• All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
• If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be
sent.
Advantages Of Packet Switching:
• Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require
massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent.
Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective
technique.
• Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the
Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
• Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth
very efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

• Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require
low delay and high-quality services.
• The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires
high implementation cost.
• If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets. It ca also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.
16. What do you mean by blocking in switched network?
OR
Define blocking in a switched network.
Blocking
A network is unable to connect stations because all paths are in use.
In multistage switching, blocking refers to times when one input cannot be connected to
an output because there is no path available between them—all the possible intermediate
switches are occupied. One solution to blocking is to increase the number of intermediate
switches based on the Clos criteria.
17. Differentiate between packet switching and message switching.
OR
18. Compare various switching techniques.

Circuit – Switching Packet – Switching Message Switching

Circuit switching is a Packet switching is a Message delivery as one unit, rather

method that is used when a method of grouping data than in pieces, is another benefit.
dedicated channel or which is transmitted over
circuit needs to be a digital network into
established. packets.

Circuit switching Packet Switching is a Message switching is a connectionless

connections are classified connectionless network network switching technique where the
into two categories half- switching method. entire message is routed from the
duplex or full-duplex. source node to the destination node,
one hop at a time.

You need to establish a You do not need to Message switching does not need
dedicated path between the establish a dedicated path dedicated physical path.In Message
source and the destination from the source to the switching, the source and destination
before the transfer of data destination. nodes are not connected with each
commences. other. The data transfer is done by the
intermediate nodes.

It was initially designed It was initially designed implemented in telegraph message

for voice transfer. for data transfer. switching centres.

In-Circuit switching, data In packet switching, data Each message is treated as a separate
is processed and is processed and entity. Each message contains
transmitted at the source transmitted, not only at addressing information, and at each
only. the source but also at the switch this information is read and the
destination. transfer path to the next switch is
decided.
Its initial cost is low. Packet switching demands The cost of message switching is less
high installation costs. than circuit switching.

Each packet follows the Each packet does not Depending on network conditions a
same route. follow the same route. conversation of several messages may
not be transferred over the same path

It does not store and It does store and forward It store and forward transmission.
forward transmission. transmission.

It is an inflexible method It is a flexible method In message Switching, data is first

because once a path is set, because the route is stored by one node then forward to
all parts of a transmission created for each packet to another node to transfer the data to
follow the same path. travel to the destination. another system.

The message is received in In, packet switching The message is received in the order,
the order, which is sent message are received out which is sent from the source.
from the source. of order, which is
assembled at the
destination.

Reserve the entire Never reserves the Message Switching does not reserve
Bandwidth in advance. Bandwidth. the entire bandwidth in advance.

You can achieve Circuit Packet Switching has

switching using two Datagram Virtual Circuit
technologies 1) Time or 2) Approach.
Space Division Switching.

19. Write short notes on RS 232 interface.

EIA-232 interface/RS-232
The Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA; until 1997 Electronic Industries Association)
was an American standards and trade organization composed as an alliance of trade
associations for electronics manufacturers in the United States.
EIA-232 is an old name for RS-232, the serial communication standard.
In telecommunications, RS-232, Recommended Standard 232 is a standard originally
introduced in 1960 for serial communication transmission of data.
It formally defines signals connecting between a DTE (data terminal equipment) such as
a computer terminal, and a DCE (data circuit-terminating equipment or data
communication equipment), such as a modem.
The standard defines the electrical characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning of
signals, and the physical size and pinout of connectors.
The current version of the standard is TIA-232-F Interface between Data Terminal
Equipment and Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data
Interchange, issued in 1997.
The RS-232 standard had been commonly used in computer serial ports and is still widely
used in industrial communication devices.
A serial port complying with the RS-232 standard was once a standard feature of many
types of computers. Personal computers used them for connections not only to modems,
but also to printers, computer mice, data storage, uninterruptible power supplies, and
other peripheral devices.
RS-232 interfaces are still used—particularly in industrial machines, networking
equipment, and scientific instruments where a short-range, point-to-point, low-speed
wired data connection is fully adequate.
The standard has been renamed several times during its history as the sponsoring
organization changed its name, and has been variously known as EIA RS-232, EIA 232,
and, most recently as TIA 232.
The RS232 specifies 14 possible communications configurations (simplex, half-duplex,
duplex) of the 22 connectors. for the actual EIA232 connector utilizes a 25-pin D-shaped
subminiature connector.
For the DTE device (the computer) the connector is male (it has pins);for the DCE
(modem) the connector is usually female (has holes for the pins), but this isn't in the
standard and gender changers are sometimes necessary to connect two EIA232 devices.
These connectors are often referred to as type DB25.
EIA232 uses unbalanced voltage and control wires to enable asynchronous
communication between DTE and DCE.
Voltage on the wires can range from +/-3V to +/-15V, depending upon the
implementation. There are even a few implementations that are not actually EIA232 that
use voltages outside this range, mostly used in electronics and communication between
components on computer mainboards.
Binary 1 is signaled using negative voltage. When there is nothing to transmit on the data
lines, the voltage state reverts to that set up for binary 1. When no data is being
transmitted, the receiving device sees what a steady stream of binary 1’s is electrically.
Any change from this steady stream indicates that the remote device is signaling.
Binary 0 is signaled using positive voltage.