[A R zgld s Reser ved

ll .

MILITARY ENGINEERING .

G ENE RAL S TAFF , W AR OFF I CE .

L O ND O N
PRI NT E D FOR H IS M AJ E S T Y S S TAT I O N ER Y O FFI C E ,
’

B Y H AR RIS ON AND S O N S , S I . MAR T I N S LAN E

’

P R I NTE RS m O R D I N AR Y TO H IS M AJE STY .

An d t o b e p u r cha sed, ei th er dir ec t ly or t h r ou gh an y B o oksell er , fr om

W YM AN A ND S O NS , L1 1 1 , FE T I EB LAN E , E C ; or ‘
. .

O LI V ER AN D B O YD , E D I N B UR G H ; or
E P O NSONB Y, 1 1 6 , G R AFT O N 8 13 11 1 1 11 1 , D UB L I N
'

1 90 5 .

P r ice 0 91 6 S hi lli ng .
 f o $ 1 0

W AR O FFI C E ,

81 71 A ugust , 1 90 5 .

( 5 2 89)
 C O N TE NT S .

S UB J E C T .

P A RT I .

P R E LI M I N AR Y
FI ELD G E O M E T R Y
I N T RE N C H I N G T o oL s
W O R K I N G PA R T I E S A ND E X E C UT I O N OF IN
T R E NC H M E N
'
PS

M A T E R I A LS
R EV E T M E NT S
C LE AR I N G T H E FO R E GR O UND
I M P R O V E M E NT O F E X I S T I N G CO V E R , S T O CK AD ES ,

&c .

E AR T H W OR K S .

O B S T A C LE S .

D E FE N C E O F P O S T S , V I L L AG E S AN D C AM PS
T P
E M O R AR Y R OA D S ”

K N O T T I N G A N D L AS H I N G S
M I LI T AR Y B RI D G E S
C AM P I N G AR R AN G E ME N T S 1 .

H A S T Y D E M O LI T I O N S W I T H
D E M O LI T I O N O F RA I LW Y S A N D T ELE A
G B A P H S W I T H OUT E X P L O S I V S E

P AR T II .

S T R E N G T H O F M A T E R I A LS A N D B UO Y AN C Y
B L O C K S AN D T A C K LES — US E O F S PAR S
FR AM E A N D C AN T I L E V E R B R I D G E S , FR AM E D
T R ES T LE S S US P E N S I O N B R I D G E S , A N D C AS K
PIE RS
X XI . D E M O L I T I O N FO R M UL ZE AN D W O R K I N G PA R T Y
T AB LE , &0 .

R O AD S — B O N I N G AN D L E V ELL I N G
R A I LW AY S A N D T E LE G R A P H S
G L O SS AR Y O F ERM S T
I ND E X
MANUAL OF MILITARY ENGINEERING .

T k i s d i vid ed i n t o t wo p a r ts Ofi r s sh o uld b e
( h i s b o o . c c

t ho r o ughly a cqua in t ed wi t h t he ma t t er d ea lt wi th in P a r t I .

P a r t I I co n ta in s i nfo r ma t i o n u sefu l fo r r efer en ce .

T he typ es of the va r io u s wo r ks d esc r ib ed will va ry a cc o r dzng t o

the co nd ztzo ns of t i me, la b o ur , a n d ma t er ia l
’

Ofi cer s a n d N o n -co mmzssi o n ed Ofi c er s i n cha r ge of wor ks

'

sho uld , wh i le b ea r ing t he p r i n c ip les in m in d , lea rn t o mod ify the

typ es a ccor d ing t o loca l c o n d it io ns ) .

CH AP T E R I — P RE LI M I NA RY
. . .

(S ee also CO M B I N E D T R AIN I NG 1 90 5 S ection 1 2 3 ,

, , a nd
fo ll o win g sections ) .

1 The o b j ect 0 1 fo rt ifi ca t io n is to strengthen g ro un d and b y O b j c t s 0 1

.
,
e

th us econo m ising t he numbers of the defenders to swell the ff’ bifi ca ,

r '

t on l
torce a vai lable for o ffens ive movements b y W hich a lone
'

decisive res ul t s can be obtain ed This obj ect is secured b y

.

ful fillin g as far as possib le the foll o win g conditions z

, ,

( )
a The position to be defended mu s t be chosen W ith due G en r al
e
’m c‘PIes
regard to t ac tica l re quirement s and with a view P '

to econo mi sing men i ts strong a nd weak p oints

must b e carefully stu di ed .

0 T h e enemy in attacking sho ul d be exposed as much

()
as possible to the fi re 0 1 the defenders during the
a dva n c e .To thi s end the foregroun d may re q uire
more or less cleari n g .

()
0 E very endeavo u r mus t b e made to deceive t h e ne my e

a s to the strength and disp ositions of the troops in

the defence and as to the char a c t er of the defens ive
,

works .
 C H AP T E R L — P RE LI M I N A RY .

The defenders shoul d b e sheltered from the enemy s ’

fi re a nd as far as possible screened from hi s view

, ,

b y natural or a rt ifi cial cover so arranged as to permit

,

the greatest p ossib le development of rifle fi re .

The free movement of the attacking t I O O pS should ‘

be hindered by leaving or creating obstacles to detain

them under fi re or to break their order of attack .

The free movement of the defenders sho ul d b e assisted

by improving commu n ications W ithi n their position ,

and clearing the way for counter attack .

S hortl y stated these princip les in order of importance a re

la } Ch oice of g ro u n d .

()
6 C learance of foreground .

(c) Concealment .

Z)
i
d P rov sion of c o v er.

()
e Creation of obstac les .

(f) Improvement of communications .

The a b ove a re dealt W ith in detail in subse quent chapters .

2 . thorough knowledge of the fi re efi ec t of

A a ll ar ms is
necessary in order to design good defence wo rks
,
.

Rifle fi re 3 . Modern military rifles a re sighted to abo ut

The s lope of descent of the b u llet varies from about 3
1
3 at
y a rds to at 1
ya r d s .

H ei gh t of The heights over which an a verage man can fi re on level '

l i ne O f ground are
fire ’ ”
Lying down 1 0
'
Knee ling
”
3 0
'
4 3 to 4 6
’ ”
S tanding
These heights must be adj usted to suit different men an d
varying inclinations o f gro u n d .
 H AP T E R L —P RE LI MI N ARY .

4 The foll owi ng tab le gives the t hi clmess in various materials

.

proof against modern r ifle bull ets at p oint bla n k ra n ge

M at er ial . Rem arks .

V ari es gr ea t ly T hi s i s m axi .

m u m fo r gr easy cl ay .

E a rt h , fr ee fr om st o n e s R am m in g ea rt h r ed uc es it s
(u nr am m ed ) resist in
gp o wer .

S an d 2 ft 6 in s
. . Rat h er m o r e t h an en o u gh .

V ery h igh v elo ci t y b u ll et s

h av e l ess p en e t r a t io n i n
san d at sh or t t h an at

m edi u m ra n ges .

S an d b et ween b oar ds
c
B r i kwo rk I f well b uil t .

S o ft wo o d, e g , fir , a r o ss
. . c 2 4 in s p ro of a t 5 00 yd s
. .

gr am
H ar d wo od , e g , o ak, a r oss
. . c 2 7 ins . 1 5 in s p ro of a t 5 0 0
. y ds .

r am

i
W o u gh t ir on o r m ild ste el
'

H a r d en ed st eel p l a t e i
l
o
in pr o o f a t 6 0 0 yd s
. .

c
S p e i al h ar d st eel
S h in gl e
C o al
S n ow

5 The usual proj ectiles for fi eld artillery a re s hr apnel from Fi eld
.

field gun s a nd shrapne l and c omm on she ll fi lled With high 11 1 1 3 1 81 1 1

,
»

exp losive from h e ld howit zers .

S hrapnel can be us ed from fi eld guns a t r a nges up to about

ds ya r .

The s lope of descent of the proj ec t iles of fi eld guns varies

from 0 at
—1
2
yards to i at yards b ut howit zer ,

proj ecti les have a n g les o f descent up to

6 The penetration of shrapnel balls is cons idera b ly le ss Pe et
. n ra

than that of small b ore rifle bullets b ut shr apnel wi th percussion t iO } O f

- I

“m
,

fu zes can be us ed with cons iderable effec t ag a inst troops behi nd r i t?i l
le "

o ec e p J s
wauS
.

S everalforeign nations have intr odu ced common shell filled

with some hi gh explosive for use with fi eld guns The Special .

feature of such shell is that on b ur sting they b reak up into a, ,

 C H AP T E R I .
-P RE LI M I N A RY .

very la rge numb er of fragments whi ch are driven in all

d irectio ns They a re not so efi ect iv e as well b urst shrapnel
.
.

7 Field howit zers firin g common shell and shrapnel have

.
, ,

n o w been introduced into the service of most nations They .

are light pieces of artill ery firin g comparatively heavy shell , ,

with lo w charges at hi gh elev a tion and in co ns e q uence possess ,

g o o d searching power .

No practicable amount of exte mporised cover except as ,

in S ec 73 wi ll keep out a howitzer common shell The effect

.
, .

o f the burst is very powerful not merely from the fragments ,

o f the shell b ut also from the blast and the fumes of the
,

e xp losive ; but this effect is very l ocal and s light cover wi ll ,

su f fi c e against the splinters .

8 H eavy guns up to 6 -inch have b een us ed in the fi eld

.

and will probably be met with in future They are len g .

ranging but their searching power is little greater th a n that o f

,

fi eld gu ns .

9 The obj ect of modern artillery is to reach the defenders

‘

of a parapet by means of fragments of proj ectiles burst in the

right position and not by breechin g the parapet with the pro
,

j e o t ile itse lf An occasiona

. l shell m a y strike and penetrate
t h e pa rapet b ut in the case of a s hr apnel shell the damage
,

t o the parapet wi ll be t rifli n g whil e in the case of a howit zer ,

s hell filled with high exp losive the efi ect wi ll b e no worse ,

.

on a thi n parapet than on a thick o n e T hus it is useless to

.
.

Spend time and labour on maki ng a thi ck parapet to keep

out the actual shell Agai ns t such fir e concealment is o f .
,

gre atest importance .

P late 1 gives some idea of the effect of burs t ing shells .

R a
n es
g .
1 0 The foll owing tab le (taken from
. C ombined Training ,

1 90 5 ) gives the various ranges of the di fferent weapons

T er m s a pp li ed to
R1 69
r a n ges .
 C H A P TE R I . P RE LI M IN
- A RY
.

The extreme wi dth of the a rea of ground struck by the

b ul letsof an effective shrapnel is about 2 5 ya rds .

The li mi t of the forward effect of shr a pnel at efi eot ive range

is about 3 0 0 yards .

The radius of the exp losion of a high exp losive she ll is

about 2 5 yards .

11 . The fo llowi ng terms are used with reference to artill ery Nat u r es

and ri fle fir e f F
Oi re

H lgb An gle Fire — Fire from gu n s and howit zers at all

angles of elevation excee di ng
Fron tal Fi re — When the line o f hr e is perpendic ul ar to the
front of t h e target .

Oblique Fire — When the line of fir e is inclined to the front

of the target .

En fil a de Fi re — Fire whi ch sweeps a line of troops or

defences from a fla n k .

R t erse Flre
e .
—When the rear ins tead of the front of the
target is fi red a t .
 CH AP T ER I I — F I E LD GE OM E TRY . .

1 2 B efore procee di ng
. to the more techn ica l portion of
military engineering , it is as well to un derstand some of t h e
simplest applications of geometry to the layi ng out of held
defences .

Slopes a re usually described b y fractions in whi ch the ,

numerator exp resses the height and the denominator the b ase ,

of the slope .

Thus in Fi g 2 Pl 2 the vertical height B C is g

, ,. of the ,
.
, , ,

hori zontal distance A B The slope A C wo ul d therefore be ,

.
, ,

called a s1 0 p e of (verbally one in six ) , .

In Fi g 1 the vertica l height B C is four times as great as the

.
,

hori zontal dis tance A B The slope A C is call ed (verb ally .

,

four in one or four over one ) . .

Slopes are sometimes exp ressed in degrees A good rough .

rule for convert ing degrees of slopes into fr a ctions or the ,

reverse is to di vide 60 by the number of degrees expressing the

,

s lope the res ul t gives the denomi nator of the fraction whose
,

numerator is 1 e g 5 slop e — or 1 in 1 2 slope ,

. .
,
°
1
1
2 ,
.

N B — This formul a sho ul d not b e used for slo Pes steeper

. .

than
1 3 To la y out a right angle Let X be a point in a given
. .

straight line A B (Fig fr om whi ch it is re quired to set 0 11 a .

right angle .

Take any point C in A B a nd drive in pickets at C and X , .

Take any convenient length of tape 0 D X and make loops ,

at either end and fin d it s ce ntre D by doub ling it Now place

,
.

the two loops over 0 and X and stretch the tape taut into the
position 0 D X Take D X 0 11 the picket at X and turn it .

round till it comes in to the position D E in prolongation of ,

CD . Join E X whi ch gives the right angle required ,

.

2 nd M et ho d — From X measure off a dista nce of 4 uni ts

.

X 0 along A B (Fi g Take a piece of line or tape 8 uni ts .

long and apply one end to the point X and the other to the
, ,

point C fi n d a point in the tape 3 uni ts from X and sei zing ,

it at t hi s point draw the bight out to D till the line is taught

, , ,

then C X D is a right angle This method is founded on the .

 CH AP T E R II .
—FI E LD GE O M E T RY .

fact that in a ny triangle whose sides are in proportion of

3 4 and 5 the angle contained between the two shorter sides
, ,

is a right angle .

1 4 To trace a perpen di cular to a given line from a point T o t r ac e

.

outside Let X be the point outside the line A B (Fi g P p n d i er e

u l a fr o m
. .

from whi ch it is requi red to dr aw a perpen di cular to that line S om t .

?

p
Take a tap e or cord longer than the perpen di cul ar Wi ll be fi x out side a
one end at X and stretchi ng it taut swing it round so that the given lin e
, ,
.

other end shall out A B in C D rive in a p eg at 0 fi n d D the .

, ,

mi d dl e point o f C X With D as centre swing D X or D 0

.
,

round to the position D E cutting A B in E Join X E then , .

,

X E is at right angles to A B .

15
. To lay o ff an angle of 60 or Let X b e the point To lay off
°

an l es O f
in the line A B (Fi g 6 ) from which it is re quired to lay o ff an g
.
o
or 1 2 0
angle 0 1 Take any point C in A B at a conve ni ent distance
from X and towards that end of the line from which the a ngle
,

of 6 0 is desired to be drawn Take a tape or cord twice the

°
.

length of X C and fasten the ends to X and C

,
S ei ze it by the .

middle point and dr aw the bight out taut to E Then the .

a ngle E X C is 60 and A X E is °

1 6 To b isect a given angle

. Let A B C be the angle which T o b isect .

it is required to bisect (Fi g Ou B A and B 0 mark po ints g w en 9

a
.
,
n gl e
D and E at e qual distances from B Find b y means of a .
'

tape or cord a point F e qui distant from D and E J0 1 11 B F . .

Then B F bisec t s the angle A B C .

1 7 To la y out an angle e qual to a given angle

. Let X b e the T o l ay o u t .

point in the straight line A B (Fi g from whi ch it is desired n a gl e a n

w
.

Fix the poin t s s i

g g
)
t o la y 0 11 an angle e qual to the angle D E 0 .

l
D and C at any conveni ent distance from E and from the an gle , ,

point X meas ure X G e qual to E G Then from the p o int X

,
.

as centre and a distance e qual to E D as ra di us and from the

, ,

point G as centre and a distance equal to C D as radius

, ,

describe arcs intersecting at F Jo in X F The angle F X G

, . .

is e qual to the given angle D E C .

1 8 To fi n d the di stance between any two points A and B T fi n d t h e

. o

when it cannot be measured di rectly From B (Fi g 9) la y off b t ween G ' t a ce

. .
S

e
n

the ll me B D at any co n vem en t angle D b em g at any con a n t wo ,

y
 C H AP T E R UL — IN T R E N C H I N G T OO LS .

v en ien t distance In B D select a p oint C so that B C is s o m e

.

“
m ul t iple o f C D From D lay o ffthe angle B D F equal to the
.

an gle A B D and o n the opposite side of the line B D Make

'

, .

D E of such a length that the point E is in line with A and C .

T hen A B zB s D E zC D,
B C X D E
or A B
CD
as shown in PI 2 . .

CH AP T E R III .
-
INT RE N C H IN G T OOLS .

T o ol s
.
19 The service intrenchi ng and cutting t o ols are shown on
.

Plates 3 a n d 4 It is well to note the dime n sions a s

.
,

they are us eful in laying out a n d executing wo r k .

A heavy pick with an 8 lb head has been sea led and can be -
.
,

obtained from O rdnance S tore ii h ea vy work is expected '

O nl y a small pr o portion o f spades are carried as they ,

are o f little us e in the field They are employed for c ut .

ting sods and for di gging generally when a pick axe is not
,
-

re qui red .

2 0 Fo r s afety the pic k must b e us ed working front and re a r

.
,

a nd never sideways .

B efore striking the pick in to the ground it sho ul d b e raised

well above the head with b oth hands In bringin g it down the .
,

helve should slide thr ough the hand nearest to the head and ,

the weight of the pick should be employed to help in the wo rk .

The shovel is us ed right or left handed Na vvies make .

.

great use o fthe thi gh in thr usting the shovel under the loosened
earth .

In thro wi ng earth fro m the shovel there sho ul d b e no ‘

j erk the left (o r right ) hand must be allowed t o slide freely

,

up the h a ndle otherwise the earth will scatter

,
.
 CH AP T ER I V — WORKI NG PAR TI E S AND E XE CU .

TI O N O F INT RE N CH ME NT S .

B el iefs . 21 .In digging intrenchments for a ll except the smallest

works the working parties are not kept continuously at work
,
‘

but are changed at interva ls thus divi ding the total time in t o ,

periods called reliefs As regards the length of rel iefs a great.

deal d epends upon the nature of the work the total time it ,

wi ll take and the climate Al so the question must b e con

,
.

sid er ed as to whether the work has to be hur ried through and ,

whether it can be carried on by night as well as by d a y S hort .

reli efs are best and as a r ule it will be found that a f ou r hours
,

relief (actual digging ) is quite long enough for the infantry

soldier S ix hours reliefs may occasionally be resorted to
. .

T asks. A task is the amount of work a man has to do in one

relief .

Too much pains cannot b e taken in the prelimi nary details

of worki ng parties so that they may arrive at the site of ,

their work ready provided with too ls their tasks clearly

, ,

d efined and the men in such formation as will ad mi t of

,

their ready distribution on the wo rk D elay and noise is .

th us avoided and the chance o f confusion during ni ght

,

work reduced to a minimum ‘

In ordi nary easy soil the a verage untrained soldier sho ul d

excavate with service tools (see Pl 3 Figs 1 and 3 ) 3 0 cub i c .
,
.

feet in one hour or 80 cubic feet in a four hour relief

,
-
.

If the soil is very easy these rates may b e increased a nd ,

vice verse ; in hard stony ground it may be reduced b y 5 0

per cent .

These rates hold up to a maximum hori zontal thro w of

1 2 feet combined with a lift out of a trench 4 feet deep .

22 A
,

. s the ea r th required for the parapet o f a large fi eld work

is obtained from the excavations (ditch and trench ) the areas ,

of the sections across the p a rapet and excav a tion must b e

roughly b alanced .

Pl 5 Fig 1 gives an example o f a section o f a p a r a pe t

.
,
.
,

with high command the successive reliefs (with their tasks ) ,

necessary for the execution of the work being shown .

Figures shown thus 36 denote t he area of the excava

tion or p a rapet in sq uare feet .
B A LA NC I N G PA RA P E T 8L E X C AV A T IO N .

TA S KS T A S KS

P R O FI LI N G

Well er & 6 mh on L'! 1 3 m

. m .
 CH APTE R IV .
— WO R K I N G P A R TI E S , E TC .

23 Tracing a work cons ists in laying out so much of it s plan Tra cin g
.
.

on the ground as is necessary to guide the di strib ution of

the working parties This m ay b e done by a mark on the
.

ground or by tapes ,
.

In hasty defence work tracing with a tape 1 8 us ually onl y

necessary for night wo rk .

2 4 When making works of high command pr o fi les sho ul d b e P r ofili n g

. , .

put up to guide the constructio n of the parapet (S ee Pl . .

Fo r high p ro fil es it is best to dr ive stout p l cket s into the

ground at the position o f the verticals cons truct the p ro file ,

bodily to a straight line lying flat on the ground and then , ,

up end it and nai l it to the pickets on a level line

-
,
.

Pro fil es are laid out at right angles to the crest line They .

should be placed at intervals of a bout 3 0 feet two at least b eing ,

required fo r each face near the angles .

H igh p ro fil es sho ul d b e secured b y st a ys or light guys 0 1: ,

they are liab le to be blown down .

2 5 Fo r all intrenchments the normal di stance apart a t O ga n isa

. r .

which the men are Spaced for work is two paces (5 feet ) t ion ? f
.

1
This can be reduced if necessary to 4 feet b ut it cramps the 11 2?
diggers .
, , ,
$
Task work is better th a n working for a fi xed time In .

’
arranging tasks it is better to under estim a te the men s powers
in order to avoid incomplete tasks .

In arranging reliefs the following r ul es sho ul d it possible

, , ,

b e a dh ered t o z
( )
1 The second and succeeding re liefs sho ul d h a ve less
earth to excavate than the first a s the diggers have ,

further to throw .

( )
2 I f p ossible each relief shou
,
l d l e a ve a vertical face
of earth for the next relief to commence u p o n For .
‘

ins tance in PI 5 Fi g 1 the di vi di ng li ne between

,
.
,
.
,

the reliefs is vertical and not hori zontal .

2 6 A party o f the necessary strengt h for the work in hand D et a il in g

.
,

inc luding a reserve o f one -tenth having been demanded wo r kin g , ,

t
should be detailed f rom a company battalion b rigade or
.
Pa es
, , ,
r l '

d ivision and not formed of detachments from diii eren t com

.

panics a nd co rp s .
 C H AP T E R I V .
— W O R K I N G P A RT I E S , E TC .

The party is then marched to the tool dep 6 t to get their

tools which sho ul d be r ead v laid out according to the detail
, ,

of the several parties either in rows or in heaps the men in

-
, ,

the former case filin g on the rows and taking up a pick in

the left hand and a shovel in the right or filin g between the ,

heaps and receiving the tools in the same order in pas ing s
.

For extending men for work see Infantry Traini n g , ,

1 90 5 , p 96 . .

If the party be large and the work of a complicate d natur e ,

such as a redoubt the men shoul d be divided into detachments

, ,

each under a superintendent corre p o ndi n g to d efi nit e portions ,

s

o f the work formed in column at some distance from the site

, ,

an d succes sively extended along the line driving in their picks ,

on the left of their tasks and laying down their shovels along ,

the front It is sometimes ad visab le in order to save time

.
,

in extending to keep a separate detachment for di strib uting

,

on the excavations at the angles .

N0 work m ust be commenced ti ll the di stribution o fthe whole

is complete as it is di ffi cult t o remedy mistakes when work has
,

once begun the subsequent shifting of men 1 n v a ri ab ly tending

,

to confus ion and possibly loss of tools clothing and accoutre ,

ments .

When the men available greatly exceed the tools in number ,

it may be advisable to tell 0 11 two men to each set of tools an d ,

so complete the work in ab out two thirds of the or di nary ,

-

time .

S uperintendents sho uld b e relieved at alternate ho urs to

the working parties to ensure contin ui ty in wo rk ,
.

When the distance that the earth has to be thrown is too

great for the diggers to deposit it in its fi n al position in one
throw shovellers will b e necessary a s well a s diggers
,
.

2 7 D iggers should commence on t h e left of their t asks in

. ,

order to incommode each other as little as possible .

In excavating V -shaped ditches the slopes sho ul d not b e

formed until the last relief rectangular portions being taken ,

out fi rst .

.
I f not under fir e the e a rth first exc a v a ted sho ul d b e furth es t
thrown .
 CH A P TE R V .
-M
A T E RI A LS .

In making fire trenc hes the men sh o uld try to get cover as -

s oon as possible S ods and lumps o f earth shoul d be used .

revetting the int rior s lope whi ch must b made s n e a rly

fo r e e a ,
.

vertical as possible the revetting be ing carr i ed on W i th the ,

ar a et
p p .

C H AP T E R V .
- M AT E R I AL S .

For m at e t i me r equi red f

roxi or ca rryi ng o ut work r ef er r ed to
a
pp
i n thi s cha pter with la bo ur a nd t o ols see ta ble p 1 2 0
, , ,
. .

28 The mate rials which are mo stly ava ilable fo r the con
. , E ar t h .

struction of fi eld defences are earth s t n es timber and ,

c
,

brushwood whi le railway plant iron sheeti n g wire barbed

, , ,

and plain & c may o ften be obtained 0 1 these materials

,
.
,
.

earth is the most valuable as well as the most generally used .

For the purpose o f fi eld fo r t ifi c a t io n e a rth is usually pro ,

cured from the trenches dug as near as possib le to the p lace

where it is to be used .

The steepest s lopes at which thro wn u p earth will stand -

is about 45 or 4 °
.

2 9 S ods are used fo r revetments and also to form walls in

'

. S o ds.

special cases They should if possib le be cut fro m meado ws

.
, ,

growing thick grass E ach sod shou ld be about 1 8 inches .

l ong 9 inches broad (these dimensions depe n ding however

, , ,

o n the width o fthe Spade ) and 45 inches thick .

3 0 S tones may b e employed to f o rm rough wa lls in p lac es

. S t o n es .

where digging is di ffi cul t or impossible A well bui lt r ubb le .

-

wall 1 2 to 1 8 inches thick will keep out bullets this thickness

, , ,

being necessary to avoid having any t h rough j o ints .

Two such walls ab out 1 0 feet ap art a fford good protection

against arti llery fir e the outer wall which should b e at least , ,

2 feet thi ck se r ving t o b ur st the shell

, k

3 1 Timber is u secl in the construction of b ridges

.
,

Splinter -proofs stocka des a b atis & c , , , .

( 89)
5 2
 CH A P T E R V .
— M A T E RI A L S .

3 2 The tools employed for felling timber are the f elli nga xe,
'

the ha n d a xe the cross cut sa w and the ha n d sa w (Pl

-
, .

Oi thes e the fe lling axe in the hands of an experien ced work

man is probably the best of all The hand axe is only
, ,
.

suitable for felling small trees not exceeding 1 2 inches to

1 5 inches in diameter but it may be employed with a d va n ,

t age when men practised in the use of the felling axe are

not avail able as it requires little or no skill in handl ing

, .

The cross cut sa w or the hand saw may also be used the latte r
-
,

with small trees only provided that measures are taken by , ,

wedging or otherwise t o prevent the weight of the tree from ,

j amming Inexperienced men can us e the cross cut saw more

.
-

easily and safely than the axe and can cut more quickly with it , .

When conve ni ent it is b est to tell a tree in the dir ection of its
,

nat ural inclination In using the felling axe the tree shoul d be
.
,

fi rst attacked on the side on whi ch it is required to fall a rope ,

being employed if necessa ry to p ull it over as for instance

, , , , ,

when the natur al inclination is not in the requi red di rection .

When the tree has been cut into as far as the centre or a little ,

beyond it the workman should change over to the opposite side

,

and commence cutting ab out 4 or 5 inches above t he former out

un ti l the tree falls The cut s sh o ul d b e as sho wn in Fig 4 . .
,

Pl 4 where the arrow indicates the di rection in which the

.
,

tree is required to fall With be ginners or when it is not .

,

important t o save timb er and when there is no obj ection ,

t o leaving the cover which hi gh stumps a f ford the point a ,

should be the height o f the hip b 0 should be about thr ee fourths ,

-

the diameter of the tree .

It may sometimes be conveni ent to employ both the saw

an d the axe to cut down a tree In such cases the axe sh o ul d .

be used on the side towards whi ch the tree is to fall and the ,

sa w o n the opp osi t e side .

The teeth o f all saws u ed for cutting down timber should s

b e set wide .

3 3 B rus hwood is much used in military engineering fo r

.

r o a d m akin g and revetting purposes and fo r the construction ,

of gabions fascines hur dles & c

, , ,
.

Willow birch ash S pani sh chestnut and ha zel are the

, , ,

most s ui tab le kinds and work best if out when the leaf is 0 11 ,
.
 C H AP T E R V .
— M A T E RI A LS .

As a rough ru le it may be taken that s quare yards of

b rushwood 6 years o ld make up three GS wagon loads
, ,
. .

3 4 Withes for binding purposes in lieu of wire Spun yarn W it h

.
, , ,
e s.

& c are m ade of pliable wood such as willow and ha zel

.
,
They , .

s h ould be 6 feet to 7 feet long inch i n di a meter and made , ,

pliable by being well twisted the thi n end being p laced under ,

the left fo ot and the rod twis t ed with the hands avoidi ng
, ,

kinks If the rod is st ifl a small piece of stick lashed across

.
,

the butt will be of use in t wisting it (Pi

,
.

3 5 A fascine is a long faggot tightly packed and careful ly Fa c i n e

. s s.

b ound us ed in revetments for fo un dations o f roads in marshy

, ,

si t es and fo r many other purposes The usual di mensions

,
.

are 1 8 feet long and 9 inches in diame t er It is made in a .

crad le of trestles p laced at a uni form leve l (Pl 7 Figs 6 .

, .

and The bru hwood trimmed if possib le is laid in thes

, ,

crad le proj ecting a b out 1 foot 6 inches beyond the ou t side

,

trestles and adj usted so that there may be no weak p la ce

, .

C rooked rods m us t be half sawn through and straightened .

The fascine is then gauged with the choker (Fi g C ho k r . e .

which cons ists of two wooden levers 4 feet long connected , ,

at 1 8 inches fr om their ends by a chain 4 feet long provided ,

with two gauge rin gs 2 8 inches apart corresponding to the , ,

circumference of the fascine .

To use it two men standing one on each side place the

, , ,

centre of the chain under the fascine with the short ends of
the levers uppe rmost cross the levers to each other over the ,

fascine with the short ends down and bear do wn on the long ,

ends until the gauge rings meet .

B indin g must be commence d at one end The first binding B in din .

( o f wire spun yarn hoops ,

or W ithes ) is put on 3 inches
beyond the outside trestle and the remainder (1 2 in all) at ,

intervals o f about 1 8 inches T hi s ad mi ts of the fascine being .

cut it re quired into 9 feet or 6 feet lengths The ends of the

, ,
.

fascine are sawn 0 11 9 inches beyond the outside bindings .

In all cases the fascine must be choked close up to the

position of the b inding while the lat t er is b eing put o n .

With withes an eye is formed at the tip the withe put on W it h ,

under the fascine the ends brought u p the butt passed through W i t h s
, ,
e o

the eye turned b ack a nd t wis ted round itself (Fi g

,
.

( 5 2 89)
 C H AP T E R V .
— M A T E R I A LS .

With Spun yarn the centre is found and laid on the fa scin t

and the yarn is then passed t wice round t he fasc ine h a u le ,

taut and fa stened 0 11 with a ree l knot

,
.

B oth withes and yarn are apt to perish .

Wire is laid on like the yarn passed t wice round ha ule , ,

c

taut the ends twisted together and tucked in ; 1 4 gaug

,

is a convenient si ze .

A piece of h 0 0 p iron may be used for binding It shou ld b .

3 1 inches long with notc hes cut at opp o site sides and 2 ,
, ,

inches apart The iron is passed round the fascine and t hl

.
,

notches hitched together (Fi g .

c
P i ket s
.
3 6 Picke t s are made from b rushwood fo r various purpo ses
.

The fo llowing dimensions are u eful for reference : s

L en gt h . D 1 a m e t er .

fe e t i n s . in s . 1 11 8 .

Fo r gabions 3 6 g: to 1
fascines 2 6 L} lg
fascine cradl es 6 6 3 4
hur dl es 3 6 1 2
tracing 1 6 I 15
high wire entanglement 5 O 1 1g 2
lo w wire entanglement 2 6 1 1%
sodwork 1 6 4 g
G ab ion s .
3 7 Gabions are cylinders open a t b oth ends which whe n
.
, ,

standing on one end and fill ed with earth make a stro ng ,

revetment .

For dim ens io ns see Pl 8 '

. .

They may b e made of almost any material capab le of be

bent or w oven into a cylindrical form such as b r u sh wo ,

canvas sheet iron wire netting & c Their emp loyment in

, , ,
.

the future is like ly to b e more limited than i n the past a s ,

revetments are as a r ul e lower and so simp ler forms of support ,

wi ll su ffi ce .

3 8 To make a brushwo od gabion a circle of 1 0 4 inches ra di us

.
,

is traced on leve l ground and an even number of p ,

usually 1 0 or 1 2 driven at e qual inte rvals round the

,

of the circumference (see Fi g 1 ) . .

The pickets are 3 feet 6 inches high I inch t o 1 inch 1 1

3
,

diamete r and must be dr iven with the thick and thi n en c

,

a lternat ely downwards .

 CH AP TE R V .
-
A
M T E RI A LS .

39 Wi llesden paper band gabions are an article of store

. .

E ach gabion consists of 1 0 b ands 3 inches wide fa st e n ed a t , ,

'

the ends by two copper clips (Pl 8 Figs 8 and . .

,
.

To make it la y a band ready faste ned in the form of a circle

,

on the ground D rive the pickets 1 0 in number round it

.
, ,

a lternate ly inside and outside s lip a second band over the ,

t 0 ps of the pickets a lternating with the fi rst band and press

, ,

it half way down to keep the pickets steady unti l the thi rd
-
,

band is o n when they may be pressed do wn to the botto m

, ,

and the remaining seven ban ds put o n All the j oints should .

be kept behin d two adj acent pickets A thin carrying picket .

can be dr iven through the web The t 0 p and bottom bands .

should be nai led to the picke t s .

Jones stee l band gabions are still artic les of store but no
’
,

more wi ll be made They are made up simi larly to Wi llesden

.

paper gabio n s .

H ur dl es. 4 0 H ur d les unl ess for a Specia l obj ect are usua lly made
.
, ,

6 feet long and 2 feet 9 inches hi gh in the web thus correspond ,

ing to the height of a gabion (see Pl .

They are usefu l for revetments huts and temporary roadwa ys , .

A line 6 feet long is marked on the ground and di v ide d ,

into nine e qua l parts and a picket (about 3 fe et 6 inches long

,

and from 1 inch to 2 inches in diameter ) dr iven in at each

division the two outside ones being somewhat sto uter and
,

longer the web is then constructed by ra n ding .

Ra n din g . B andi ng is worked with single rods and is commenced ,

in the centre (see Fi g l ) The rod is taken a lternate sides of

. .

the pickets t wisted round the end pickets and woven back
, ,

to the centre A fresh rod mus t overlap by severa l pickets

.
‘

the one which it supplants .

Pairing rods are used in the centre and at both en ds of the

web which 1 s usually sewn top and bottom l n three p laces
,
.

S le wi n g. The O peration of s le wing is the same as randing two or ,

three rods being worked simultaneous ly ; it makes weaker

work than randing .
 —
CH AP TE R V L RE V E T M E NT S .

41 . reve t ment is a retaini ng wa ll used for s upp o rt ing

A
earth at a steeper s lope than that at which it wou ld natur a lly
stand .

The f o llowing are the revetments most in use in t he field

4 2 Ga bzon — This is o n e o f the best that can be used when a G b io n
’

. .
a

c o nsiderab le height of parapet has to be dea lt with but for v t m nt ,

re e e .

b reastworks gabions are extravagant of materia l They are .

usua lly p laced at a s lope of f Thi s ti lt may be obtained by f

.

resting their outer edges on a fascine sunk 3 inches into the

g round (P I 1 0 F
. ig or ,
in any other.way .

Fo r high parapets two fascines are genera lly interpo lated

between the rows of gabions and in this case it is advisa b le ,

t o anch o r the gabio ns with wire to stakes fascines o r logs , ,

buried in the parapet (Figs 3 and . .

F — Fascines make a poor revetment by themse lves F e n e

'

43 . a sc i nes .
,
as

and their us e is genera lly c o n fin ed t o revetting steps They v tm n t

.
re e e

shoul d be we ll picketed down .

4 4 H u rdles — H urdl es form some of the mo st use ful f o rms of H u dle

. .
r

revetment either in the fo rm of ready made hurd les or v tm t

,
-
,
re e en .

continuous hurdl e revetment constructed simu ltaneous ly

with the parapet In either case the s lope is bui lt
.

at and frequent anchoring is essentia l Stretching of .

fastenings & c due t o weight of earth in the parapet wi ll

,
.
, ,

bring the hurd le to a s lope of i} as shown in P1 1 0 Fi g 7 ,

.
,
. .

In contin uo us h ur dlewo rk the web is formed by r a n dzn g or

’

slewi n g each pair of men having 1 0 feet or 1 2 feet of revetment

,

as their task time to g of an hour They must work in

,
.

their rods with the men on either side (Fig . .

4 5 B r ushwoo d — This is a ra pi dly made and u seful revet men t B u h

. . . r s

S takes are d riven in at a s lope of about at from 1 foot to w o d o

evet m en t
2 feet apart and anchored back
,
As the parapet rises loose .
,
r

brushwood (or ferns reeds straw &c ) is filled in between , , ,

.

the stakes and the parapet (Fi g . .

4 6 S a n dba grevetment is made at a s lope of

. with a lterna t e S n db g a a

rows of headers and stretchers (the fo rmer with the chokes ev et men t ,
r .

the latter with the seams turned into the parapet ) breaking ,

j oi n t (Fi g . The b ags must b e laid at right a n gles to the

 C A
H PTE R VI .
— R E VE T M E N T S .

l pe
s o , and not hori zontally or the revetment may s lide They .

shou ld be not more than ab out three -q uar t ers full and should ,

be we ll beaten when p laced in position Two men bui ld and .

,

if supp lied with sandbags by carriers and fi llers wi ll lay ab o ut ,

70 bags an hour ; 1 cubic v a rd of ear t h fi lls about 5 0 ba gs .

S od 4 7 S od revetment is bu i lt at a s lope of
. The sods shou ld
re v et m en t b e cut 1 8 inches long 9 inches wide and not more than 4% inches
, ,

thick with a sharpened Spade or sod cutter (Fig

,
-
.

They must be laid in a lternate rows of headers and stretchers ,

grass down wards breaking j oint a nd a t right a ngles t o t he

, ,

slo e
p ,
with two rows o f sods in each stretcher course The .

top layer shou ld b e laid with grass upwards and a ll headers ,

.

They should be bedded and backed by fi n e earth we ll rammed .

Fo r superior work the sods shou ld not exceed 3 inches in

thickness ; and a picket shou ld b e driven through each so d .

C le ft fi r pickets are better than round whi ch Sp lit the sods , .

Two bui lders shou ld la y 70 to 1 0 0 sods an hour .

Timb er 48 T i mber revetment may be made by driving strong stakes

.

r eV et m f n t
‘
into the ground p lacing p lanking behind them and fi llin g in
, ,

with ear th The s1 0 pe wi ll depend on the strength of the

.

timber i will genera ll y be safe The stakes shoul d be anchored

,
"
. .

P lanks shou ld never be used for revetments where they will

b e exposed to the fi re of high explosive she lls .

4 9 Willesden c n v s
. a a —This is kept as an article of store
.
,

m long strips about 3 feet wide For us e stout pickets shou ld .

,

b e driven from 1 2 inches to 1 8 inches apart and anchored

'

The canvas wi ll then be stretched between these and the .

parapet being laced with wire to the pickets top and b ottom
,

at about 6 feet intervals (Fig .

W i re 5 0 Wi re n ett i n gwi th stakes p assed in and out of the meshes

.

n et t l ‘l g
and anchored back forms a good revetment in soi ls which are
re v et m e nt
not too sandy
.

All revetments of parape t s intended for musketry fi re

shou ld b e fi n ish ed o ff with one o r two courses of sods or sand
bags where avai lab le
,
.

F or estimate of m ater ia l re quired for revetments see tab le , ,

p.1 2 0
 26 CH A P TE R V I II .
— I M P RO VE M E N T or S
E XI T I N G CO V E R . E TC .

The c learance of those perpendicu lar to the front is of less

importance than that of those para lle l to the front .

W ll n d
a s a 5 3 Wa lls can be knoc ked down by a part of men u ing 3
.
s
.

b uildi n g tr unk ( f a tree or a railway iron as a battering ram Lo w

s
.

b uildings may be simi larly treated If hi gh they must be .

,

b lown down and the ruins le ve lled as far as possib le so as , ,

not to give cover .

CH AP T E R V III I MP R O VE ME NT OF E X I S TIN G
.
—

C OV E R, S T OCKAD E S & C , .

For t ime a nd la bou r re ui r e

q d, see t able, p . 1 20 .

W alls. 54 . walls 9 inches thi ck if ba dl y built are liab le to be

B rick , ,

penetrate d through the j oints by small bore bullets and can -

,

be cut thr ough by short range volleys di rected on the same

Spot Practica lly however any fairly we ll bui lt wa ll wi ll
.
, ,

give good cover agains t musketry Wa lls a lone cann ot be .

occupied as a rule under effective arti llery fi re but may

, , , ,

neverthe less be uti lised for defence afte r artillery fi re has

, ,

ce ased .

A wa ll b etween 4 feet and 4 feet 6 inches high can be used

as it stands If a wa ll is less than 4 feet high a small trench
.
,

can be sunk on the inside t o gain ad di tiona l cover .

B etween 5 feet and 6 feet in height a wa ll can be notched .

(P1 . 1 1 Fig ,
.

Above 6 feet in height , a step mus t be raised inside to ,

e nab le men to either fi re over the wa ll or through notches or , ,

e lse the wa ll must be loopho led (Fig .

5 5 Loopho les shoul d not be c loser together than 3 feet from

.

centre to centre and can be made by means of crowba rs or

,

picks It is desirab le to make the openi ng on the outside as

.

sma ll as possib le to lessen the chance of the entry of the bu lle t s

,
.

In a moderate ly thick brick wa ll t he loopho le may be commenced

by knocking out a header from the outside of the wall ,

t h e interior dimensions of the loopho le being af t erwards

varied with the direction in whi ch fi re is to be de livered ,

I n actua l warfare a rough ho le on ly can genera lly be formed ,

 CH APTE R VI II .
—I M P R O V E M E N T o n E X I TI N G S CO V E R , E TC . 27

which should nevertheless conform to the conditions above

, ,

laid d own as far as p o ssib le .

Figs 6 and 7 suggest metho ds for preparing wa lls for a doub le

.

tier of fi re whi ch might be used for fl a n kin gpurp o ses

,
.

5 6 In preparing hedges for defence weak p laces shou ld be H d g

.
,
e es .

made up with boughs stakes wi re & c and if a ditch is on , , ,

.
,

the defenders side little e lse re quires t o be done If not o n

’
,
.

the defenders side something in the n ature of a she lter trench

’
,

may be dug and t he earth thrown up breast high against it

,

when such command is necessary and if the hedge is strong ,

enough to support it .

In no case should excavated earth be thrown in front of the

he d ge so as to indicate its occupati o n
,
.

The time required to excavate such trenches is lo nger than

for or di nary trenches on account o f the presence of roots ,

and the work required to strengthen the hedge .

In preparing a hedge for defence if the top of the bank on ,

whi ch it stands is not thick enough to keep out b u llets it ,

must be made so .

H edges sometimes form very good screens for fi eld guns .

It wou ld genera lly be advisab le for the guns to b e in action

about 1 5 0 to 3 00 yards behind the hedge .

5 7 E mbankments are not as a r u le good positi o ns for a E m b k

. an

firin g line because they o fi er such a good mark to the enemy s m t

’
eri s .

arti llery but neverthe less embankments in front of a position

,

and para lle l t o it wi ll genera lly have to be he ld

,
.

E mbankments can be defended by occup yi ng the nearer

edge as in Fig 1 PI 1 2 or the further edge as in Fig 2
, .
,
.
, ,
. .

The front edge gives the best c o mmand of the ground in

front but cover can be obtained with less la b our at the rear
,

edge.

5 8 E ither side of a cutting can be defended according to C ut t i g

.
, n s.

circumstances (Fig The rear side gives the best o bstac le ;

.

the front side is best for a sub sequent advance and secures good ,

she lter for supports .

A road cut on t h e side of a hi ll would genera lly be visib le

to the arti llery of the attack for a long di stance and therefo re ,

shou ld n o t be he ld unless it o ffers Specia l faci lities for defence .

Fig 4 shows a method of defendi ng a r oad the fence or

.
,
 28 CH A PTE R V III .
—I M P R O V E M E NT S
O F E X I TI N G CO V E R E TC
, .

hedge on one side being converted into an o b stac le and t hat ,

on the other used as cover .

Wo o n s
.

W oo d s
. 5 9 .Woods vary so much in character that it is impossible
to give genera l instructions for their defence suitab le to a ll
cases Those which reach down towards the enemy are very
.

dangerous and re quire Specia l consideration .

The two most important attributes of woo ds which are ,

c ommon to near ly a ll are the obstac le which they make to

,

the passage of troops whether in defence or attack and the, ,

concea lment they o fl er As to the obstac le it is the defenders

.
’

b u siness to arrange that it sha ll caus e the least inconvenience

to his own a n d the greatest inconvenience to the enemy s ’

tr 0 0 ps Tlie concea lment afford e d should be so uti lised as to

,

b e a lmost entire ly l n favour o fthe defence .

The front edge of a wood very often has a boundary capab le

of being easi ly made into a good she lter whi le the materials ,

for abatis are at hand : In order to economise troops especia ll y ,

if the edge of the wood is indented portio ns may be defended ,

whi le the remainder is entangled the portio ns to b e defended

b eing those whence the most fi re can be deve loped The edge .

of a wood however often o fi er s a good mark for the enemy s

, ,
’

arti llery ; for this reason it is someti mes desirab le to p lace

the fi rin gline some distance in advance .

E ntrenchments and breastworks in the interior of a wood

inv olve great labour and should se ldom be us ed Where the .

ground is favourab le c learances in front of interior positions

,

may be made and the wood cut down made into abatis
,
.

Lo g breast works especia lly o f hard wo o d wi ll of course

, , , ,

give a good dea l of pr o tection agains t bu llets even if it is not ,

comp lete .

If the defence of the rear of the wood is m o re convenient

than that of the front the best arrangement Wi ll be to entangle
,

the rear edge and take up a position commanding it and s o me

dista n ce behi n d it The rear edge may be o ut so as to leave
.

we ll d efi n ed sa lients This will induce the attackers to crowd

.

into these sa lients and so make a good target .

 C H AP T E R VI I I .
—I M P R O V E M E N T S
O F E XI T I N G CO V E R ,
ETC . 29

Communi catio n s through the wood should be improved ,

i f the fron t is t o be he ld if the position is in the rear of the w o o d

and the latter is mere ly to serve as an obstac le they should ,

be b locked .

In making c learances large trees sho ul d not be fe lled

, .

Much ca n be done by j udicious thinning .

With limited t i me it will genera lly be best t o occup y it i n

,

i mpr o vi n g the co mmun icat i ons r at her t ha n in mu lti plyin g

o bst a cl es.

D E FE N C E OF B UI LD I N GS .

60 .Bui ldings can se ldom be he ld under arti llery fi re When B uil din g . s .

time and labour are avai lable they may h o wever be prepared , ,

for defence . When screened from a r tiller v fir e they are of

great va lue .

The princip les for defence of bui ldings are the same as those
laid down in Chap I S ec 1 but the fo llowing specia l points
.
, .
,

must be dea lt with

B arricading of doors and windows (see Pls 1 3 and .

(O ne d oor shou l d be avai lab le for u s e and mus t be

specia lly dealt with Arrangements for venti lation

.

(usua lly by upper windows ) ; for stor i ng ammunition ,

provisio n s and water ; for a hospita l and for la trines ;

and prec a utio n s must be taken against fi re .

An y neighbour ing b ui ldings which are not to be occupied ,

sho ul d be made us e less to the enemy .

I fthe bui lding is large and st ro n gly b uilt and it is intended ’

,

to make a determined defence arrange for interi o r ,

defence by loopho ling partition wa lls and upper

flo o rs and pr o viding movab le barricades to cover
,

the retreat from one part of the b ui lding to the other .

S T O CKA D E S .

6 1 S tockades are improvised defensib le wa lls which in S to c kades , , .

a ddit 1 o n to affor di ng cover to their defenders form a fai r ,

obstacle to assault They are on ly suitab le for defences

.

of a pure ly passive ch a r a cter where not exposed to arti llery.

fire .
 30 CH A PT ER V III .
— I MPR O V E ME N T o r E X I TI N GS CO V E R E TC .
,

The commonest forms of stockade consist of e a rth gr a ve l ,

or broken stones & c between two upright revetments

,
.
,

The necessary thi ckn ess wi ll be obtained from the tab le i n

Chap 1 Sec 4 (see PI 1 5 Fig
.
, . .
,
.

R ai ls o r iron p lates if availab le are useful materials

,
Types , .

of stockades of rails and s leepers are shown on PI 1 5 Figs 2 .

, .

and 3 .

6 2 It must be remembered that the loopholes through w hi ch

.

the defenders de liver their fi re should be so arranged that the

enemy if he succeed in closing with the obstac le wi ll not b e
, ,

ab le to use the loopho les in his turn .

Loopho les may be formed of sandbags or by inserting a

p lank box in the earth grave l & c taking care to give some
, ,
.
,

sp lay to the rear to admit of latera l range They should b e .

from 3 to 5 feet apart .

Loop h oles may with advantage be b linded when not in use

by an o ld sandbag or piece of sacking in situations where the
nature of the back ground woul d indi cate their position c le a rly
to the enemy .

If re quired two tiers of fir e can b e o b tained in a rai l stockade

by arranging a staging of s leepers for the upper rank to stand
on ,
lea ving su ffi cien t head room un derneath the staging for
t h e lower rank standing on the ground leve l In thi s case .

there should be a di tch in front .

S c r e en s .
6 3 In these days of smokeless powder the va lue of screens
.
,

b oth for attack and defence cannot b e over -estimated Much , .

c a n be d one in a c lose country b y j u di cious thinning or leaving

of w o o ds trees and hedgerows

,
Where no natura l screens .

exist they can b e made S moke sometimes forms va luab le .

cover for working pa rties especia lly against search li ghts ,

.

S acks fi lled rather tigh tly with straw left ope n at each end ,

and s lit to a llow the escape of the smoke form simp le and ,

p o rtab le smoke producers They shou ld b e lit in the centre .

of the str a w so a s to b urn outwards

,
.
 CH APT E R I X —E A R T H V
.
~
V
O RKS .

in the best position for fi re e fi ec t It wi ll often b e a good .

p lan t o p lace the fi rin g line at o r n ear t he f o o t o f a s lope ,

so as to obtain a gra zing fi re with the arti llery on the high ,

ground ab o ve .

The advantage of high groun d for a defens ive positi o n is -

often o ver estimated It need only be high en o ugh t o c o ncea l

-
.

’
and she lter the defenders reserves and their movements and ,

t o exp o se the movements of the enemy .

6 7 The arrangement of tr enches shou ld be simple

. There .

shou ld be one main line of defence S evera l tiers of trenches .

may sometimes be useful to increase the volume of defenders

,
’

fi r e an d a lso to deceive the attack as to the actua l position of

,

the defence but there should be no idea of using these trenches

as successive lines of defence The defenders should understand
.

c learly which is the main line of defence and what it is that ,

they must hold on to when the assaul t is pushed home .

The main line should not as a rule be continuous If .

e ch elo n n ed in suitab le lengths say fo r companies or even , ,

sma ller units it wi ll b e more d iffi c ult for the enemy s

,
’

arti llery to get the range .

In tracing a trench attention should be paid to prob ab le

e n fi la de fi re .

E very shoul d be used to mis lead the enemy as to

a rt ifi c e

the positions of the trenches e g C o n sp icu ouS du mmy trenches

,
. .
,

to draw h is fi re .

I N V I S I B I LI T Y .

6 8 E very e ffort shou ld be made to concea l the trench

. .

C oncea lment may be gained by (a ) carefu l siting t e , , . .

positi o n (b) Assi m i lation to surrounding ground When

. .

possib le a position should be studied both bef o re and afte r the

c o nstruction of trenches from the front and especially from ,

the enemy s arti llery positions

’
We ll-marked featur es 0 1 .

the gro und such as iso lated hedge ro ws lines of road , sharp
,
-
,

cha n ges o f gradient , or anything which casts a shadow are ,

at long ra n ges , more visib le than the trenches themse lves .

The neighbourhood of such obj ects forms a target , especia lly

for artillery fir e , a nd shou ld when possib le b e avoided .
 CH APT E R IX .
—E A RT H W O R K S .

The front of the parapet may be covere d with s ods or branches

or whatever will make them look like the surrounding ground .

S har p li nes must be avoided and attention must be paid t o

b ack g round .

If the parapet is on the sky line spare e arth may be pi led ,

up b eh ind the trench to make a back ground for the defenders ’

heads As a ru le however a sky h n e is to b e avoided

.
, ,
.

The parapet sh o u ld b e kept as lo w as possi b le co n sistent

wi t h fire effect in some cases no parapet is re q uired .

TRE N C H E S .

69 Trenches are dis t inguished as fir e trenches and cover

. c
T r en h es
.

trenches accordi ng as they are for the fi rin g line or mere ly

,
”

to cover troops not actua lly engaged .

F I R E TR E N C H E S .

70 The design of the trench wi ll depend on the time and

.

labour avai lab le on the soi l and on the siting but the fo llowing
, ,

points are important

(1 ) The parapet shoul d be b ullet proof a t the top 2 feet
6 inches to 3 feet wi ll usually suffi ce B ut see S ec 4 . . .

( )
2 The trench shou l d be as invisib le as possib le .

(3 ) The interior s lope should be as steep as possib le .

(4) The bottom of the trench (unless there is a step )

shou ld b e wide enough t o allo w men to sit in it .

(5 ) The interior shou l d be prot e cted as far as possib le , ,

agains t ob li que and en fila de fi re and sometimes from ,

reverse fi re .

( ) rainage should b e attended to

6 D .

7 1 Types of fi re t rench are given in Pls 1 6 and 1 7 b ut see

. .
,

S ec 3
. .

Fig 1 gives g o od cover agains t fronta l arti llery fi r e

.
,

and allows room for the supernumerary rank to pass behind

the fir in g line .

To excavate the normal length of 2 paces of this trench

wi ll take an untrained man about 1 4 hours in moderate ly ,

e asy ground .

( 5 2 8 0 )
 C H AP T E R I X .
— E A R T H WO R K S .

I n Specia lly d iffi cult soi l the width may b e reduced t o 2 feet .

S hou ld time be avai lab le the cover and the fa c iht y of com
,

mun ic at io n may b e much improved by deepeni ng and wideni n g

the trench as shown on PI 1 6 Fig 2
,
.
,
. .

S hou ld a higher command than 1 foot 6 inches b e required ,

to enab le the defenders to see the ground in fr ont the parapet ,

must be heighte ned wi th earth obtained from wide ni ng and

deepening the trench A firing ste p at least 1 4 feet wi de is
.
, ,

necessary 45 feet b elow the top of the parapet , the inte rior
-

s lope of whi ch must b e revetted .

P1 1 6 Fig 3 , is a case where the ground in front can b e se en

.
,
.

without any command and it is desired to di spens e with a

,

parapet for the sake of concea lment The excavat ed e a rt h .

mus t be scatte red or removed to form a dummy parapet .

PI 4 4 shows how fairly good cover c a n b e rapid ly obtained

.

for men lying do wn ; the trenches c a n b e co nnected up as

shown by the dotted lines .

An e lbow rest is a usefu l feature in a p a rapet It increases .

c over considerab ly gives support to the men whil e firin g

, ,

and is conveni ent for ammuni tion It should be 9 inches b elow .

the crest and 1 8 inches wide .

E arth thrown up shoul d not b e ramm ed .

H E AD CO V E R AN D LOO P H O LE S .

72 . H eadcover ten ds to diminish the number of rifles that

c an be put in li ne and reduce the fi eld of View and fir e and ,

genera lly makes the work more conspicuous but is of ,

u n d o ubted advantage for protection especia lly against ,

shrapnel .

It re quires careful arrangement so as to ens ur e the maxi

m u m of fir e e ffect a n d of invisibility with the m ini mum of
exposur e .

It wi ll us ually b e o btained b y ma king notc hes in the

parapet for the rifle or by loopholes ,
.

Lo o ph o les can be made of sandbags sods or other materials , ,

avai lab le 0 1 1 the spot such as biscuit b oxes or sacks fil led With
,
 C H AP I E R
'
lX
. E ART H WO R KS i

_
earth The si ze of the openings mus t be governed b y the
.

ground to be covered by fir e and can best be regulated by

*
,

testing with a ri fle with the b o lt removed to ensure that

neither line of sight nor line of fi r e are obstructed .

S andbag loopholes as shown in PI 1 8 Figs 3 and 4 can be Sa db g .

,
.
,
n a

1 0 0 71 1
ma de in a continuous line as c lose as 3 feet 3 inches from 1 1 0 9

centre to centre .

S andbags sag a good dea l unless we ll supported .

Loopho les made W ith earth or sandbags may have the larger
opening either inside or outside I t the larger O pe ning be .

inside the loophole is very much less conspicuous which is

, ,

often a point of great importance .

If the larger opening be outside a defender can fi re with much ,

greater ease since he c a n cover the whole are witho ut moving

,

his position .

The choice must depend upon the re quirements of the p lace .

A compromise b etween the two a b ove methods is shown in

PI 1 9 Fig 1
.
, . .

A Very good form of loopho le whi ch has the advantage of C o n .

giving a wide fi eld of View is a s lit all round the work t i u o us fl

, ,
l o ph Ie o O
continuous except for the supports of the materia l above (see
,
‘

PI .

Loopholes made with hard materia l such as stone , must have ,

the larger O pening inside to prevent ricochet .

S tee l loopho le p lates see Figs 1 and 2 PI 1 8 are artic les of S t eel
,
.
, .
,

store They make the best head cover , but cannot, as a rule , 1 0 0 13 11 0 1 8
.

be pro vided for hasty defence work .

p la t es '

Loopho les shou ld never sho w against the sky line ,

but
should be b linded say b y canv a s hung behind them , , . The
front of the loopho le may b e masked with b ranches long
grass & c ,
.

OV E R H E A D CO V E R .

O verhead cover gives the b est protection against

73 .

s hrapne l from guns and howitzers It is especia lly usef ul .

Th e m i n im u m d ep t h o f o p en i n gs fo r a p a ra p et 2 fee t 6 i n h e s t h i k c c
o n le vel gr o u n d , u sin g t h e n ew ser i e r i fle a t vc
yar ds r a n ge, is, fo r
t h e i n sid e, si x in h es c
fo r t h e o ut sid e, fo ur in h es c .

( 89)
5 2
 C H A PT E R IX .
— E A RT H W O RKS .

agai n st ob liq ue fi re 9 to 1 2 inches of earth or say 3 inch es , .

of shingle supported by br ushwood or other suitab le mate ria l

, ,

wi ll s uffi c e (PI . .

Tw o sheets of corrugated ir o n s loping to the rear at about

a fford go o d pr o tection agai n st shrapne l (5 6 6 PI The .

c o rrugations must be para lle l to the line of fi re .

O verhead cover o f above n atures wi ll not keep out a common

shell but the effect of a burst in the trench can be loca lised
,

see be low )
( .

A row of heavy steel rai ls arranged in the same w a y as the

corrugated ir o n has been found to be practica ll y proof agai n s t
,

6 inch howit zer she lls fi lled with high exp losive
-
.

O verhead cover against weather may be made with

branches corrugated iron canvas or any other covering
, , ,

avai lab le .

S ee a lso S ec . 88 .

TR AV E R S E S .

T ra v erses . 74 O pen trenches

. and parapets which may b e exposed to
e n fi la de fi re and to the ob lique fi re of arti llery should b e ,

traversed and recessed Traverses are simp le means of .

gaining pr o tection agai n st en fila din g she ll and also of loc alis ,

ing the e ffect of a she ll bursting in the trench They are a lso .

e ffective against rifle bullets on account of their flat traj ectory , .

An irregular line of trench wi ll answer the same purpose when ,

it suits the ground .

Against shrapne l bu llets coming ob lique ly or in en fila de , ,

traverses wi ll not su ffic e on account of the steep angle of .

descent of the bullets R ecesses made in the parapet lar ge .

,

enough to ho ld one or t wo men give the best pr o tection a gains t ,

these S ee PI 2 1
. S uch recesses are b est made after t h e
. .

trench is excavated .

7 5 Traverses to loca lise bursts may consis t of two walls of

.

brushwood with about 1 foot of earth between

, .

PR O T E C T E D LOOK -O UT .

Lo o k-o ut .
76 In all trenches some sort of pr o tected look out is useful
.
-
.

It sh o u ld not be distinguishab le from the front .

A we ll made loopho le may suffi c e for this purpo se

-
.
 C H A P T ER i x.
—4 E A RT H W O R K S .

D R A I NAG E OF TR E N C H E s .

77 This .is an important point and sho u ld be attended D

,
r a in a
ge .

to from t h e outset A gu t ter shou ld be formed in the trench

.
,

usua lly at the back and the bottom of the trench s1 0 p ed t o

,

it .An y water co llecting in it shou ld where possib le be le d off , ,

to lower ground otherwise into soak pits which may be about

, ,

2 feet or 3 feet in diameter and 3 feet d eep .

CO M M UN I CA T I O N T RE N C H E S .

7 8 If time admits covered communications shou ld be C r m u o n ni

m
.

arranged behind the fi rin g line These whi le concea ling the 2
?
0
.
,
h em“ ) e s'
movements of the defenders wi ll a ls o permit of the fi rin g line ,

being withdrawn altogether whi le the arti llery bombardmen t is

going o n A trench simi lar to PI 1 6 Fig 4 wi ll usua lly
. .
,
.
,

s uf
fi ce .

It may b e necessary to make long li nes of such approaches ,

but every possib le use shou ld b e made of the ground t o mini

mise labour on them .

They may require parapets on b oth sides and where much ,

exposed m ay b e given overhead cover .

CO V E R T R E N C H E S .

7 9 Cover trenches (3 6 6 P1 2 4, Fig 1 ) are useful to protect the C o v er

. . .

fi rin g line duri n g a bombardment and for troops n o t actua lly t r en cb e s ,

engaged .

T he section of these trenches may b e as in that fi gure o r , ,

if more time and materia l be avai lab le as in Pls 2 8 and 2 9 , . .

When time is limited and materials are not at hand a sec t ion ,

simi lar to PI 1 6 Fig 1 might b e emp loyed b ut with s lightly

.
. .
, ,

higher parapet and no e lbow rest .

CO V E R FO R ART I LLE RY .

80 Cover
for fi eld g uns wi ll take the form of epaulmen t s or Co ver
.
,

pits as shown in Pls 2 2 and 2 3 An am m unition recess must fo

,
. .
r

a r i l fl er y
.

be provided c lose to the gu n and co ver fo r one or more ammu ,

‘

n it io n w a gons near the emp lacement is a lso desirab le There .

should be covered c ommunication between the gun emp lace

ment and the wagons Parapets to be bu llet and sp li nter .
 CH A PT E R IX . E A R T H W O RK S .

proof The hei ght of t h e parapet shou ld be regu lated b y the

.

site and range Three feet is suitab le for medium and long
.

ranges H owit zers wi ll as a r ule be in concealed position s

.
, , ,

where they can only be reached by high angle fi re If they .

are like ly to b e for s ome time in one position e g in siege ,

. .
,

operations they can be surrounded b y spli n ter proof wa lls

,
-

(see Traverses ) .

FI E LD R E D O UB T S .

81 . Fie ld red o ubts are works entire ly enc losed by defensi b le

parapets Their di me ns ions sho ul d as a ru le be such t hat
.
, ,

they could be cons tructed in from 1 2 hour s to 2 4 hours .

It may be genera lly laid down that redoubts in defensive

positions must not under ordinary conditi o ns be used on site s
, ,

where they can be recog ni sed as redoub ts by the enemy :

This wi ll as a ru le prevent their emp loyment in the front line
, , ,

a lthough irregu larities of the ground & c may she lte r certain ,
.
,

portions of this line where redoub ts may find p lace A redoubt .

has greater resisting power against infantry than a group of

trenches .

As supporting points in rear of the front line redoubts wi ll ,

more ofte n be emp loyed In such retired positio ns there wi ll .

genera lly be sites whi ch whi le comman di ng the foreground , ,

wi ll not be exposed to View from a distance .

It shou ld b e remembered that a redoubt does not necessarily

need a high or thick parapet ; a fir e trench parapet m ay su ffi ce .

8 2 R edoubts may have to be used for detached posts and

.
,

posts in lines of communi cation S uch works wi ll of t en have .

to b e a refuge she lter and dep ci t for passing tro o ps and ro o m

‘

, ,

inside must be given It wi ll hardly b e possible to make these

.

works invisib le as it is essentia l that the parapets shou ld

,

concea l the interior from V 1 ew P lenty of Sp linter proof cover .

-

shou ld be provided and a good obstac le near t he parapet is

,

essential .

Tra ce
. 8 3 The p lan or trace of a redou b t wi ll depend o u
.

( )
a Fire e fi ec t re quired from it .

b
( ) C o nfi g u r a t io n of the ground .

()
0 Pm p o sed garrison .
 CH A PT E R IX .
“
E ART H WO RKS .

84 . The site shou ld be such that the surrounding foregro und Sit e.

may b e we ll swept by the fi re from the parapet and the work ,

should be so disposed as to give the strongest possib le fire on

the enemy s best lines of attack There must b e no dead ang les
’
. .

A redoubt may be of any sh a pe th a t suits the ground and

provides good fir in g lines There is no nec essity for symmetry
.

in the design a lthough it has advantages Ou a leve l site

, .

a rectangle with b lunted angles would be suitab le .

All faces shou ld be long enough to give an e ffective fi re .

Those making a considerab le angle with neighb ouring faces ,

as in a rectangle shou ld not be less than 2 0 yards long and

, ,

the short faces whi ch b lunt the angles shou ld be at least

1 0 yards .

It is often convenient to use curved faces These as a ru le .

, ,

shou ld b e struck with a radius of not less than 2 0 yards .

A comp le t e circ le shou ld be av o ided except for very small p osts

.
,

a s it s fir e is weak in every di rection .

8 5 The garrison shou ld a l ways consist of one or more G i o n

. arr s .

units of command The proportion of defenders inc luding

.
,

supports and local reserves to si ze of work sho ul d be from

,

1 to 1 5 men per yard of p a rapet but the proportion of ,

parapet to men may have to be much larger .

8 6 In a redoubt in front line exposed to arti llery fi r e Lo w

.

invisibility is the fir st consideration This wi ll entail in most c om m an d

ed o ub “
.

cases a low command about the same as that of the neighbour

,
r

ing fire trenches This shou ld b e combined when time per

.
,

mits with a deep trench in rear both to increase the cover

, ,

and to a fford cover to troops not actua lly engaged A redoubt .

of thi s type is shown on Pls 2 4 and 2 5 . .

8 7 Fo r a work p laced as a supporting point behind the H i gh

.

front line the question of invisibility is not genera lly so urgent

,
c o m m an d .

do ub t re “
In this case a high command has four advantages
(1 ) It has a b etter command of it s fi eld of fi r e than a lo w
redoub t .

(2 ) It has a better mora l effect on its defenders .

(3 ) It conceals the whole of the interior of the redoubt

from view .

(4) It can be easi ly com b ined with a g o od ob stacle .

 CH AP T E R IX .
— E A RT H W O R K S .

The disadvantages lie in the extr a lab our and time entai le d
in making the large parapet .

In the case of a detached post which may be surrounded , ,

invisibi lity is of much less importance than that the defenders

should be ab le to move free ly about the who le interior of the
work wi thout being seen .

A typ e of parapet with high command is shown in P1 2 6 . .

S ince a redoubt is intended for a ll round defence precautions ,

mus t be taken to prevent the defenders su ffering from reverse

fi re
.

88 O verhead cover for a redoub t shou ld consist of abou t

.

9 to 1 2 in ches of earth supported on br ushwood or othe r

mate ria l .

V ario us forms o f these she lters are shown on Pls 2 6 2 7 2 8 .

, , ,

and 2 9 They a ll r equl re a great dea l of materia l They

. .

should always be given tra ns verse partitions at intervals of ,

from 1 0 feet to 1 2 feet , t o loca lise t h e effect of she ll .

A fairly b o mb -proof roo t can be made with rails s loping

down from line of fi re (see C hap I X, p . .

S he lters for the flanks when arti llery attack is expected ,

from the front o n ly, m ay be given in trenches roughly p ara lle l

to the front faces ; some of these may be continued with a d
vantage across the whole redoub t , for purposes of com
muni c at io n .

When the artillery attack may come from any direction ,

as wi th some detached posts the shelters mus t be arranged to ,

meet this b y facing various directio ns .

En t ran ce s . 89 The entrance to a redoubt used in civi lised war may be

.

a gap left in the face least exposed to attack and covered ,

b y a traverse inside or out as may be most conveni ent The

,
.

entrance shou ld b e wide enough to a dmit a wagon see ,

C hap XX I I
. .

D ra in age . 9 0 The drainage of the redoub t and trenches must a lways

.

b e provided for and shou ld be put in hand as soon as the work

,

is commenced S oak pits wi ll se ldom su ffi ce for this purpose

.
,

and as a rule the drai ns shou ld b e led out of the redoubt

, ,

to lower ground if possib le .

9 1 When a redoub t is to be occupied for more than a few

.

hours latrines and cooking places s h o u ld be pro vid ed wit h in

'

-
,
 C H AP T E R X .
— O B S T AC LE S .

92 O.
bstac les shou ld a lways be provided in connection O b st a cl es .

with r edoubts They must not mark the position o f the

.

redoubts .

The nearer the obstac le is to the parapet the less labour

and materia l wi ll be required and the more e ffective wi ll b e ,

the defence especia lly at night

,
.

CH APT E R X —O B S TA CLE S . .

For t i me la bo ur
, ,
t o ols a nd ma terial r e u ired, see
q t a ble, 79 . 1 20 .

93 Ob st acles judi cio usly p laced add very much to the strength G en er al
.

of a defensive position and are especially use ful as a prote ction c o n dit io n s
,

a gainst night attacks The fo llowing conditions shou ld be

.

observed
( )
a They shou ld be un der the c lose ri fle fi re of the defender .

For sma ll pos ts or redoubts they shou ld be quite clo se ,

so that they may b e e fi ec t iv ely defended at night .

They shou ld afford the enemy no cover and if , ,

possib le be she ltered from his arti llery fi re

,
.

b
( ) The y shou l d be d iffi c u lt to remove or surmount and ,

will be most e ffective it special app liances not usually ,

carried by troops are requi red for their remova l

,
.

(0 ) They should it possib le be so p laced that their exact

, ,

position may be unknown to_the attacking force .

(d ) E xcept where the p u re ly defensive is inevitab le they ,

should be a rranged so as not to impede counter

a ttacks .

()
6 A s obstac les on a large scale m a y interfere with an C a ut i o n .

advance they should not be constructed without

,

authority .

Fo r the protection of small posts at ni ght some sor t of

automatic a larm is des irab le such as tins hung on a W ir e , ,

rifles fi r e d b trip wire & 4 7

y c see
p ,
.
, . .
 C H AP T E R X .
— O B S T AC LE S .

a ba t i s
. 9 4 Abatis formed of limb s of trees fi rmly pickete d down and
.

interlaced , with the branches turned towards the enemy

and pointed form a very effi cien t obstac le (PI
,
.

Figs 1 and 2 show method of covering ab atis from artillery

.

fi re
.

—
Fig 3 The method of formi ng an abatis from small
. .

branches S ever a l rows are used the excavated earth being

.
,

rep laced after the branches are secured To make abatis .

carefu lly , at least a re lief of six hours and a strong working party
are required so that very little of it can be undertaken in
,

hasti ly -forti fied positions A very effective abatis m a y how .

,

ever be made much more rapid ly when the trees can b e

,

uti lised where they are fe lled no excavation b eing made for ,

them a n d the branches being only rough ly trimmed

. .

S trands of wire interlaced between the b ranches are a us efu l

adj unct to abatis .

9 5 Tree entanglements (Fig 4 P1 3 0 ) are formed b y cutting

. .
,
.

trees brushwood & c nearly through at a height of about

, ,
.
,

3 feet and interlacing or securing the branches by pickets

,

to the ground They make a formi dab le obstacle at the ed ges

.

of woods and orchards and for b locking roads and can ofte n , ,

be formed whi lst clearing the foregroun d .

9 6 A lo w wire entanglement is formed by stout stakes

.

driven into the ground about 6 feet apart in rows arranged ,

chequerwise their heads being connected by strong w ires

,

twisted round them and crossing di agona lly about 1 foot o r

1 8 inches above the ground (Fi g 3 Pl .
,
.

The outside pickets should have wire stays as shown in ,

Fig 3
. .

It is not a good o b stacle unless cons tructed amongst brush

wood sm all bushes or long grass which conceal it when it
, , , ,

may b e of great use agains t mounted troops It is especially .

e ffective in the bed of a river .

9 7 H igh wire enta n glements form e fi eot ive obst acles es

.
,

p ec ia lly if barbed wire be u sed P1 3 1 Fi g s 1 and 4 gi ve . .

,
.
,

two different types F1 g 4 shows a method of i m proving a

.

wire fence but i s not so effi cie nt an obstac le a s t hat shown l n

,
 44 C H AP T E R XI .
— D E FE N C E OF P O S T S VI LLA GE S E TC
, , .

1 02Inundations can be made b y damming up a s tream

.
.

A bridge is a good p lace to se lect for the purpose .

If the inundation is like ly to be very sha llow the ground ,

shou ld be fi rst prepared by digging irregular trenches and ho les ,

the existence of which will rend er the p assage of even a sha llow
inundation a di ffi cult matter .

1 0 3 O bstac les may b e crossed b y using hurd les p la nks

.
, ,

fascines bund les of straw & c or by rough ladders with steps

, , .
,

ma d e of pieces of p lank about 9 inches wide and a pace apart .

H andsaws axes bi ll hooks and cutting p liers should a lw a ys

, ,
-

b e carried b y a party removing obstac les R opes grapne ls .

, ,

he d gers gloves and guncotton may a lso be useful

’
.

1 0 4 For i llumination of o b stac les see page 4 7

. .

CH AP TE R XI —DE F E NCE OF . P O S TS AND V I LLA GE S .

O RG A N I S A T I O N FO R D E FE N C E OF LA RG E P O S I T I O N S .

(S ee also CO M B I N E D T R A I N I NG 1 90 5 , ,
S ect i on 1 2 3 and
fo llowing S e ctions ) .

G en er a l . 1 05 . of the present time often entail a long

Campaigns
line of communications in a more or less hosti le country .

E ven when protected by a fi eld army this is if the enemy is

stro n g in mounted troops very hab le to raids and must there
,

fore be protected b y forti fied posts These posts may invo lve .

( )
a the protection of a comparative ly large area of ground or of
vi llages containing sup ply dep ots an d wi ll in the case of a road , , ,

have to a fi o rd protection to the convoys and transport anima ls

which are working along it o r if on a rai lway to prote ct , , ,

ro lling stock station b ui ldings telegraph stations & c ; or

, , ,
.

b
( ) may o nl y have to protect a very h m it ed area e
g b ridges ,
. .
,

signa lling statio ns .

1 0 6 For strategic or other reasons the choice of ground

.

for a post may be limited Tactica lly the ground to be .

defended will not a lways be of the best and the art of the ,

fi eld engi neer wi ll be taxed to the utmost Water may not .

b e readily obtainab le and m ay have to be sto red ; to insure

,

that this and all other sup plies are easily accessib le muc h
for e t hought is re q uired .
 C H AP T E R XI .
—
D E FE N C E OF PO S TS AN D V I LL AGE S .

1 07 . man empl oyed on communi cations is in a sense S c h me

E very e of

wasted therefore t he garri s o ns o f such posts must be kept as

,
d e fe n c e
gm i o r s ns
lo w as possib le and every e ff o rt made by the ski lful use of
,

ground and fi eld fo rt ifi ca t io ns to economise men .

The main princip les to bear m mind are as follows

( )
a O rga n isation of defence .

b
( ) D efenders to be c lose to the ground they have to de f end .

()
0 S torage of ammu n i tion water and supp l
,
ies S trong .

obstac les (automatic a larms if possib le ) .

d
( ) C lear fi eld of fi re adequate cover,
good c o m m u n ic a ,

tions inc lu di ng te lephones telegraphs or a we ll

, , ,

orga nised system of si gna lling .

Plenty o f time is usua ll y avai lab le for the organisation

of the defence and in these days of rapid fire given ad equate
, ,

supp lies o f ammu n ition food water and materia l sma ll p o sts
, , ,

can be made practica lly impregnab le agains t raid attacks ,

even though the invaders be accompanied by a few g uns ;

while larger posts can b e so he ld that even should the enemy ,

be ab le to penetra t e under c over of darkness the risk and ,

loss invo lved wo uld be hardly worth the attempt .

O wing to the paucity of troops the defence wi ll usua lly

b e entire ly passive and except for a sma ll reserve to meet
,

emergencies every man wi ll have his pos t assigned t o him

, ,

and every l ifle wi ll be l n the fi rst line Works and picquets .

suddenly attacked at ni ght cannot as a rule be reinforced fro m , ,

a distance and for this reason it is essent ia l that the garrisons

,

to ld off for the defence of such works shou ld live quite c lose to
them .

The defence f a post of c lass wi l con ist D il

1 08 . o (a ) (S c 1 0 5 )
e l s t .
e a

of a ring of closed works supporting each other the number and

distance from the centre wi ll depend on the ground and troops
avai lab le ; the interva ls wi ll be c losed by a strong obstac le ,

which latter must be flanked by a fi re from the works The .

works themse lves in View of a night attack must be sur

, ,

rounded by an effi cien t obstac le at a very c lose ran ge sa y ,

2 0 to 5 0 yards The fi eld of fir e must of cour se be c leared as

.
, ,

much as possib le In most cases an inner line of defences

.

wi ll a lso b e requi red and possib ly a k eep , .

”
46 C H AP T E R XI .
-1 ) E FE N C E or P O S TS , V I LL A GE S m o
, .

T his ring o f defences wi ll not be of as e laborate a pattern

as those of the outer line described in the paragraph following , ,

and wi ll gener a lly consist of fo rt ified hous es garden enc losu res , ,

sma ll b lockhouses &c p laced in the immediate outski rt s

,
.
,

o fthe vi llage or dep ot and arranged so as to sweep a ll a pproaches

,

and intern a l commu nications .

The posts of c lass (6) will cons ist of only one or two of the
ab ove works a nd their garrisons may v a ry from say 6 to 5 0
,

me n .

1 09 The types of works wi ll necessarily depe nd on the nature

.

of the probab le attack If the enemy is provided with arti llery

.

deep trenches and sp linter proof cover must be provided

( un less the ground affords adequate cover c lose at hand );
agai nst rifles only walls or b lockhouses may su ffi ce Agains t
,
.

bad ly armed savages stockaded enc losures are good enough .

Invisibi lity is not essentia l but every e ffort must be taken , ,

with due regard t o effective rifle fi re to protect the defenders , .

To this end head cover is necessary and overhead cover often ,

desirab le whi le since the attack is likely to come from every

, ,

direction en fila de and reverse fi re must be cons idered

,
E ach .

of these c losed works must be se lf contained the storage of ,

reserve ammunition and water is imperative .

1 1 0 The cons truc t ion of the works wi ll mainly depend on

.

the materi als loca lly avai lab le S o u th Africa produced c orru .

gat ed iron and s hingle b lockhouses surrounded by barb ed

wire ; on the north west frontier of India stone sangars are
-

the r ule in the Lushai E xpedition of 1 889 bamboo stockades

were made ; in the S oudan b reastworks of sand and thorn
zerebas Where rai lway stations have to be protected
.
,

b lockhouses stockades and Sp linter proofs made o f rai ls and

,

loopho led b ui ldings wi ll predo mi nate whi le for a b ridge the ,

piers and girders can often wi th a little ingenui ty be made , ,

into good cover for a sma ll post .

In savage warfa re the best hint s as to designs may genera lly

be got from the enemy who in the course of intert riba l warfare
, , ,

wi ll most like ly have evo lved the types of defence be st suited

for loca l materials and to resist the same form of attack and
,

weapons which he wi ll emp loy against 1 i s S uch types w h en . , .

improve d by the light of our own knowledge, m o difi ed to

DE FE N S l B LE Po s r .

LU S H A | I8 8 9 .

a c r os s S t o c ka d e , sec a t e 42
P/ )

T 0 fo ga w [J ZGLe J QT
’
 48 C H A P T E R XL — '
D E FE N C E o n P o sr s, V I LL G E S , A E TC .

a man raising his rifle barre l too high Posts painte d whi te .

o n the defenders s ide make a good aiming mark it the n ight is

’
,

not too d a rk .

1 1 5 Lo o pho les made o f sandbags sods & c unl ess very

. , , .
,

carefu lly made do not a fi o rd a good fi eld of view and fi re

,

combined with ade quate protection To meet this obj ection .

a stee l lo opho le p late has been introduced into the service It .

w o u ld be S pecia lly us eful for detached posts (S ee P1 1 8 . .

,

Fi gs 1 and
.

E n t ra n c es .
1 1 6 The entrances to c losed works m us t be carefully attended
.

to They may be c losed by a gate barbed wire or other

.
,

obstac le When wire is us ed a good p lan is to construct an

.
,

intricate winding approach maki ng access by night d iffi c ult

,
.

In a ll cases entrances mu t be c o vered by the fi re of the de fence

s .

E ntrances t o admit arti llery re quire a width of 7 feet .

D E FE N C E OF V I LL A GE S .

V illages .

11 7 V i llages wi ll very often occur in or near a defe ns ive

.

p o sition and a lthough they are unsatisfactory for defence they

,

must genera lly be occupied rather than b e lef t to the enemy

, .

They concea l the disposition and stren gth of their garrisons ,

and a ffo rd a she lter from the weather but they take up a large ,

numb er o fmen who are necessari ly scattered .

A vi llage shou ld be divided up into we ll defi n ed section s ,

each he ld by a tactica l uni t E ach section might have two
.

lines of defence There wi ll b e a genera l reserve for the

.

wh o le under the commander of the vi llage to reinforce a hard ,

pressed section make loca l counter attacks and furnish the

, ,

garrison o f the centra l keep of the vi llage , if any .

1 1 8 The arrangements of the defence might therefore be as

.

fo llo ws
(1 ) earing fi eld of fi re
C l .

2 M
( ) aking communi cations .

(3 ) Pr o viding or improving cover for fi rst line a long

hedges gard en wa lls & c loopho ling wa lls of houses
, ,
.
,

a s a second line .

P lacing obstac les T his wou ld be part ly d o ne at

.

the same time as

Preparing k eep s .
50 C H AP T E R X I .
-D E FE N CE OF P O S TS ,
A
V I LL GE S , E TC .

OR G A N I S A T I O N FO R D E FE N C E OF LA R G E P O S I T I O N S .

1 21In order to ensure a good system of command and

.

or ganisation defensive positions shou ld be divi ded into well

,

defi n ed sections ea ch u n d er a separate commander to whom

,
.

should b e a llotted a distinct force e g a division brigade ,

. .
, , ,

etc (see Combined Training

.

E ach section commander wi ll b e responsi b le for the

o ccupation a n d preparation for defence of his section in
accordance wi th the orders received H e wi ll either indent .

on the service or depa rtment concerned or may make ,

arrangements by hire contract or requisition with the loca l

, ,

civi l authorities according to the circumstance s of the case

, ,

for s uch extra labour too ls or materia ls as may b e required

, , .

Fo r Tab les givi ng roughly time re qui red for various works
,

and form for working parties which will be found usefu l in

conn ection with the a b ove see pp 1 2 0 a nd I 3 GA
,
. .
 CH APT E R XI I . T E M P O RAR Y R OADS
- .

1 2 2 Temporary
. comm uni cations b y road are sua lly T em
u

re q ui red . p o ra r
y

3351 2
00 13 11 "
a ( ) In conn ection with a defe n sive position to enab le
1
troops to be readily moved from one portion to
another .

6
() For the movement across country of detached
co lumn s .

In b oth cases provision wi ll genera ll y have to be made for

wh ee led vehic les w hi le simple means to enab le the infantry to
,

pass d 1 ysh o d over wa ter should not be neglected The pro .

Vision or improvement of s uc h comm un i cations can as a rul e , ,

be carried out b y uns ki ll ed labo ur For more permanent work .

see C hap XX I I Part I I

.
,
.

Co m m unications inside a position wi ll consist in repairing

existing roads fi llin g up soft p laces cut ting ramps i n steep ,

groun d cutting gaps through fences and c learing roads or

,

paths through woods .

The points to be kept in mind are That troops shoul d b e

a ble to move on as broad a front as possib le and that tr o ops ,

and messengers should be guided to their destination by sign

posts b y b la zing trees or other means
,
.

The work in connection with detached columns wi ll genera lly

co ns ist in repairing existing tracks or lords a nd making boggy
or soft ground fi t for wheeled tr a ns port .

S ince soft gro und even though pass ab le is very trying to

, ,

draft ani mals a n d caus es de lay a li tt le labour well app lied wi ll

, , ,

b e amp ly repaid .

1 2 3 The bes t foundation fo r a t emporary road over boggy T m

.
e

ground is a ayer or layers of fascines p aced to uc hi ng one p

l l
y or a r

d OW "
another ; the top row must he across the d rection of thei

a
s

t r a ffi c but when time is not avai lab le or suita ble mate ri a l not
,

at hand much can be done by throwing down brushwoo d

, ,

heather or even straw or grass care being taken that this

, , ,

like the fascines is laid acr o s s the road

, .

If there is much whee led tra ns port a reserve of m ate ri al ,

sho ul d be c ollected to rep lace any that gets worn through .

(5 2 89) D 2
 C H AP T E R XIII .
— K N O T T I N G A N D L S H I N GS A .

In very wet gro und it may be necessary to dig a drain on

e ach side of the r o ad (see P1 82 Fig .
,
.

1 2 4 Where timber is avai lab le a n d heavy t r a ffi c is expected

.
,
”
a cordur oy road may be made This is constructed by .

fe lling trees cutting them to the re quired lengt hs and la yi ng

,

them across the road at right angles to its direction ribands ,

b eing spiked to them at either end or the logs may be he ld

together by interlacing with rope or wire .

The interstices between f a scines brus hw o od lo gs & c may , , ,

.
,

be filled with sma ll stones and earth t o make a better surface .

CH APT E R X III .
— KN O TTIN G AND LAS H I NGS .

1 2 5 The fo llowing
. are the most useful kn ots for bridging
and lashin g Spars , and their principal us es
( )
a To make a knot on a rope o r to prevent the end from ,

u n tr a yin g or to prevent its s li pping thr o ugh a b lock

,

the t hu mb kn ot (Fig 1 P1 45 ) or the figure of 8 .

,
.

(Fig .

b
( ) To ben d or j oin two ropes together The reef k n o t .

F i
( g ) . 3 for dry ropes of the same si ze ; the si n g le

sheet ben d (Fig 4 ) for dry I o p es of di fferent si zes ;

'
.

the dou ble skeet bend (Fig 5 ) for great security or .

fo r wet ropes of di li er en t si zes and the ha wser ben d ,

(Fig 6 ) for j oining large cab les

. .

()
0 To form a l oop or bi ght on a rope which wi ll not s lip .

The bowline (Figs 7 and 8) for a loop at the end of a

.

m p e the bowli n e on a bzglzt (Fig 9) for a loop in the

'

.
,

mi ddl e with a doub le of the rope

. .

( )
d To sec u re the ends of ropes to Sp ars pickets & c or to , ,
.
,

other ropes .

H al f hit ch (Fig 4 P1 4 6 ) for securing the loose ends

.
,
.

o i lashi n gs &c ,
.

Clove hi tch (Figs 1 and 2 P 1 4 6 ) (two ha lf hitches )

.
,
.

genera lly used for the commencement and fi ni sh o f

lashings .
 C H AP T E R X I I I .
—KN O T T I N G AN D L A S H I N GS .

Ti mber hitch (Fig 3 ) for catching ho ld of timber & c

.
,
.
,

where the weight wi ll keep the hitch taut .

Rou n d t u rn a n d t wo ha lf hit ches (or r olli n g ben d) (Fig 5 ) .

for belaylng (o r making fast ) a rope so that the strain

’

on the rope shall not jamb the hi tc hes .

Thi s wi ll be used for making fast a rope to a bollard

or anch o rage S hou ld the runni ng end b e in c o n
.

veni e n t ly long a bight of it shou ld be used to form

,

the hall hitches .

Fisher men s ben d (Fig for maki ng fast when there

’
.

is a give and take motion e g for bending a cab le to

- -
,
. .
,

an anchor .

()
e To f
i x a Spar or stick across a rope .

Lever hitch (Fig 7 for dr awing pickets b y a lever a n d

.

ful crum fi xin g the rounds of a r 0 p e ladder fi xin g

, ,

bars to dr agropes & c ,

.

(I) For forming a l oop on dragropes .

M a n s ha rn ess hitch (Figs 7 and the loop being of a

’
.

si ze to pass over a man s sh o ulder ’

.

(9) To fi x a rope with a weight on it rapid ly to a b lock .

Catsp a w at the end (Figs 1 and 2 P1 47 ) or in the .

, .

mi dd le of a r c p e (Fig for hooking on a b lock . .

Blackwal l hitch (Fig a simp le hitch (with a p liant

.

rope ) which will o nl y ho ld as long as the weight is

applied .

7
( )
1 To tran s fer the strain on one rope to another .

S t opp er hitch (Fig for us e on occasio ns when it is

.

necessary to shift the strain 0 11 a rope temporarily .

1 2 6 To s ling a cask hori zonta lly

. Make a long bight with a su gm g .
n

b owline and app ly as shown in Fig 6 k . .

c as e

To s ling a cask vertica lly (Fig 7 P lace the cask in a bight

.

at the end of the r o p e and wi th the running end make a

,

thumb knot round the standing part of the rope O pen o u t .

the thumb knot and s lip it down the sides of the cask S ecure .

with a bowline .

1 2 7 A rack lashing
. an article of store co ns ists of a leng t h R c k
, ,
a

of 1 % -inch r c p e with a
pointed stick at one en d Used for 1 1 1 8 .
3 8 1 10
,

fastening down ribands at the edge of the roadway of bridges .

 CH A P T E R X I I I.
— K N O T T I N G AN D L A S H I NG S .

C o mmenced with a thumb knot at a Fig 1 Pl 48 the end , .

, .
,

twisted in the bight The stick is then put into the bight
.
,

t wi sted against the hands o f the c lock ti ll a ll is taut and ,

fi n a lly j ammed m from right t o left between the lashing and

the outside of the riband A rack lashing is rea di ly i mp ro.

v ised (Figs 1 and 2 PI . .

Del ayin g
. 1 2 8 T o be lay a cab le to be laying cleats
. First take a round .

turn with the standi ng part of the cab le on the be la ying c leats ,

then as many fi gure of 8 turns as necessary H a lf hitches are .

on n o account to be us ed in be laying any rope whi ch is like ly

to have to be cast o ffqui ckly .

La shings .

1 2 9 To lash one Spar square across another commence b y a

.
,

c love hi tch on Spar a be low b P] 48 and twist ends together ,

.
, ,

carry at least four times round the Spars as shown in fi gur e , ,

keeping outside previous tur ns on one Spar and ins ide on the
other two or more trapping or cross tur ns are then taken the ,

corners of the lashi ngs being we ll beaten in dur ing the

process and fi nish ed off with two ha lf hi tches round the most
,

conve ni ent Spar (Figs 3 and 4 P1 .

,
.

When the Spars are the leg and trans om of a trestle or fr a me ,

the c love hitches should be on the leg below the trans om ,

and the las hi ngs should be fi ni sh ed off on the trans om outside

t h e leg .

1 30 .To lash two Spars together that tend to Spring apart .

B egin wi th a timber hi tch or running bow line round both

spars and draw them together then take thr ee or four t u rns ,

across each fork and fi ni sh with trapping turns and two half
hitches (Fig . .

Wedges with we ll rounded points are often useful for tighten

ing lashings They are genera lly us ed by builders in sca ffo ldi ng
.
,

and should be driven in at the top of the lashings .

3 . l
1 1 To ash a b ock to a Spar
l — The back o fthe hook is laid .

against the Spar a c love hitch is taken round the Spar above
,

the hook then severa l turns round the hook and spar and
, ,

fi ni sh ed o il with t wo half hitches round the Spar be low the

h O O k (Fig .
 C H AP T E R XIV .
- B RI D G E S
.

1 32 The hook of a b lock is moused by taking some turns M u i g o s n

“ “
.

l
round it with Spun yarn or very ight lashing commencing M M O
,

with a clove hitch on the back of the hook and fi n ish in g o ff

with one or two trapping turns and a ree l knot (Fig 2 PI 47 .
, .

1 3 3 The end of a rope is seized to the stan di ng part with Spun S ei in g

.
z .

yarn or string by formi ng a c love hitch round one of the ropes

,

with the Spun yarn near its centre taking each part round both ,

ropes in opposite di rections leaving one end long enough to ,

take two trapping tur ns between the ropes and connecting ,

the two ends with a reef knot (Fig 6 P1 .

,
.

1 3 4 A picket us ed as a ho ldfast must be dr iven into the H l df t s

. o as

ground at a s lope to meet the strain I t the latter is great 0 1 0 1

'
3 11 0 1 1 “

g
.

a es
"
and the pickets sma ll additiona l strength is gained by the
,

methods sho wn in Figs 7 and 8 PI 48 I n usin gh ea vy r op e t hr ee

.
, . .
,

or more pickets can be d iven in a cluster to form a bollard r

.

If a large piece of timber is us ed as a bollard its corners must ,

be rounded 0 11 Fig 9 PI 48 shows a method of using a lo g

. .
,
.
,

for large strains .

1 3 5 For strength of rope wire and lashings see Part II

.
, , .

CH APT E R XI V .
— MI LIT AR Y B R ID GE S .

1 3 6 The approximate site for a bridge wi ll us ua lly b e decided S ite

.
.

b y the tactica l re quirements in se lecting the exact position

over a river and regard mus t be had to the fo llowing points
, ,

most o fwhi ch m us t a lso be considered when an existing bri dge

has to be repaired vi z The nature of the banks and a p
,
.

r o a c h es the nature of the b ed width to be bridged depth of

p , , ,

water strength of current and the probabi li ty and extent of

, ,

floods . If a tida l river the rise and fa ll of the ti d e sho ul d be

,

ascertained A note sho ul d be made of any materia l near the

.

proposed site which wo ul d he lp in the cons t ruction of the

bridge .

1 3 7 The approaches on both sides of a bridge are of the utmost B k

. an s

nd
importance marshy banks should be avoided if ramps are
, ,
a

p a '

re q uired the gr a dients should be easy ro a ch e s

.

p .
 C H AP T E R XI V .
-B RI D G E S .

E asy access and a d iffi c ult exit is sure to cause a crowding

o n t h e b ridge .

S t r en gt h 1 3 8 The simp lest p lan for measur ing the ve locity o f a stre a m
.

c
o f ur r en t .
is to use a light rod weighted at one end so as to fl o at near ly
ver tica lly with its tip above water Note the distance it
,
.

flo a t s in a given number of seconds ; then seven tenths the -

mean number of feet a second gives the number of mi les an

h o ur in which terms the velocity should be stated
,
.

M a t e r ial s .
1 3 9 The materia ls usu a lly avai lab le in the fi eld are timber o f
.

all sorts and si zes , rai lway p lant hemp or wire rope and flo a t in
g ,

materia l .

The di fi eren t par t s can be fastened together with rope or

Wire iron bo lts and nuts spikes and dogs iron straps & c
, , , , .

The simp lest construction consists of round spars lashed

together wi th rope or wire but S (ih a red timbers e g , timber as
, ,
. .

used in the c o nstructi o n o fhouses , and iron fastenin gs are often .

more easi ly obt aine d t han spars and rope Iron l ast eni n gs .
.

’
however necessitate a few carpenter s too ls
, .

Fo rm of
1 4 0 The form of bridge wi ll vary accor di ng to the materi a ls
.

b r id ge
a vai lab le the tra lh o expected and the nature , b readth , depth ,
.

& c of the span to be bridged

.
, .

When bottom can be touched throughout , a trestle bridge

(P .1 4 9 Fig or some
, form a kin to .i t wi ll genera ll y b e the ,

m o st economi ca l in m a teria l and the easiest to make The .

method of constructing it should be thorough ly understood .

When there is no avai lab le b ottom the b ri d ge b ecome s more

c o mp licated? S i mp le b ri dges for sma ll spans are the single
lock bridge the do ub le lock bridge a nd the canti lever b ridge
, ,

(numbers used in the North of India ) These are describ ed in .

Part 1 1 Where flo at in g material is availab le and depth of

.

water and current are s uitab le a flo at in g bridge will be the ,

quickest and simp lest to make For long spans where bottom .

cannot be touched tension or suspension bridges or , ,

some form of girder bridge m a y be suitab le but their , ,

construction requires ski lled labour an d wi ll n o t be dealt with

here .

Fig 3 sho ws a combination of fra me and trestle Fig 4

.

,
.

of flo a t in g piers and trestle —t he depth of the gap in each

case necessitating some support other than trest le .
 C H A P T E R XI V .
—B RI D G E S .

R ack lashi n gs shou ld be app lied at intervals of 4 f oot or

5 feet .

B a u lke .
1 46 The number of baulks depends upon the si ze of the
.

timber avai lab le They should be su ffi cien t ly c lose together

.

to support the chesses .

1 4 7 The di stance bridged by one set of baulks 75 e the

.
, . .
,

distance between any two t ra n soms is ca lled a ba y , .

The length of bays depends chiefl y upon the si ze of avai lab le

b aulks 1 0 feet to 1 5 feet is a conve ni ent length .

When the trestles are large materia l and labour should ,

be economised by making the bay as wide as the lengt h

and strength of the availab le road bearers wi ll allow -
.

S t r en gt h 1 4 8 Whatever arm of the service it is constructed to carry

.
,

o f b l i d ges
'

a bridge should be capab le of supp orting it when crowde d

in the formation for which it is intended Th us a bridge .

intended to carr y infantry in fo ur s sho ul d be strong enough to

take infantry in fours when crowded .

A b ridge that wi ll carry i nfantry in fours crowded a t

a check wi ll carry fi eld guns and 5 inch howit zers and most of -

the ordinary wagons that accomp any an ar my in the fi eld .

Timbers of bridges for carr ying heavier weights e g gun s ,

. .
,

of position sho uld be ca lculated (see Part

,

The following appro xi mate di m ensions for Spars of u n sel ect ed

timb er are necessary for carrying infantry in fo ur s crowded
F o r bays of 1 5 fee t — R oad bearing transoms me an ,

d iameter 1 0 inches B au lks (six ) m ean diameter

, .
, ,

7 inches .

Fo r ba y s of 12 feet — l inch less than above wi ll suffi c e .

Other timbers not a fi ec t ed by length o f bay

Ledgers and handrai ls mean diameter 4 inches to 6 inches
, ,
.

B races and ribands 3 inches at tip ,

.

Legs trestle mean diame t er 6 inches

, , ,
.

These dimensions are ca lculated for spars of rather weak

wood such as larch and a ll ow for a factor of safet y of three
, ,
.

Five road bearers are enough for se lected spars

-
.

C a m b er .
1 49 The roadway is genera lly constructed with a s light rise
.

towards the centre of the bridge to a llow of subse quent settle

ment this is technically called the camber and should be about ,

1
3 3
of the span .
 C H A P T E R XI V
— . B R I D GE S .

5
1 0 .R e gu lations fo r the passage of tr 0 0 ps over fi eld bridges Ifr eca u
n one t o b e
a re laid do wn in C o mbined Training 1 90 5 S e e 2 7
u sed 1 “
. ,
, , .

With the o ffi c er in charge rests the responsibility o f no a ssa e o f

g
g
physica l obstacles oc curn n g to cause checks or cr o wd1 n g on fi d ges ‘

the bridge itself .

The passage of troops ofi a bridge should be always

expedited , their p assage on to it carefu lly regulated and when , ,

necessary checked by material obstac les

,
.

The o ffi c er superinten ding the constructi on of a bridge

is respo ns ib le that it is strong enough to support the weight
it is intended to carry To prevent it being over strained he
.
-

should p lace a signboard at either end stating the greatest ,

permissib le load thus z ,

B ridge to carry infantry in fours .

”
B ridge t o carry infantry in fi le .

B ridge to carr y gu ns not heavier than 1 3 pr -

.

T R E S T LE B RI D G E S .

151 Trestles made of Spars lashed together with rope or L h d

. as e

wire may be o f thr ee kin ds — two three or four legged P - S 4r

“
.
, ,
ae
The ordinary form of two legged trestles is shown in P1 5 0
-
.
,
es s'

Fig 2
. .

152 To make trestles for a particular bridge the centre line of O d

. r er o f

the bridge should be marked out on either side él the ga p and a wo k

,
r

section of the gap laid out on fl at ground showing the depth of

the gap at each trest le (two sections if the depth on one side of ,

the bridge is d ifi er en t to that on the other ) For each trest le .

the position o f the lashing on the tra n som is dependent on the

width of the roadway and the lashing o n the leg dependent on
,

the depth of the gap a llowing an outward sp lay of The

ledgers are usua lly lashed on about 1 foot from the bottom of
the leg para lle l to the trans om their point of lashi ng depending
, ,

on the length and Splay o i the leg For a muddy bottom .

 C H APT E R XI V .
— B R I D GE S .

the le dgers shou ld be c lose to the butts so as to take the mud ,

for a rocky bottom they should be high enough up not to

touch .

S quare lashings (see S ec 1 2 9) mus t b e used . The braces .

are put on t he frame with b oth butts and one tip on the
same side the second tip on the reverse side ; their butts
,

can b e lashed simultaneous ly with the ledger and trans om .

The frame mus t then be squa red by testing the di agonals ,

measuring from the centre o f the ledger lashi ng to the centre

of the trans om lashi ng on the opposite leg and the frame must ,

be adj usted till these measurements are e qua l The braces can .

then be lashed at the tips and crossing point .

I t the timber is weak b oth legs and trans om can b e doub led .

Ledgers and diagona l braces can be of light material as little ,

strain is brought upon them but they should be well lashed

, .

When the water is very shallow the trestles can b e carried

out and p laced by men working in the water When the water .

is too deep for thi s they can be carried on to the bridge and
lowered feet fi rst down inc lined spars to their fi n al position ,

o r taken out on rafts and by means of guys taken to shore

tipped up into position .

Two legged trestles are kept upright by lashing the road

-

b earers to the tra nsoms and by cross bracing from each trest le -

to it s neighb our (see Pl 49 Fig . the nearest trestles to the

,
.

b ank s on either side being rigid ly connected thereto by light

spars lashed to the tips of the legs and to bo llards on the bank .

These light spars are p u t on before the trestle is lau n ched ,

and he lp to get it into position they a lso serve as handrai ls ,

wh e n the roadway i s p laced .

1 53 .PI 5 1 Fig 1 sh o ws three legged trestle s UW O of whi c

. .
,
h -
,

are required for the suppor t o f a single transom : to make them ,

it 1 8 best to lash two legs together by a sheer lesh in g open them ,

o ut a n d then a d d the thi r d le or ry ole ( see F1 the 0

,
g p p
t restle must t en be u ended the feet
- p laced on t h e an gles of
p
a n equi latera l tria n gle with sides of a bout ha lt the height and
,

t hr e e light ledgers attache d .

The adva n tages of tripod trestles are that the y uti lise light
material wi ll stand wi tho u t bracing a n d admit o f more re ad y
, ,

adj ustment raising or lo werin g of t he roadway than either

, ,
B R ID G IN G E X P E D IE N TS .
 CH A P T E R X I V r — B RI D G E S
‘

Fig 4 shows a method of rough ly tr ussi n g a

.
lo g
, frequently
used in Ca n ada .

F LO ATI N G B RI D G E S .

1 5 7 In se lecting a site for a flo a t in g bridge it sho ul d be

.

reme m bered that the bed o fthe river should afford good ho ldi ng
ground fo r anchors if re quired .

The use that can be made of is lands to economi se m a teria l

sh o u ld be n o te d .

R d way
oa 1 5 8 The roadway o f fl o at in g bridges is simi lar to tha t
. .

a lready described in S ec 1 41 ; wide roadways are prefera b le.

to narro w ones on account of their great st ea din es

,

B u y n cy
o a 1 5 9 E ach pier must have enough avai lab le buoyancy t o
. .

support the hea viest load that can be brought o n to o n e bay

of the bridge No extra a llowance need b e made if the load
.

is live .

The length of the piers shou ld be at least twice the breadth

of the roadway for the sake of steadi ness and they may be
connected together at their ends by tie ba ulks or lashings .

The wa terwa y between the piers should never be less and ,

should it possib le be more than the width of those piers ,

.

F loating piers may be made from Specia lly cons tructed

pontoons b o ats casks or timber rafts ; infl a t ed ski ns or
, , , ,

anything that wi ll float may have to be resorted to on emer

,

e nc v
g .

B oats . 1 60 .O pen boats sho uld not except in sluggish water b e , ,

immersed deeper tha n within 1 foot of the gunwa le and a ,

sti ll larger li mi t of safety wi ll be required in rough water or a

vio lent current The y sho ul d be p laced in bridge h o w o n
.

to the current and s lightly down as the stern ; or if the

,

river is tida l they must be p laced a lternate ly bow and stern .

If the boa t s be not each buoyant enough to form a pier ,

they may be used in pairs (Fig 2 PI The s t e m s are.

, .

lashed t o gether and the spars AA1 BB l are he ld over the side ;
,

{ our 2 inch ropes at AR CD C D A B are passed under the

-
, , ] , , 1 ,

boats and secured to the po les and fo ur doub le ropes are ,

passed round the latter at the same point s and cross over the
boats these ropes are racked up tight C r o sspieces MM are .
, ,

then lashed to the poles and thwarts and b locks on the thwar t s ,
 C H AP T E R XI V . B RI D G E S
- .

a t E E support the saddle beam whi ch is lashed to the thwar t s ,

and to the stern rings of the b oats .

Few boats with the excep t ion o f heavy barges are s t rong
, ,

e nough to allow of the baulks resting on their gunwa les .

A centra l transom sho ul d be improvised which can genera lly ,

be done by resting a trans om on the thwarts and b locking them ,

up from underneath thus bringing the weight directly on ,

to the ke lson This arrangement is shown in Fig 1 PI 5 3

. .
,
. .

1 6 1 The avai lab le buoyancy of a boat may be (mo st simp ly ) B u y c y

. o an

determined by loading it with unarmed men to such a depth o f b t o a s.

as is considered safe usua lly within 6 inches of the gunwa le ,

in s luggish streams and 1 foot in rapid and multiplying this ,

number b y 1 6 0 The result gives the availab le buoyancy in

.

po unds .

1 6 2 The usual method of for mi ng a number of large casks P i

. of er s

into a pier is shown in Fi gs 1 2 and 3 PI 5 4 The casks are 1 “ .

, , , . .
03 3

laid bung uppermost and lined two bau lks technically known as , ,

g unn els (GG) are p laced over the ends and the s lings (SS ) ,

are secured under the ends of the casks to the gunnels '
.

B etween each pair of casks on each side a brace is secured , ,

on the sli ng and is then led ro u nd the g unne l ; the O pposite

,

braces are crossed and secured again on their own side .

A knot mus t b e made as shown near the standing end of

the braces to prevent t he crossed parts shp pin g C are must .

be taken that the braces are pulled taut ; thi s is best done
by rocking the barre ls at the same time hauling in the ,

s lack For large piers the s ling sho ul d be 2 % inch to 3 inch

.
- -

rope the b races can be of l é inch rope (For a detailed

,
- .

description of t hi s method see Part ,

1 6 3 Fig 4 suggests a method useful for sma ller casks

. . .

S ma ll piers of three or more casks a a 65 cc b eing made as , , , ,

above describ ed and sub sequently united by two large ,

gunnels X X , , .

1 6 4 Figs 5 and 9 show another method us efu l for me di um

. .
,

si zed casks The braces are first fastened to a gunne l and

.

stretched out perpendicularly to it the casks are then p laced

in two r o ws end to end on each side of the b a ulk and over their
, ,

own b races On the casks are laid two gunne ls lo o se ly lashed

.
,

to gethe r at the end s a nd at one or two interme di ate points ,

 C H AP T E R XI V . B RI D G E S
-
.

the distance between them being less than a bung diameter ,

t h e b races are then sec u red to the gunne ls by t wo ro und turns

and t wo ha li -hitches the lashings connecting the gunne ls
are then racked u p and fi n a lly the two at the ends are secured
,

t o the underneath bau lk by lashings which are a ls o racked ,

up ta ut O ther methods can be readi ly devised accor di ng to

.

the materia l avai lab le e g the cask can be comp lete ly ,

. .
,

enc lo sed in a wooden framework the parts of which are ,

lashed or nai led t o gether (see Figs 6 7 and 8 .

, ,
.

fi be u
a l k s 1.
6 5 Piers . o f casks when in bridge shou ld a lways b e rigi dly

connected to each other at th eir ends b y t ie ba ulks which must ,

be lashed to both gunne ls of each pier ; the roadway baulk s

can then be laid wi thout lashing if rectangular they shou ld
,

rest on both g unnels of each pier .

I f however the bau lks are round or there is like ly to b e m uch

, , ,

sway o n the bridge and especia lly for anima l t ra ffic it gives
, ,

additiona l security to lash a t any rate some of the b aulks , ,

both to each other and their overlap and a lso to the gunne ls , .

H ead less ca sks mus t be enc losed vertica lly in a specia lly
prepared framework .

1 6 6 To form a r a ft the logs shou ld b e p laced side b y side

.
, ,

t hick and t hin ends a lte r nating they should then be strongly
secured with rope and if possib le by cross and diagona l pieces
, , ,

of timber fastened by spikes or wooden trenails ; or the logs

can themse lves be c onnected by dogs .

If a raft is to be used as a pier in a bridge it wi ll frequently ,

be necessary to p lace the logs in two layers to avoid obstructing ,

the waterway A centra l raised trans om mus t be used

. .

The up stream end of the raft may with advantage b e s lightly

-
, ,

convex .

R afts are most easi ly put together and m a nip ul ated in the
water .

An c h o i gr n 1 6 7 Anchors are of Vario us weights

. Fo r ordinary bridge .

Of b id g
r
work 5 6 lb anchors wi th a reserve of 1 1 2 lb anchors will
es -
.
-
, .
,

genera lly su ffi ce for moderate streams .

The cab les are genera lly of 3 -inch rope The length of c ab le .

o ut sh o uld be ten times the depth of the stream and rare ly ,

less than 3 0 yards The cab le is attached to the ring of t he

.

anchor (PI 5 5 Fig 1 ) by a fisherm an s bend ; a buoy should

.
,
.
’
 C H APTE R XI V .
— RI D G E S
B .

be attached to the anchor by b u o ylin e o f 1 -

inch rope , fastened a

to a ring of the buoy by a fi sher ma n s bend and round the ’

cr o wn of the an chor with a clove hitch Sp lit by the shank

, ,

and two ha ll -hitches round the shank The use of the buoy is .

to mark the position of the anchor and serve as a means of

raising it .

As a ru le there shou ld be an u p stream and down str eam -

anchor to ever y second pier of a flo a t in gbridge .

If ancho rs a re scarce one may be made to se rve for t wo

,

piers by attachi ng two cab les to it on the down stream si de -

of the bridge as shown in Fig 2

,
. .

C are must be taken before hea r in gan anchor overboard to see .

that it is caref ully stocked .

Timbe r rafts and cask pie rs being as a rule a greater strain , ,

on a n chors t han boats or pont o ons .

In a very rapid current anchors can se ldom be tr usted , .

The bridge m ust then be sec ured to a ha wse r stretched across

“
the river u p Wire rope is convenient for the purpose
(Fig S hort bridges can be ke pt ste a d y by cab les stretched
from the piers to the banks up and do wn stream (Fig ,
.

1 6 8 The following are substitutes fo r anchors :

.

Two or m ore picka xes lashed together .

H eaV V weights such as large stones or rai la

,
irons
the latter are best when bent .

—
Nets filled with stones remarkab ly eii ec t iv e on rocky
b o tt o ms .

1 6 9 4 bridg e can be formed by bo o mi n g o ut

. the head M et ho d 7 s

s c o nt i nua lly pushed out

,

o f t h e bridge a lre a d constructed i O ff m i g or n

y fl
g
o ‘
int o the stream fresh materials being added at the ta il This f gg
,

met hod econ o mises the distance the materia ls have to be B o m i g é .

o n

ca 1 ried but necessitates a certain number o f men wo rking o ut

,
.

in the water and cannot be used when the banks are st eep ,

and there is dee p w a ter c lose in shore as for instance in the , ,

case of a wharf wa ll .

In f er n i 1 9 up materia l is continua lly added to the head F m ing

. or

of the bridge the tai l being stationary This method is p

,
.
u

un i nfl uen c ed by the nature of t h banks no men b e ing required e

,

to work 1 n the water Its only drawback I S the distance the

roadway m a teria l have t o be carrie d
s
.

(5 2 89)
 C H AP T E R XI V .
-
B RI D G E S .

R a ft in g In rafti n g t h e brid ge is put t ogeth r in di fferent p o rtio n s or

.
,
e

r a ft s a long the sh o r e each raft consisti ng of t wo or more piers

.
,

which rafts are s uccessivelv warped rowed or to wed into , ,

th eir proper positi ons in brid ge .

This met h od has the adva n tage that a large n umbe of men r

can be emp loyed simultaneo us ly a n d if secrec y b an obj ect e

.
,

the various p ortio n s can be constructed at some d istance

from t h e eventua l site of t he bridge and a favourab le o p po r ,

t uni t y sei zed for it s construction .

S win gin g In swinging an ent ire bridge is constructed alongsh ore

.

, ,

and then swu ng across with t h e stream .

A long bridge can be constructed by a combination of two

or more of the above meth o ds .

51 3 If a bridge has to remain do wn for some time arrangements

”n
,
8’
mu t be made for t h e passage of the river t r a ffi c which can be
s
,

done b y having two or more rafts a t the centre of the bridge , ,

arranged for for ming cut as re qui ed ; or the t wo ha lves r

of the bridge may be swung to a fi o r d the requisite passage ,

.

P t ec t i o n
ro 1 7 0 Arrangements mus t a lway s be made u p strea m for
.
-
,
,
h fio t m g
gd ge e 1 ther by a boat patrol or b stretchi ng a net or s o me i nter
a

r1
the
s .
protection of a bridge from damage by fl o a t in g substances ,

y
c ep t in g obstac le ac r oss the stream .

P ag o f
a ss e 1 71 If heavy siege arti llery has to be p asse d o ver a br o ad
.

h ea
river it wi ll genera lly be most economic a l of mat erial to con
i y
a mu ry struct the bridge of on su i n strength for the ordin a r y
e
ly fii c e t
‘
‘

t ra ffi c and to warp the guns across on rafts constructed of

,

su f fi cien t stren gth fo r the purpose .

P a ssa
ge o f 1 7 2 To keep ri.fles and ammunit i on d r
y when m en swim
ar m nd
s a across a river small raft s can be ma de of w a terpr o of kitba gs
,
um
fi lled with straw b lo wn out m a a ks (water skins ) cooking
?g f
'
- s -
, ,

kettles or any si mi lar vessels whi ch should be p laced mouth ,

downwards .

F rr i
e es The simp lest form of permanent i erry consists of ropes
an d fl yi g stretched across the river by means of wh ich raft s can be
n

b ri d g es
sheered or hauled backwards and forwards from bank to bank
.
.

If it be not co n veni ent for the sake of t r affi c or other reasons

, .

to stretch a ro p e across the stream rec o ur se m ay be h a d it .

,

the cur rent is rapid and regular to a flying brid e whi ch is o n e ,

g
,

in whi ch the action of the n arrent is made to move a b oat or

FO R D S 81 FLY I N G B RI D G E S

W le r fi W Oli
'
L? UM b ofl don .
 C H AP T E R X V
I — . B RI D G E S .

raft across the stream by a cting ob lique ly a ga inst its side

'
,

which should be kept a t an ang le of about 5 5 with the c ur rent °

.

(P1 5 6 Fig
.
,
.

Long narrow deep boats with V rtica l sides to which lee e

,

boar ds can be attached are the b est fo r the purpose and , ,

straight reaches the most suitab le places as they are genera lly ,

free f rom irregu larities of current or backwaters .

The cab le whic h shou ld if possib le float such as coir rope

,
.

, , , ,

can either be anchored in mid stream in which case the raft -

,

can swing between two landing piers ; or two cab les m a y be

used one anchored on either bank as shown in Fig 2 This
, , . .

method requires less ski ll in manipulation but necessitates ,

two cab les a nd four piers .

Th e length of a swinging cab le shou ld b e one and a ha ll to

two times the breadth of the river and it wi ll work better it ,

supported on intermediate buoys or flo at s to prevent it from

drag ging in the water .

Te legraph wire buoyed up as above on meat tins makes

, , ,

a good swinging cab le Another way is to stretch a wire .

cab le across the river and arra n ge the raft so as to trave l ,

a long it (see Fig 4 PI .

,
.

1 7 3 The fo llo wing depths are fordab le

.

For infantry 3 feet , .

Fo r cava lry 4 feet , .

Arti llery 2 feet 4 inches

, .

Grave lly bottoms are best sandy bottoms are bad as the sand , ,

gets stirred up and the depth of water thus increases

,
.

Fords should be c learly marked by long pickets driven int o

the river bed a b ove and below the lord their heads b ein g ,
r

connected by a strong rope It is we ll to mark the pickets in .

order that any rise o f the water may be at once evident .

The depth of a river is genera lly most uniform in straight

parts ; at bends the depth will genera lly be greater at t he
concave bank and less at the convex T hus in PI 5 6 Fig 1 . . .
,
.
,

t he depth wi ll probab ly be ab ove the average at C and F ,

and there will b e sha llow spits at D and E .

For this reason a river which is n o t anywhere fordab le s traight

across may be found passab le in a s la nting dire ction betwee n
two bends a s at A B Fig 1
, , . .

(5 2 89)
 C H APT E R XV .
—CAM P I NG ARR ANGE M E NTS .

COOK I N G .

1 74 To cook for a large party the most economica l meth od

. ,

is to dig or b ui ld up a long trench for the fi r e p lace the kettles .

on i t (its width not being suffi cien t to a llow them to drop into
it ) and cover up between them with stones and c lay that the
, ,

fire fed from the windward end may draw right through
, , .

A chimne y can be bui lt at the other end to increase the draught .

The section of a typica l trench for this purpose is sh own in

Fig 1 P1 5 7
.
,
. .

The chimney can b e bui lt of sods and is supported where it ,

passes over the trenches b y flat stones s lates wood covered

, , ,

with c lay & c The inside of the trenches and of the chimn e y
,
.

may be plastered with clay which makes them last longer , .

S everal such trenches may be combined as shown in Fig 2 , .

,

to form what is known as the pa rallel or rectangul ar kitche n ,

or three trenches may converge to one fi ue as show n in Fig 3 , .

forming what is known as the broa d a rrow ki tchen .

1 7 5 The gridiron ki tchen (Aldershot pattern ) is shown in

.

PI 5 8
. .

1 76 PI 5 7 , fi gs 4 and 5 gives detai ls of a covere d kitchen

. . .
, ,

suitab le for sta n di n g camps The roof may be covered with.

tarpau lins or in the ma n ner described in S ection 1 93

,
.

1 7 7 For a sma ll p a rty the cookin g may be done b y digging

.

a sha llow trench in the direction of the wind , t o contai n

,

the fue l S ma ll pieces of iron wi ll b e found very useful to

.

Ket t les
. suppor t the kett le Another way is not to excavate the ground
.

at a ll but to b uild up two rough wa lls of stones on the top

of which the kettle is p laced .

The simp lest and best arrange me n t for cooking m the fi eld
for any party over 2 0 especia lly if the stay in camp is only
,

for one night , is to p lace a p o rp o rt io n of the kett les on the

grou n d in two para llel rows about 9 inches apart , hand les out
wards b lock the leeward end of the trench so formed with
,

a nother kettle , la the fi r e and p lace over i t one or two rows

y
of kett les restin gon those a lre a dy pla ced in position (see PI .
 C H AP T E R XV — . CA MPI NG A RR A NG E M E NTS .

It is very important that a coup le of inches of the driest

earth o btainab le shou ld be thrown o ver the soi l t wice d ai ly ;
this it carefully d o n e wi ll prevent a ll sme ll and tend t o
, ,

prevent flies co llecting The earth may be dried by pi ling it

.

c lose t o the trenches of the fi eld ki tchens Lime or charcoa l .

m a y a lso be used to deodorise the soi l in the trenches .

O n leavi ng camp the site of latrines should be carefully

marked .

T o o much care can n ot be bestowed in se lecting the site o f the

latrines ; since flies are very active agents in pr o pagating
diseases latrines m us t be p laced we ll away from cook houses
,
-
.

Care must be taken that no fi lt r a t io n from them may reach the

water supp ly .

VVA T E R S UPPLY .

1 80 . E ach
man requi res for drinking about 3 to 4 pints per
di em ; for drinki ng and cooking 3 to 4 quarts ; for dr inking , ,

c o oking and washing 3 to 4 ga llons

, , .

E a ch horse requi res for drinking 5 to 1 0 ga llons according ,

to wo rk and c lim ate soft wa t er being the best ; for c leaning

, ,

6 to 8 quarts (which may be sa lt ) E ach m ul e or c x drinks .

6 to 8 ga llons ; each sheep or pig 6 to 8 pints These are .

minimum quantities .

H o rses drink about 1 4 ga ll o ns at a time .

In calculating troughi ng a llow each horse fi ve mi nutes ,

at the trough .

NB
. S ee also
.
-
Combined Trai ni ng 1 90 5 S ec 43 , ,
. .

O ne cubic f o ot of water 6 4 ga llo n s (a gallon z

1 81 The rough average yi e ld o f a stream may be measur ed as

.

follo ws z— S e lect some 1 2 yar ds or 1 5 yards of the stream

where the cha n nel is fairly uniform and there are no ed di es ,
.

Take the breadth and average depth in feet in three or four

p laces D rop in a c hi p of wood and fi n d the time it takes to
.

travel say 3 0 feet Thus obtain the surface ve locity in

, ,
.

feet per second Four fi lt hs of thi s wi ll give the mean velocity

.
-
,

and this m ul tip lied by the sectiona l area in s quare feet will
give the yie ld per second in cubic feet of water .
 C H A P T E R XV .
—CA M P I N G A RR A N G E M E N T S .

1 86 If the supp ly be from Springs each springhead shou ld b e

.
,

O pened up and surrounded by a lo w pudd led wa ll to keep o ut

surface water C asks or cylinders made of brushwood like

.
,

ga b ions make good lini ngs for springs

,
After they are p laced .
,

pudd led c lay may be worked down between the banks and the
cask or c yh n ders The o verflo w may b e received into a suc
.

cession of casks or ha lf barre ls (which may with advantage

have their insides charred ) let into the ground c lose t o get he1 ,

the over flow from the fir st passing into the s econd and so on ,

or deep narrow tanks with pudd led sides may be constructed

to catch the o verflo w .

Water from small ponds and sha llow we lls should be avoided ,

if there b e a choice .

P um ps 1 87 The lift and force pump is in most ge n era l us e in the

.

service .It is worked by two men It can li ft water fr o m a .

depth of 2 0 feet to 2 8 feet and force the water t o a height of

,

6 0 feet from its former leve l de li veri n g 1 2 ga llo n s per minute

, .

PURI FY I N G WA T E R .

B o il in g .
1 88 . The b est method of p urifying water is by b oi lin g .

It gets rid of temporary hardness rend ers dissolved organic ,

matter harmless and when carried out effectua lly practica lly
,

destroys all mi cro organisms The water shou ld be ke p t at the

-
.

b oi l for at least fi v e minutes .

B oi led water shou ld be a erated before use This c an be done .

b y passing through a sieve Improvised methods can be .

arranged accor ding to the means at disposal E mpty bisc uit .

tins pierced with small ho les suspended over a storage tank

do very we ll for t hi s purpose .

C are is necessary to prevent the ad di tion of fresh impurities

during aeration and distribution .

Filt r a ti o n .
1 89 As it is not a lways p o ssib le to provide means of b oi ling
.

water on a large sca le fi lt r a t i o n must be resorted to

,
.

Formerly mechanica l fi lt rat io n o nl y was attempted and a

c lear Spark ling water was considered g o o d E ff o rts are now .
 CH AP T E R XV — . CA M PI NG A RR A NG E ME NT S .

directe d to remove mechanical and chemica l impuritie s as

we ll as mi cro organi sms S evera l fi lt ers have been brought
-
.

before the pub lic a ll c laiming to e ffect these purposes The

, .

typ e most fami liar is the B erkefe ld fi lt er These fi lt ers .

,

it treated with care and strict attention to detai l work satis ,

fa ct o rily Their chief defect is a very s low de livery when water

.

containing a large percentage of s uspended matter is used .

The porcelain candles become almost impervious when coated

with fi n e mud and cons tant cleaning is necessary Thi s .
,

however is an easy process

,
.

Dirty water shou ld b e strained before fi lt erin g A g o o d .

method is to tack a she et o n t o a wooden f rame so as to form a

b ag or basin ; put a coup le of handf uls of w o od ashes in the
bottom and then pour on the water a llo wing it to perco late
, ,

int o a receptac le beneath .

1 9 0 C hemica ls are sometimes added either : (a ) to precipitate A ddit i n

. o

sus pended matters (b ) to remove hardness or (c) to oxidise f O

d wm w l
organic impurities (a ) Muddy water may be c leared b y adding
.
a s‘

a lum Six grains of crysta lli sed a lum per ga llon is su ffi c ien t
. .

It shou ld be added some hours before the water is required .

(6 ) Water can be softened by the ad di tion of limewater for

drinking and carbonate of soda for washing purposes The .

latter is unsuit ab le for drinking water as it gives an unp leasant

taste (0 ) Permanganate of potash (Co n dy s flui d) removes
.
’

o fi e n siv e sme ll from water and to some extent o xidises disso lved

o rgani c matter It shoul d be added unti l a faint tint remains

.

permanent It has n o t a disagreeab le taste

. .

S H E LT E R S AN D H UT S .

1 9 1 B ivouacs are but se ldom resorted to except in the neigh

. B iv o u a c s
b o u r ho o d of an enem y , when mi litary rather than sanitary
consi d erations are o f primary importance The fo llowing are .

the chief points to borne in mi nd in determining the sites

for bivouacs
I n the presence of an enemy tactica l con siderations e g C h i c
, ,
. .
, o e of

favourab le ground for defence in the event o f attack concea l gro u n d ,

 CH AP T E R XV — CA MPI N G A RR A N G E M E N T S
. .

ment faci lities of prote ction and conse que ntly economy
, , ,

in outposts are o f the first imp o rtance The comfort of the .

tr o ops in c o nj unction with sanitary conditions is the next

, ,

consideration .

A good water supp ly is essenti al but co ns iderations of ,

safety may necessitate a camp or bivouac being p laced at

some distance from it O ther points to be considered are the.

faci lities w hich a site o ffers for obtai ni ng she lter fue l forage , ,

and straw .

The site for a camp or bivouac should be dry and on grass ,

if possib le S teep s lopes should be avoided Large woods

. .

with undergrowth lo w meadows and newly turned soi l , ,

are apt to be unhealthy Clay is us ually damp R avines . .

and watercourses are dangerous sites as a sudden fa ll of ,

rain may convert them into streams .

If the occupation is to be o i a permanent nature a s .

in investment warfare and the defence of strategica l point s ,

the men ought to b e hutted .

1 92 P1 6 2 suggests methods of for mi ng simp le she lters

. . .

Fig 1 Two forked stic ks driven into the ground with a po le

. .

resting on them ; branches are then laid resting on the po le ,

thick end uppermost at an angle of about and the screen

.

made good with smaller branches ferns & c , ,

.

A hurd le may be suppo rted and treated in a simi lar way .

Fig 2 A waterproof sheet b lanket or piece of canvas

. .
, ,

secur ed by po les and string .

Fig 3 A tent d a lm fo r four men formed with two b lankets

’ ’

. .
,

or waterproof sheets laced together at the ridge the remaini n g ,

two bla nkets being avai lab le fo r cover ins ide .

Fig 4 A wa ll of straw or ree ds nipped between two pairs

. .

o f sticks tied together at interva ls

, .

Figs 5 and 7 S entry box for standing camps

. . .

When no other materia ls than earth and brushwood are

avai lab le a comfortab le bivouac for 1 2 men can be formed
,

by excavating a circ le with a diameter of 1 8 feet or there ,

ab o uts and piling up the earth to form a wa ll 2 feet or 3 feet

,

high The men lie down like the spokes of a wheel with their
.
, ,

feet towards the cent re B ranches of trees or b r ushwood stuck .

,

into the wall improve the shelter , .

 H UT S .

T H AT C HING

73 8
P MW M W
.

H UT S .

Weller 8. Gr a a
h m
. L9? Lit ho : L
o nd o n .
 C H AP T E R XV .
- CA M P I N G A R R A N G E M E NT S .

1 93 The materials of which huts are made depend upon the H ut

. s
.

resources of the locality and are principa lly brushwo o d logs , , ,

straw reeds c lay turf and stones

, , , ,
.

The best form of hut is genera lly rectang ular in p lan with Pl ,
an .

su ffi cien t width for two rows of beds and a passage down the ,

centre but where the materia l avai lab le is of small si ze

, , ,

one row of beds may be provided or the hut may be made o f ,

circular form A widt h of at least 6 feet should be a llowed fo r

.

each row of be ds and the passage may be from 2 feet to 4 feet

,

wide .

The accommodation may be ca lculated on active service A qo n mO c l

d at
at one man per foot in length o f the hut when there are two ,
lon ’

rows of beds and one man to every 2 feet when only one row
,

on beds .

Fig 1 PI 6 3 shows how the ordi nary 6 foot hurdles may

.
,
.
,
-

b e arranged to form a hut A fascine at the ridge with thatching .

,

of straw reeds & c may be used as r o o fi n g

, ,
.
,
.

H urdles may be made of special dimensions for b utting H u d l r es .

purposes Fig 2 shows how a hurdle 1 0 feet long (measured

. .

on the curve ) may be made into a hut The hurdle is constructed .

on a curve slightly flatter than that it is intended to have ,

so that it is necessary to Spring it together to get it into position .

It is then secured with pickets and covered with sods or daubed , ,

with c lay in the manner described in S ec 1 95 The ground . .

forming the flo or of the b ut may be 81 0 p ed as shown before

putting on the hurdles .

H urd les fo r hutting purposes shou ld have the ends of the

pickets out 0 11 as close to the web as possib le so as to leave no ,

gaps between them .

1 94 When brushwood of 2 inches or 3 inches diameter and B u h

. r s

1 4 feet or 1 5 feet long is avai lab le a hut for a doub le row of U d

W
,
O

b eds may be made as in Figs 3 and 5 . .

The section of the b ut being decided o n is laid out on the ,

ground from thi s the length of the rafters is obtained .

E ach side o f the roof is then made separately on the ground

as fo llows
Po les of 2 inches to 3 inches di ameter are laid o n the ground
para lle l to each other from 1 8 inches to 2 feet apart as d a , ,

in Fig 4 PI 63 These form the rafters Ou t he mp e of the

,

. . . .
,
 CH APTE R XV — . CA M P I NG A RR A NGE M E NT S .

1 a i t ersand at right angles to them light rods or laths 5 5

, , ,
.

fr o m 3 inch to inch thick are laid the uppermost one being

,
?
7 ,

a t such a distance from the bottom of the p o les as wi ll a llow

the frames when made to lock at the desired height above t h e

, ,

g ro u n d the lowermost one being within a few inches of the

,

b o tt o m and t h e i n terva l between bei n g divided according t o

,

t h e le n gth of the thatching or c o verin g m t eri a l The distance

,
a .

a p a r t o f these lath s sho uld b e slight ly less than h alf the length

o f the covering materia l so t h at the latter may be supp o rted ,

t th ree points With good W heaten straw the interva l may

.

b e f rom 1 2 inches to 1 1
feet At each point of crossing the
—
.

laths and rafte rs are secured by a short length of one strand

o f S p un y rn a n d the frame thus made is afterwards stiffened
a ,

by diagona ls lashed underneath .

The r o o fi n g materia l which may be unbroken straw r ushes

.
, ,

long i ern s & c is now put o u , Commencing at the bottom

.
,
.
,

a layer 4 inches or 5 inches thi ck is e qua lly laid over the three
lowest laths ears or t c ps downwards ; it is here secur ed b y
,

a light rod or that ehi nq piece tied with Spun yarn at in t erva ls
of 2 feet or 3 feet to the second lath from the bottom A second .

layer is now put on one lath hi gher u p and is secured in a ,

simi lar way to the third lath from the bottom and so o n ,

unti l the top is reached ; the last layer proj ecting over the
top lath so that when the frames are locked the ends may
,

be twisted together to keep out wet (Fig 6 P1 When .

,
.

both frames are ready they are raised and lo oked as in Fig 3 ,
. .

Forked uprights and a ridge piece may be added to st ifi en the

roof .

E ach side of t h e roof may be made in one piece or if large ,

and inc o nvenient to move in two sections The ends of the ,

.

laths should proj ect ab ou t 2 feet b eyond the extreme rafters ,

and are supported by the framework forming the Gab le ends ,

Fig 5 . The latter are made and thatched in a simi lar way to
.

the r o of and simultaneous ly with it an ope ning being lef t

, ,

fo r a door .

P a ssa ges
.
I n order to give addi tional headway the passage may be sunk ,

as in Fig 3 with steps at each end the earth being thrown

.
, ,

to the eaves as additional pr o tection and t o give more head ,

room when lying down In very co ld weather the who le .

interior of the b u t may be excavated fi repla c es constructed ,

 C H AP T E R XV I .
—H A S TY D E M O LI T I O N S .

rather longer than the width of the mat are taken and pushed
in between the yarns and the bar CD being alternately
, , ,

raised waist high and depressed to the ground and passed ,

inside and outside the end pickets so as to form a hi tch , .

Fina lly the sides of the mat are trimmed to the right si ze
,

by a sharp pair of scissors or a knife and the yarns fini sh ed ,

offat either end with reef knots .

The mat sho wn in Figs 2 and 3 is f o rmed by making .

straw ropes and interlacing them on pickets driven into the

ground If the straw ropes are c a r efully m ad e this mak es a
.
,

more durab le mat than the previous one (P1 . .

—
C H APT E R XV I H AS T Y D E MO LITI O N S
. WIT H
E X P LOS I V E S .

E XPLO S I VE S .

The service exp losives available for hasty demo li ti o ns

1 98 .

in the fi eld are guncotton gunpowder cor di te gun cotton be ing

, ,

specia lly carried fo r this purpose Dyn amite may a lso some .

times be obtained locally .

C m
o For hasty demoli tions guncotton is by far the best of the
13 1 4 0 1“
3 8 O f service exp losives Its chief advantages over gunpowder
.

3 1 53 5 150 much less room and does not re quire the same amount o f
( 1 5
are that
1)
f or e quiva lent e fi ect s a gun cotton charge takes up
a d
n ,

a m p in g ; it is therefore much more easi ly and qui ck ly p laced

t
o wd e r t
p .

and fired whi ch is an important point in hasty demo li tions

,
.

c v
T am pi n g i s o er in g t h e h ar ge c o v er wi t h e a r t h o r o t h er m a t er ia l
so a s t o c o n fi n e t h e gase s a t t h e o m m en c c em en t of t h e e xp l o si o n , a n d t h u s

v c
d e elo p t h ei r for e m o r e fully .
M A KI N G S T RA W R O PE

Welle r a Greh o n L?! Li ma umdm

.
 C H AP T E R XV I.
— H A S TY D E M O LI T I O N S .

T he s labs
have two ho les in them one to fi t the 1 o z primer , .

a nd the o ther the 2 o z primer . .

C ava lry pio n eers carry specia l 1 lb s labs . .

Primers are carried dr y in airtight tin eyhn ders .

U of w t
se For auger holes and for neck laces round timber dry gun
e ,

an d d y cotton primers form the charge O therwise the charge is

r

gu c o tt
.

n on
a lways o f wet s labs
.

D et il a s The s labs can be out without danger with a sharp kni fe or

.

saw care being taken to press the guncotton between b oards

,

whi lst it is being cut to prevent it fla kin g away There is .

a specia l c lamp in the R E e quipment for doing this The . .

guncotton shou ld be kept damp .

M ea n s of A charge of wet guncotton is detonated by means of the

l
( eto exp
n a' l osion of a dry primer in c lose contact w i th it The primer .

t n
lo “ ”
'
is exp lo ded by means of a detonator the detonator is
“
,
”
det o nated by means of either safety or instantaneous
i u ze whi ch is lit by a fus ee or other m eans (For detai ls
,
”
.

of detonators fu zes see S ee 2 0 5 and onward )

, ,
. .

If dr y primers are not avai lab le a piece of wet guncotton ,

can be dried by exposure t o the su n and u sed instead , .

2 00 charge is co n nected up for detonation as fo ll ows

. A
The fu ze (safety a lone or safety with i n stantaneous ) is cut
t o the re quired length The end to b e ignited is cut on a s lant
.

to exp o se as much of the composition as possib le .

The en d t o be i nserted in the detonator is cut straight acro ss .

The straight cut end is then gently insert ed i nto the open
end of No 8 detonator , from whi ch the paper cap has been
.

torn This end of the detonator is then s light ly bent (o r with

.

new -pattern detonat o r pinched ) to make it grip on the l u ze

,

and so prevent its being with dr awn .

(C ava lry pioneers carry detonators with a short length of

safety fu ze ready fi xed the fu ze having a piece o f quickm a t eh
,

added to the end to faci litate lighting ) .

The primer having been p laced in c lose co nt a ct with one of

the s labs of the charge either in one of the holes or tied to a
,

s lab (see that the prim er is dry ) the sma ll end of the detonato r ,

is gently inserted into it so as to fi ll the entire length of the

ho le If the ho le is too large a piece o f paper o r grass must
.
,
 CH A P T E R XVL — H AS T Y D E M O LI TI O N S .

b wrapped round the detonator to make it fi t tight ; if too

e

small it mus t be e nl arged with the rect ifi er or piece o f wood

,
*
.
’

, R ect ifi ers .

but not with the detonator .

T he cha rge must be i n close co nt a ct wit h t he ob ject t o be de Arr an ge .

m olished, a nd all t he sla bs must b e t o uchi n g each other .

m en t O f
C har ge
Where the charge is a very long one more than one detona tor ,
‘

s hou ld be used .

The charge must extend across the whole length of the obj ect c
Pla in g o f
to be cut .
c h ar ge .

Arrangements must be made to prevent sparks from the

t uze fa lling on it and so setting it a light instead of d etonating it
For calculation of charge see Chapter XXI ,
.

GUN P O W D E R .

2 01 . is not so suitab le for h a sty demolitions a s D t il

Gunpowder e a s .

g u ncotton and the ,

l arger the grain of the gunpowder the le ss
s uitab le it is owi n g to its s low burni ng
,
.

E xcept the larger grained prism and moulded powders ,

which are packed in cases it is usually carried in barrels , ,

the powder being contained in a wate rproof bag inside the

barrels .

Powder is usua lly fi r ed by safety or instantaneous fu ze I gni t i . on .

A gun powder charge sho ul d be made up in as compact M ki gup a n

a form as possib le and if sandbags fil led wi th earth are us ed

,
t h Ch g e ar e

to tamp it the charge should b e o f the same shape as the sand

,

b ags .

A service sandbag wi ll hold about 40 lb s of gunpowder .

,

whi ch is about as much as a man can carry conveni ently .

When a charge has to be p laced under fi re and the amount is ,

greater than thi s it should be divided amongst severa l b ags

, ,

a s required rather than put into one large one

, In this case .

o nl y one b a g need b e fu zed .

R ec t ifi er s ar c b o xwoo d i mp l em en t s su p pl i ed 1 or en lar gin g t h e pe r

c
fo r at i o n s in gu n o t t on p r im ers so a s t o t ake t h e sh an ks o f d e t o n a t o r s .

( 5 2 89) r
 C H AP T E R X VI .
—H A S TY DEM O LI TI O N S .

A gun powder charge should not as a rule be spread evenly , ,

alo n g the whole breadth of the obj e c t to b e destroyed but ,

shou ld be divided up into po rtions which may genera lly b e ,

at a distance apar t of t wi ce the t hi ckness o f the obj ect The .

severa l port ions must be fir ed simul taneous ly .

In the e ase of a stockade or fort ga t e one concentrated ,

charge wi ll make a breach wide enough to admit of easy

entrance .

Fo r the amount of charges suitab le see C hapter XXI , .

CO R D I T E .

S up ply ,
2 0 2 C ordite can be us ed instead of guncotton or dynamite
. .

It m a y be obtained from gun cartridges , and wo ul d only be

used where no other exp losive is availab le .

M akin gup It must be detonated with a guncotton primer and the ,

C l l ge
la
‘

cordite shou ld be tied up in a tight bundl e with the primer l n

the centre .

The primer being conn ecte d up with No 8 detona tor and .

fu ze as described for guncotton .

I t s successful deto nation is rather uncertain .

Pl c i n g
a As with gun cotton the charge must be in close con t act with
,

Char
ge .
the obj ect to be demolished .

The cordite mus t be covered up with fresh gras s or leaves

t o prevent the Sparks from the fuze setting it a light whi c h ,

happens very easily .

Am o u t o f
n As fo r guncotton see tab le Chapter XXI
, , .

c h ge
ar .

DYN A M I T E .

2 03 . D yn ami te ,
where procur ab le , can be used instead of
guncott o n .

For mi litary purposes the o nl y advantage th at dyn am it e

h a s over guncotton is that being p lastic it is easi er to fit i n t o
,

n arrow and irreg ular ho les such as are used for b las ting rock .
 C H AP T E R XV I .
-H A S TY DEM O LI T I O N S .

The cap with the f uze attached is then ins er t ed into one of
, ,

the dynamite cartridges a lmost as far as its length and tied ,

into position .

A r r an ge For a bore hole for b lasting or an auger ho le in timbe r a s , ,

Of many cartridges as necessar y are inserted and each s quee zed .

in separately with a wooden rammer (see Fig 7 PI Iron .

, .

Bo re h o l es . mus t not be used to ram with and the ramming should b e ,

gent ly done .

The cartridge with de t onator or cap for fi rin g should b e the

last .

For other charges the dyn amite should b e tied up in as

compact a parce l as possib le and p laced t ight a ga m st the ,

obj ect the means of detonation being in one cartridge

, .

All the cartridges of a charge must be in contact .

H o le fo r H o les for detonators or caps must be made with the r ect ifier
c a l"
or a piece o f wood .

T a mp i n g .
The tampi n g of a b ore ho le may be sand c lay or wate r , , ,

but in the latter case the cap must be kept dry .

~
C l l e d d it e .
A new exp losive called cheddite is coming into use ; it h as
about the same exp losive e ffect as dynami te a nd has the ,

advantage of not free zing at so high a temperature It would .

be useful in b lasting work .

Use u n d er Fo r use un der water dynamite and simi lar exp losives should
“a t e“ b e ti ed in a waterproof bag (see PI 6 8 Fig 8) .
, .

M E AN S or D E T O N AT I O N AN D I GN ITI O N .

D et o na to rs .

D et on a 2 05 There a re two kinds of deto na tors in the service fo r

.

t o r s fo r detonating guncotton ; o nl y one wi ll be here descri b ed

“
.

ot t o n . ”
gu n c
viz.
,
that ca lled D etonat o r No 8 for safety f uze ; the .

o ther which requires e lectrica l fi r in g apparat us b eing b eyond

, ,

th e S co p e of this manual .

No 8 Fig 1 PI 6 8 gives a section of this detonator It consists

‘

. . .

d cw
.
.
, ,

m l m” of a br a ss tub e p a inted red the sma ll end of which A cont ains

, , ,
 C H AP T E R XV I — H
. A S TY DEM O LI TI O N S .

For p r a cti c a l work the rate of burning c a n be taken as 3 to

4 feet per minute .

O ld f uze shou ld have it s rate of b u rni ng teste d before

being us ed Fu ze which h as been more than six mo nths or so
.

'
in a tropical c limate shoul d be very care full y exa mi ned .

Ligh t in g It is diffi cul t to light safety fu ze with a match or fl am e A .

rt fi r e or vesu vi an (fus ee ) is best but in the absence of s uch

p o ,

-
means o f ignitio n the head of a match i n serte d in the fuze and
.

lit by another matc h for ms a good method o f lig h ting

,
A .

glowi ng cigar cigarette or pipe is a l o good fo r the purpose

,
s
.

I nst a n t a n eo u s Fm e .

2 07 . C onsists of two strands of quick matc h enc losed in flax

and severa l layers of guttapercha and waterproof tape .

It burns at the rate of 3 0 yards a second or practica ll y ln ,

st a n t a n eo us ly it is p acked in sea led tins holding 1 00 yards .

It is coloured O R A N G E .

It c an b e di stinguished in the dark fr om safety fuze b y

feeli ng the open crossed thread snaking outside it .

J el n in g Fuzes .

2 08 . In fi rin g charges with instantaneous fu ze a piece of ,

safety fu ze sho uld be j oined on for li ghting in order to a llow ,

time for getting a way except in specia l cases where the instan
,

t a n eo us fu ze used is long enough to admit of being lit from

a safe p lace .

To j oin safety an d i ns tantaneo us fu ze cut the ins tantaneous ,

fu ze on the s lant so as to expose the qui ckm a t ch for a short

length also the safety fu ze in the same way taking care that
, ,

the composition is we ll laid open .

Jo m these two sur faces together and bind up tight A sma ll .

piece of wood 1 s useful as a Sp lint and if handy a little po wder

, ,

or quickm at ch can be put between the two fuzes (F1 g 2 P1 6 8) ,

.

To j oi n two lengt hs of instantane o us fu ze s lit the outer ,

covering of each piece of instantane o us fu ze at the end it ,

can then be turned to expose the qui c km a t eh ; the strands are

then twisted together the outer covering made to overlap the
,

j oint and fi rm ly fixed with twin e ;

,
 C H AP T E R XV I .
—H A T Y D E M O LI T I O N
S “

S .

I o mt s
. in fu ze can be made waterproof by w r apping them W t er a

round tight with in di a r ub b er tape smeared with in dia r ub b er fl g

P m fi ‘‘ n

3 0 m m “

S O lut iO D W hich a r e artic les o i R E equipment O rdinary '

‘

. .
.

tape and tallow would d o fo r a short time against damp .

S i mult a n eo us Cha rges .

2 09 C harges are best fi r ed simul taneous ly by electricity Sim ul t h

. .
i

When this is not availab le it may be done as shown in Fig 3 ‘

i

g
.
, ,
e es ” ar
PI 6 8 by using equa l lengths of instantaneous fu ze be
’

.
, , ,

which are igni t ed at b by a length o f safe t y fu ze a b ,

.

The j oint at b can be made with a sma ll bag or box

”

o f gunpowder into whi ch the end of the piece of safet y fu ze

,

a n d the ends of the instantaneous fu ze are led the quick ,

matc h in the latter being exp osed .

C are must be taken that the len gths of i nsta nt a neo us f uze
ar e equal irrespective o i the di stance fro m the p owder b ox to the
,

c harges .

S UB S T I T UT E S FO R S E R VI C E
F UZ E S .

21 0 When serv1 c e
. fu zes are not availab le means of
fi ri n g ,

m ust be improvised .

Mea led powder (whi ch is very fine ) moistened or o r dm a ry M l d , , ea e

gunpowder ground into a fine paste with water b etween two PO W d eP

p ieces of wood can b e pressed ,

into a tub e and used instead
o f safety l u ze .

Thi s burns at the rate of 2 feet per mi nute or slo wer d ep en d , ,

in g on the dampne ss of the powder .

Powder hose made up b y fillin g tubes of strong line n P owd

,
er

with fi n e powder can b e used ins tead of i ns tantaneous f uze h o e

.
s .

The tubes can be from 5 inch to 1 inch in diameter made ,

from one strip of stuff they are loaded in lengths up to 2 0 feet

through a funnel The lengths can afterwards be j oined
. .

It b ur ns at the r a te of fr o m 1 0 feet to 2 0 feet per second .

P R E CA UTI O N S .

211 Fo r
amount of exp losive req u ired see Chap t er XX I G en e r al

“
.
,
13 5
For cordite and dynamite use s lightly more than is re qui red °

for guncotton .
 CH A P T E R XV I .
—H A S T Y D E M O LI T I O N S .

When possib le tamp a ll charges If guncotton charge s

,
.

are tamped o n e ha lf the charges given in the tab le are suffi c ie n t

,
- .

For dem o litions in the presence of the enemy increase t h e ,

ca lcu lated charges by 5 0 per cent .

S t o r a ge o f D etonators should be b uried to prevent being exp loded b y

d et o n a to r s stray b ullets
c
.

in am p .

Conn e t c When c o nnecti n g up No 8 detonators with fu ze the de .

,

in g u p t o n a t in g ends of the fuz e sh o uld not be pointed at anybody .

d et o n a
Whe n carried out under fi re take e ver) p reca ut 1 o n agai ns t ,
r

tors
a p o ssib le lailure ; detai l s pare men to carry the stores t o
.

rep lace casua lties and see that every man with the party h as
,

t l g mean o flighti n g the cha ge

e . s r .

For lar ge charges of a ll sorts which cannot easi ly be got a t

after t amping and for demo lition work where certainty a n d
,

rapidity are essentia l it is a good rule to ins ert two l uz es (a n d

,

det o nators if re quired ) in the charge in c ase one should p rov e

faulty .

C on n e t c When pi n ching or bendin g the mouth of a detonator or cap

in g u p to grip the t uze care sho uld be taken not to s quee ze the
c a
ps .

deto n ating end .

,

P r o t ec When tamping a guncotton charge with earth stones & c , ,

.
,

t ion t o the detonat o r sho ul d be protected from being knocked .

d et o n a
Make arra n gements to prevent Sparks fr om the fuze causin g
~

t o r fo r
l um p in g .
premature exp losion of g unpo wder charges or setting fi re t o ,

guncotton .

B rickwork a nd M a so nry .

G en eral .
212 . Fo r
the demo lition of brickw o rk o r masonr y with gun
cotton the charges worked out by the formul ae in the tab le
,

wi ll sometimes be too sm a ll to a llow the whole length of t h e

b reach to be cut being covered with whole s labs touching each
,

other In such a case z

.

(a ) If guncott o n is avai lab le do not divide s labs but a dd , ,

extra s labs ti ll the whole length to be cut is covered

by slabs touching each other .

b
( ) I t p lenty o f guncotton is not available cut some o f ,

the s labs so as to make the charge stretch right across .

S ma ller pieces than thirds o f s labs shou ld not b e

used .
 C H AP T E R XV I .
—H A S TY D E M O LI T I O N S .

21 3 Where there is a series of arches as in a viaduc t the B ic k n d]

.
, ,
r a

b est result 1 8 got by cutting the piers and so bring ing down t wo m y o
a so n r

l
arches for each charge but m hasty d em olit io ns thi s can only hlii
,
c
g es
b e done when the piers are t hi n and hi gh .

2 1 4 The best exp losive to use for t hi s p urpose is guncotton H igh

.
d . an

The charge should be p laced where the section of the pier is t h i p i n ers .

sma llest and if possib le a groove should be cut in the pier to G u

,
n

°t t °
a ee the charge m ; this reduces
” °
p l T and a lso to some extent n

tamps the charge O therwise the charge should be tied in a

.

continuous strip a long a board and this fi xed on to the pier with .

the guncotton next it (P1 70 Fig 1 and P I 6 9 Figs 1 and .

,
.
, .
,
.

2 1 5 The piers cannot be satisfactorily demo lish e d with G un

. .

gunpowder in haste as the Speediest method of pla cm g the p o wd e

,
r.

charge would take some time ; it would generally be better

to attack the arches .

The following is the quickest way of at tacking piers

D ivide the who le charge int o t wo or three parts and as the ,

chambers cannot b e cut in the pier p lace the charges in pits ,

dug in t h e gro u n d c lose a longside each pier Tamp with earth

'

and fi r e sim ul taneo usly I t the piers are in water the above
.

cannot be done .

2 1 6 The amount o f guncotton and gunpowder for cutting Sh t

.
d 0 1 an

short and thick piers is prohibitive a n d the arches should be t h ic k ,

attacked The best method of doing this I S to p lace a charge P

.
191 3

at ea ch haunch of the arch T hi s ensures a much larger gap .

being made than if o nl y one charge were p laced at the crown .

”

2 1 7 If g uncotton be used a trench m ust be dug do wn to t h e G u n

.
,

back of the arch ring at each haunch Then the s labs (tied to c t t n .
o o .

a board if possible ) should be laid a ll a long the trench on the

back of the arch ring If it is desired t o economise the .

ex plosive tamping may be used but it is not essential (P1 70

, , .
,

2 18 If gunpowder be employed the charge for each haunch G un

.
,

should b e divided into e qua l parts which should b e p laced P wd ,

o er :

about twice the thickness of the arch ring apart from each -

other the o utsi d e ones being p laced twice the thickness of t he

,

arch ring from the side wa lls to avoid the charges b lo wing
-
,

o ut through the side wa lls A pit mus t be dug for e ach .

po rtion of the charge do wn to the back of the arch and tamping ,

i s necessary e qual to twice the thic kness of the arch .

 C H AP T E R XV I .
— H A S TY D E M O LI T I O N S .

In a ll cases the charg es at both ha unches should be fired

simu ltaneous ly .

When there is not enough time t o reach the haunches ,

the crown (a ) may be attacked in a similar way b ut the result ,

is n o t so satisfactory (PI 70 Fig .

,
.

2 1 9 Where time presses sma ll arches c a n b e cut by gu n

.
,

co t ton at the cr o wn without di gging through the roadway The .

charge to cut thro u gh the arch can be t ied in a continuous

strip a lo ng a p lank and this he ld up underneath the arch
,

by ro p es from the parapet at the crown with the gu ncotton ,

next the arch These ropes should be win dl assed up tight

.

so as to ens ur e contact between the guncotton and the arch .

The p lank sh o uld be supported or trussed to prevent sagging

in the mi ddle .

W alls . 2 2 0 To demolis h a wall by guncotton a groove shoul d be

.
,

cut if p ossib le for the charge in the wa ll ; it not possib le

, , ,

the charge shoul d be laid agains t the wa ll (S ee Pl 70 . .

,

Figs 2 and
.

With gunpowder the total charge should be di vided up into

parts each part being p laced fr om the next a di stance equal
,

to t wice the thickness of the wa ll E a rth tamping sho ul d .

be used .

To bring down the top of a wa ll the length of the breach ,

cut must be not less than the height of the wa ll .

2 2 1 F or weakly built hous es p lace a charge in the centre of

.
-
,

each room shutting all doors a n d windows If possib le fi r e

,
.
,

charges simultaneou ly by e lectricit y The amount of

s .

explosive requi red depends on the si ze of the rooms and t h e

nature of the wa lls Mu d huts up to 1 8 i t s quare with wa lls
. .
,

2 feet t hick at the bottom have been destro y ed b y about ,

4 lb s of gun cotton p laced inside the hut in one corner a ll

.
,

openings b ei n g clo sed ; 6 to 1 2 lb s of guncotton wi ll probably .

destroy a four r o omed cottage For stro n gly bui lt buildi n gs

-
.
-

it m a y be nece ssar y t o attack the wa lls .

222 T o wers such as those in the North -West Frontier of

.

India are usua lly 1 5 feet to 2 0 feet s quare in p lan with walls ,

3 feet o r 4 feet t hi ck so lid up to a height of 1 5 feet to 2 0 feet

,
.

The wa lls co ns ist of stone and m u d with layers of brushwood ,

.

To b low down one of these a tunn e l should be made into the ,

centre of the to wer under a layer of b rushwood (which keeps

 C H A P T E R XV I fi —H A S T Y D E M O LI TI O N S .

t he roo t from fa lling in ) and guncotton charges p lace d at ,

‘

the ends of the tunne l the wh o le being tamped ,

.

22 3 Charge fo r a tower with a so lid base o f 1 5 feet side is

. C h a r ges .

about 1 6 lb s .

Charge for a tower with a so lid base of 2 5 feet side is about

2 4 lb s .

For ho llow towers charges of 6 lb s of guncotton p laced inside .

the tower at one corner and in the centres of two adj acent ,

sides fi red simul taneo usly wi ll generally be effective

, ,

Ti mber .

22 4 It is more economical to destroy ba ul ks of timber b y T im b

. pr

cutting them down or burning them than by exp losives whi ch u p igh t ,
r s
.

wou ld only b e used when time presses .

2 25 Of exp losives guncotton i s the best and is most G u n

.
,

O W) “m
e conomica ll y used when p laced i n auger ho les bored hori zon C

ta lly at the requi red height fo r cutt i ng For baulks up .

to 1 8 inches di ameter one auger ho le wi ll su ffi c e b o red tt o ,

j ust beyond the centre the centre of the charge being in ,

the centre of the timber (P1 6 8 Fig .

,
.

For larger baulks two or more ho les will be needed b ored ,

a longside each other the intervening po rtion of wood being

,

cut away .

The whole charge should consist of primers 2 o z primers - .

in a 2 -inch auger ho le or 1 o z primers in a 1 21 inch auger ho le

,
-
.
-
,

earth or clay being used for tamping The l u ze may b e hung .

on a nail or Sp linter to take the weight 0 11 the detonator .

2 2 6 D ynamite can be used in a simi lar manner

. It must D yn mi t . a e.

be carefully and gently rammed to fi t the auger h o le .

2 2 7 To save the wood rom being sp lintered or where great N kl

. ec ac e

haste 1 s necessary the demolition can be done with a necklace f gu

,

o n
,
tt n °° °
o i guncotton pr i mers ; but this method is very wasteful of i m r er s
P
exp losive and can only be us ed for small timbers and 1 s not
, ,

even certain then .

S u ffi cien t primers threaded on a string to reach a ll round the

, ,

timbe r ea ch p rimer t o uchi ng the n ext a nd the t i mber are hu n g

.
,

on nails The detonator may be ins erted in one of these

.

or in an extra primer tied to one of the others .

Timber may a lso be b lown down by a charge of gu ncotton

in s labs In thi s case a niche may b e cut for it to decrease T
. .
”
 C H AP T E R XV I .
— H A S TY D E M O LIT I O N S .

Timber may be made to fa ll in a n y re quired direction b y

getti n g a strain on it beforehand with a rope .

T imb er o r 2 2 8 The most conve ni ent way to p lace a g uncotton charge

.

t im b er a n d against a stockade so as to ensure contact between the s labs

, ,

gg
z id
l

a fl
is to tie them beforehand on to a board and to carr y thi s u p ,

with the guncotton attached ; a ho le must be c ut in the boar d

for the de t onator and fu ze (PI 6 9 Figs 1 and .
,
.

The board is p laced with the guncotton next the stockade ,

and two pickets can be driven into the ground to keep it there ,

o r a coup le of nai ls driven into the stockade to which t h e ,

charge may be hung .

The le n gth of the bo a rd and the charge m ust e qual t he

breadth o f the breech to b e made .

G un 2 2 9 A gunpowder charge can b e made up as fo llows (P1 6 9

. .
,

Po wd er Figs 3 4 and
.
, ,

M a kiu gu p The powder should be p laced m a well tarred sandbag o r ,

t h e C h a r ge fai ling that in one sandbag inside a second one About half .
,

the powder is fi rst poured into the bag and then the safety ,

fu ze knotted round a stick t o prevent it s being pulled o u t is

, ,

C o n n ec b inserted a piece o f stout w re or a withe being a lso attached

,
i
u
p
ipgh
to the stick to help to supp o rt t h e fu ze after it leaves the
,

m ean s o f mouth of the bag The rest o f the powder is then poured int o
.

i gn i t i o n . the bag and the mouth is secured with Spun ya r n as shown so

, ,

as to make it more easy to carry a last sei zing o i the spun ,

yarn being made round the fu ze so that any p ul l on it wi ll

fa ll on the Spun yarn and not on the fu ze it eslf .

The fu ze wi ll a lmost invariab ly igni te the charge by b urning

through its wrapping as soon as it reaches the powder The .

necessary lengths of fu ze sho uld theref o re be measured from

outside the mouth o f the bag .

Instantane o us i u ze in addi tion t o safety fu ze shoul d not b e

used where there is only one charge as it increases the liabi lity ,

to missfi 1 e .

p h c in g 2 3 0 To p lace a bag against a gate or stockade the p r ec a u

.
,

c
t h e h ar ge . tions menti o ned 1 n S ec 2 1 1 should be observed and in addi ti o n
.
, ,

the men carrying the tamping bags shou ld be thoroughl y

dri lled as to how the charge and tamping is to be p laced .

The man carrying the powder bag on hi s sh o ulder leads t h e '

way and p lacing the bag fu ze do wn wind and so that the fu ze

, ,
-
,

does not cur l up against the charge against t he stockade , ,

 C H AP T E R X VI —H A S T Y D E M O LI T I O N S .

If there is any doubt about the e ffect of one charge the girder ,
’

should be cut at each end of a sp an .

In the case of girders bui lt on the arch principal two charges ,

sho ul d a lways be emp loyed with the obj ect of b lowing awa y ,
,

a se gment of the arch (PI 7 1 Fig In girders wi th an

. .
. .

O pen web the t 0 p and bottom fl a n ges sho ul d be out I n ?

,
.

girders with a p late web (u nl ess thi s is very thin re latively to the
fl a n ges) both flanges and web should be ou t When there is .

a lack of exp losive the bottom fla n ge is the most important to

,
1

cut.

C h ar ges.
The arrangement of the charges will depend on the section
of the girder to simp lify the h ring arrangements they shou ld ,

be di vided up as li ttle as possib le The charge for the to p .

;

fl a n ge wi ll genera lly be p laced on the top and that for the ,

bottom flange underneath In each case they wi ll be most .

easily fi xed it fastened to a board The charge for the web .

,

if any shoul d b e tied to a board the ends of which can be wedged

, ,

up between the flanges .

Wh ere there is a choice between masonry and iron gir der

bridges the girder bridge ought as a rule to be attacked as
, O , , ,

the d em o ht io n of the girder b ri dge will be much quicker ,

and will save guncotton (see PI .

R ail s
. 2 3 5 T wo thirds of a lb of gun cotton is necessary to destroy
. .

heavy rai ls Two thi rds of a lb is most conveniently got b y

. .
'

cutting a 1 lb s lab into thirds as thi s s i ze fi t s into the web

3 — ~

.
,

of the ordi nary si zed rail .

S ix 2 -o z primers (with the deto nator in one of them ) wi ll

.

a ls o d o but is not s o convenient to fi x Where the charge

, .

can be wedged between the rails at points or a crossing a ,

less charge wi ll do thi s as this tamps it , .

O the straight li ne the s lab should be tied ti ght into t hé

u ‘

web of a rai l c lose to a chair on the same side as the key .

Lead strips are provided for fi xi n g the s labs to the rail but ,

string su ffic es (PI 72 Figs 2 and . or the key may b e

, ,
.

removed and the charge put in its p lace In the hasty .

demo lition of a rai lway line care mus t be taken that t h e break
is suffi cien t ly broad or the rai ls disp laced so as to ens ure the
, ,

s te ppi n g of t raffi c .

An effective way of damaging a railway line is b y fi rin g

'
 C H AP T E R XVI I .
-H S Y
A T D E M O LI T I O N S .

For a 3 -i n ch gun use 2 lb s and doub le the char ge for .

,

ev ery inch increase in ca libre e g for a 4 -

inch gun ,
. .
,

use 4 lb s and for a 5) -inch 8 lb s .

, ,
.

A she ll s not abso lute ly necess a ry for d est r o yin ga gun

(4 . i

by the above method but if avai lab le its use i ncreases the , , ,

e ffe c t .

(For B L gu n s
. if a cro
. wbar or heavy hammer
,
1 s avai lab le ,

m uch damage can be done by openi ng the breechb lock

a n d smashing t h e b lock and screw threads l n the breech thus ,

s avi ng exp losive .

H eavy M L guns can be demo lished by p lacing 4 lb s of

. . .

g uncotton at the bottom of the bore and tamping with sand or

w
vat er .

C H APT E R XV II — H AS T Y D E MO LITI O N OF R AI LW AYS

.

AND T E LE GR APH S WIT H O UT E X PLO S I V E S .

Ra ilwa ys .

238 When a demolition is contemplated all unnecessar y

.
,

rolling stock should fi rst be withdrawn S imultaneous ly with .

this a ll reserves of rai lway p lant and the most important

,

technical tools should be removed from the station as we ll ,

as a ll individuals entrusted with the working of the rai lway ;

and the signals fi rst the electric and then the vi sua l should be
, ,

destroyed The permanent way should be attacked and either

.
,

d estroyed or removed a ltogether the most important item ,

being the destruction of as m any points and crossings as .

p o ssible ; and the engineering works such as the bridges , ,

‘

tunnels embankments and cuttings would a lso be important

, , ,

items in the demolition if the abandoned line could be of use to

the enemy a lone .

2 3 9 B uildings not being indispensab le to the t ra ffi c a re

.
,

seldom worth destroying .

The di fferent workshop fi t t in gs should be taken awa y a lto

gether te legr aphic app a ratus and batteries rem o ved and
,

handed over to the D irector of Te legraphs and statio n ar y ,

e ngin es made unservice a b le b y taki ng out t h e piston

 CH AP T E R XV I I . HA TS Y D E M O LI TI O N S .

hammer A variety o f t hi s style of demo lition is to lift up and

.

t urn over who le portions of the rai lway together wi th the ,

attached s leepers T h is method is specia lly useful on hi gh

.

embankments The men are formed a long a rai l in single rank

.
,

outs ide of it and facing inwards the rai ls at both fl an ks a re dis ,

connect ed and at a signa l they sei ze the rai l lift it up with the ,

s leepers attached and tur n it over ,O i course the ba llast .

must be previ o us ly removed Teams of horses or oxen can be .

hooked on to the rai ls and used in like ma n n er .

2 4 3 Another method i s to divide the destroying party into

.

s quads of t en men each and to e q uip eac h party with two iron
,

hooks (Fig 5 Pl . two axes and two ropes each six yards
,
.
, ,

long and two levers The irons are then fi xed as shown The
. .

ropes attached to the ends of t h e levers are ha ul ed o n the rails ,

t wisted and the chairs destro y ed one end of the rail being ,

previous ly di sconnected E ach rai l re qui res a b o ut fi ve.

mi nute s work so that in one hour a s quad can dest r o v twelve

’
,

lengths of rai l .

2 4 4 A fou rth method of demoli tion is to take up the perma

.

nent way and remove it bodily in wagons Where there is a .

doub le li ne the fi rst line is removed by packing it into the

,

wagons which are alongside on the other li ne but the second

line h as to be packed int o wagons whi ch have been r un up c lose
t o the end of the second lin e its e lf T his is the most s atisfactory .

of all styles of demoli tion but requi res much time and careful
, ,

arrangement o f the necessari ly la rge working parties .

T elegra p h .

24 5 The amount of damage that can be done in a short time

.

to a line o f telegraph depends chi efly on the number of separate

wires runn ing paralle l to each other on the same po les in t h e
c as e of an a eria l line or the number of separate cab les con
,

t ain ed in the same set of pipes in a subterranean li ne These .

for ms are by far the mos t like ly to be encountered on service .

The case of a sub aqueous lin e , whi ch may sometimes b e met

with will b e disc us sed later
,
.

2 4 6 It is assumed that the line to b e destroyed lies i n a

.

country occupied by the enemy , to which access has b ee n

 CH AP T E R XVI I — . HA T S Y D E M OL I T I O N S .

o b t a ined for a short time by a raid ; since if any part of the line
la y in a part of a country from which the enemy had been
expe lled it would be of course easy either to disconnect the
wires and appropriate them o r leaving the lines intact to , , ,

interpose ins t ruments and thereby read any messages sent b y

,

the enemy .

2 4 7 The po les can be readily cut or b lown down the e a siest D e t u

. , s r o

a nd safest po les to attack being those that have stays t if f

}
f o
.

a mal lm e e
A rope should fi rst be fi xed to the top of the po le or thrown '

over the wires in order to put on a strain t endi ng to overthr ow

the po le .

The pole shou ld then b e partly cut through at about 4 feet

from the ground All hands should then commence to strain
.

on the rope except one man who shou ld cut the stay through
, ,

with a fi le or p li ers The men on the rope must be suffi c ien t ly

.

far from the po le to be we ll c lear of the wires when they fa ll .

The destructive e ffect wi ll be increased b y previously

cutting partly through the adj acent po les on each side and , ,

if severa l adj acent po les are a lso stayed cutting their stay at ,

the same time .

Cast iron poles can easi ly b e b roken with a s ledge hammer .

H aving b rought down as much as possib le of the line in this

way the wires should be cut at each end as far as can be reached
, ,

and twisted up so as to be rendered use less The ins ul ators .

should also be broken .

An y damage of this sort however can be q ui ckly repaired by

, ,

the ene my using cab le and even the comp lete restoration of
,

poles and wires will not take very long to accomp lish .

2 4 8 Probab ly an equa l amount of de lay could be occasioned Faul t

. s.

with less troub le b y skilfully p lacing what are known as

faults on the line .

Faults consist of di sconnections leaks and cont a cts ,

”
.

D isconnections are partial or comp lete breaks in the

c ontinuity of the conductor .

Leaks are partia l or comp lete connections of the conductor

”
to earth A comp lete connection is known as dead earth
. .

C ontacts are formed b y one wire touchi ng another or being

”

put in connection with it by some conductor They are very .

troub lesome faults since they affect two li nes and cannot b e ,

(5 2 89 ) G 2
 CH A P TE R X VI I .
— HA T S Y D E M O LI TI O N S .

overcome a s other p a rtial fault s c a n b e by incre asing t h e

, ,

b attery power .

All a rt ificial fau lts however to b e successf ul a s c a us es of

, ,

de lay re q uire to be ski lfully made and the description of the ,

metho ds of making them is too tech ni ca l to be suit ab le fo r

inc lus ion in thi s book .

2 4 9 If poss ession can be o b tained of an o ffi c e wires c a n be

.
,

disco nnected An y papers connected with the wor king of t h e

.

line and if possib le the instruments sho ul d b e sent to t he

, , ,

of fi c er in charge of the fi eld te legr a p h s .

R ecords of messages should be sent a t once to the H e a d

q uarters .

2 5 0 A sub terr anean li ne is nat ura lly more di fficult to

.

di scover than a n a erial one for this reason among others they
are now exte ns ive ly emplov ed in countries liab le t o invasion .

In E ngland they are rare ly met wi th except in la rge towns ,

where overhead wi res are dangerous .

The existence of such a line being known or suspecte d ,

marks should be searched for at e qua l distances ap a rt indic a ting ,

the position of test boxes .

These marks are usua lly about 1 0 0 yards apart and generally ,

c onsist of b locks of wood or stone numbered in succession .

They woul d very probab ly however have b een removed by , ,

the enemy .

If not to be found where the li ne is known to exist a cross ,

trench should be du g at right angles to the probab le direction

o f the line a bout 2 feet deep and in t hi s way the pipes may be
, ,

discovered These can then be dug up as far as possib le and

.
,

bent or otherwise destroyed if means are a vai lab le the wire ,

b eing pulled out and cut to pieces .

If possib le the trench should be carefully filled in a nd a ll

traces removed .

2 5 1 A suba queous line is rare ly emp loyed except for

.

crossing s e a s or big rivers but i n time of war they may be ,

laid a long the course of the rivers to connect towns on their

b anks as was done at Paris in the Franco -German w a r
, .

To destroy such a line it should be grapp led fo r with a

grapnel a nd when caught as large a piece as possib le cut
,

out of it the piece should then b e cut into sm aller pieces and
thrown into deep w a ter .
 1 02 CH AP T E R XVI I I .
— S T RE N G T H or M AT E R I AL S , E TC .

is fr om 2 to 2 1; times as strong as iron wire rope W ir e rope .

c a n be worked for fi eld service up t o ha lf it s breaking strain

, , .

S t r en gt h 2 5 5 The following tab le gives the strength and weight of

.

O f C h a in.
ordinary crane chain obtained chiefly by experiment (ordinary
,

commerc ial iron chain is not very re liab le )

T est lo a d .

'

25 6 The st rength of a la shin g may b e taken as i of the

.
;

number o f returns from the o b j ect lashed e g a s quare . . .

,

l ashin g w i th four t ur n s has a h o lding po wer of 4

5
x 1 6 x
stre n gth of rope in t he case of a hook lashed to a spar with
four turns it is g x 8 x strength of rope .

When us i n g wire in lashings m ul tiply b y ginstead of ,

T I M B E R S o r B R I D GE S .

S t ren gt h 2 5 7 The fo llowing are the maximum weights which are

.
,

O f b r id ges brought on b y the passage of troops in marching order per ,

linea l foot of bridge :

I nfantry in fi le crowded at a check 2 1 c wt s
, , ,
.

in fours 5
Cava lry l n single fi le crowded at a check 1 cwts
,
3
, , .

in half sections
2 5 8 Maximum weight brought on a b ridge by howit zers
.
,

guns of position &c ,

.

5 -inch B L howit zer a nd R A ammunition

. . .

wagons Mark II with limber Maximum

,
.

concentrated weight in one bay 3 0 cwts .

-inch
Q F guns of position with limber on
. .
,

trave lling c a rriage Ma ximum distri b uted .

wei ght
 CH AP T E R XVII I — S T R E N GTH
. O F M AT E RI A LS , E TC .

259 . A bridge that w ill c a rry infantry in fours crowded at a

c heck wi ll carry any o f the fi eld guns and most of the ordinary
wagons that accompany an army in the fi eld .

2 6 0 A good rough formul a for calculating the necess ary si zes For mu la
.

for road b earers and tra ns oms is given be lo w The formu la fo r r ec t .

1 1 .

5253 3
—
inc ludes a factor of l é for live load and gives a factor of ,
1
s a fety of 3 it also allows for the weight of superstructure .

Unselected rectangular m
bea s;

bp
W
l i x K ( A

Wher e W a ctua l dist ribute d w ei ght in cwts (superstructur e

.

n o t to b e inc lu d e d ) .

6 breadt h o f beam in i nche s .

ddepth o f b ea m in inches .

Ll en gt h o f span in f e et .

K a v a riable quan t ity for di fferent timbers (see below ) .

2 6 1 Unse le cted round spa rs

.

W xK ( )
B

T he sym b o ls bein g the s ame a s fo r fo rmu la (A ) b an d d ,

bein g h e re equal and ro und s pars bein g on ly about $ a s

, 0

stron g a s squar e be ams o f t h e same depth .

.

2 62 . Fo r larch and cedar K 1 V al u es

Ba ltic fir K of K
5
.

American ye llow pine K

beech and En glish oak K
I n the a b ove formul a W is the distri buted weight such a s
, ,

that of troops on any Span

, .

2 6 3 If it is wished to use these formul ae for a co ncentra t ed Con e n

. e

weight such as a gun the actua l we i ght on the gun whee ls l t d

, ,
ra e

lo d
must be multip lied by two to reduce it to the equivalent a s °

distri but ed load when it can b e substitute d for W

,
When .
,

as in the case of a transom there are concentr a te d loads at T ra nsom s

, .

more than four points a long the sp a n it wi ll b e sufficient to ,

take the total as being di stribute d .

2 6 4 With severa l b au lks under a roadway the t wo o ut er B aul ks

'

.
, .

ones can b e assumed as taking onl y ha lf as much of the weight

as the i n ner ones .
 1 04 C H AP T E R X V I II . S
- T R E NG T H OF M AT E RI A LS , ETC .

Thus with fi ve b aulks the oute r b aulks each b ear 5 t ot al

, ,

weight the inne r b au lks each b ear 1 total weigh t (I n c alc u

, 7 .

lating the greater weight must b e worked to )

, .

R ectangu lar beams are stronger on edge than on the fla t ,

a nd should be a lways used on edge .

2 65 In ca lcu lating the strength of a tapering spar when

.

used as a baulk d is to b e taken at the centre of the spar

, .

E xperiment has proved that such b a ulk s when su pported ,

at b oth ends and overloaded will break in the centre and , ,

not at the small end .

Knowing b d and L from formula (A) or (B ) we can fi n d

, ,

W the safe distrib uted load for these data Knowing W

, ,
.
,

and choosing L a convenient length we can fi n d b and d

, , ,

the necessary section o fthe beam .

2 66 A rough formu la for strength of canti levers is as

.

follows
fi
W :
4 g x K fo r s quar e t imb ers .

W : the t ot a l liv e load w h ich can b e b rou ght to bea r

on t he en d o f the canti leve r i n c wts .

L the len gth o f the c antilever i n f eet .

hr
3
2
in inch es .

K a variab le quanti ty acco rdi ng to t he tr ee fo r

value s see S ec 2 6 2 ,
. .

round sp ar s
_ d
IV — 1— 6
/
g o
w o

L
Th e se formu lae gi ve an a llo wan c e fo r sup e rstructure an d a

facto r of s a fety o f 3 .

2 67 . Usefu l fa c t s
O ne cub ic foot of water 6 4 ga ll ons ;
On e gallon weighs 1 0 lb s .

B UOYA N CY .

B u oyan cy 2 6 8 In us ing c losed vesse ls like c a sks for floa t in g piers t h e ,

“
.

Of 1 3 35 safe b uoya ncy for b ridging purposes may b e t aken a t ih t he "

‘
‘

actu al b uoy a ncy .

 1 06 CH A PTE R X V I II .
— S T R E NGTH or A
M T E RI LS , E T C A .

B uoyan cy 2 71 The buoyancy of a lo g can b e obtained by multip ly ing

.

of t i m b er .

its cubic content b y the di fference b etween its wei ght pe r

cubic foot and that of a cubic foot of water V i z 6 2 4 lb s ,
.
,
.

The actua l fl o t a t io n then of the lo g given be low ,

if it were
pine wou ld b e
,

lb s.

As, ho wever timber a b sorbs a gr eat dea l of w a t er only gof

, ,

the above can be safely re lied up on .

This avai lable b uoyancy will then b e

— x 1 , 78 1 1 b s .

2 72 The conte n
. ts in cubic feet of an uns q u a red lo gof timb er
can b e found b y the follo wing rule
L
(D Dd )
z
21
2
d .

W her e L len gth in feet

o f lo g ,

D, d dia m eter at ends .

'

Thus i f t h e lo g is 3
,
feet and 2 fe et in di am eter at the end s
and 2 0 feet lon g
20
the cubic cont ents 74 ( 9 6
— 95 c . 1 .

2 73 The following a re ap p ro x1 m a t ely the weights per cub i c

.

foot of difi eren t kin ds of timber

Ash E ng lish ,
4 6 lb s Pine .

B eech 43 Pop lar

C hestnut 41 S ycamore
E lm 37 Teak Indian ,

Fir 33 African
Larch 33
Map le 32
O ak E n gli sh ,
57
Willow
 C H AP T E R XI X .
-B L O C K S AN D T ACK LE S ,
E TC .

C a rr yin g 2 79 In carrying spars the p arty should be e q ually divide d

.
,

on either side of the Spars facing it and si zed from one end , , .

The spar should then be lifted in two motions on to the i n ner , ,

shoulders the party facing one way In lowering a Spar t he

, .
,

party should s lowly face inwards and lower the b utt end ,

fi rst to the ground and afterwards the tip ,

.

c
D err i ks .
2 80 derrick (Fig 6 PI 48) is a single Spar se t up with
. A .
, .

four guys secured with c love hitches A tackle is lashed t o

,
.

the head and the derrick can be used for raising and swinging
,

a weight into any p ositi o n within its reach which is ab out ,

one fift h of its height The a nchorages for the guys shou ld be
-
.

at a dis tance from the foot of the derrick e qua l to twice its
height The foot shou ld b e let into a hole in the ground t o
.

prevent it s slipping .

In Fig 6 Pl 7 4 a derrick is shown in the act of raising a

.
, .
,

pai r of sheers .

Fig 8 shows a swinging derrick

. .

2 81 Fig S heers
require on ly two guys fore d — a
S h eers
. .
( 4 ) . a n

b ack guy They shou ld b e fas t ened to the legs ab ove t he

.

i
crutch b y c love h tches the back guy to the fore Spar and , ,

vi ce vers d so that their action may te nd to draw the Spar s

,

c loser together and not strain the lashing The minimum .

distance of the anchorages should be double the height .

The upper b lock of the tackle is hooked to a sling of rope o r

chain passed over the cr utch S hee rs c an as a rul e be used .
, ,

for heavier weights than derricks but c an only move them in a ,

ve rtical p lane passing between the l egs The feet of sheers .

must be secured or let into holes in the ground The distanc e .

apart of the legs should n ot b e more than one third the length -

of the leg up to the crutch and the sheers not to b e heele d ,

over more than one -fii t h of the ir height .

2 82 The legs of the sheers are laid side by side on a skid and
.
,

kept 2 inches apart by a wedge The lashing is c omme nced .

with a c love hitch o n o ne Spar carried sixor more time s ,

upwards round both Spars without riding then two frapping ,

tur ns and fi nished o ff with two ha lf hitches round the othe r

,

Spar (Figs . 1 and 2 Pl 7

.
,
.
 CH AP T E R X X — FR A M E B R I D GE S ETC .
.
,

S upp osin g that t h e centra l s pan is too lar ge fo r avai la ble

timbe rs then more ro ws o f canti levers ar e p laced on t he fi r st
,

row a a two more tra nsoms t t a re p laced near t he proj e ctin g

,

en ds and t h e r o adb ear er s r r are placed in position T h er e a r e .

en e ra lly more canti leve r s in the botto m r o w th a n in t h e ro w

g
a b ov e and so o n Figs 5 and 6 . . .

The step from t o p r o w o f cantilevers t o t op o f c entr a l ro ad

bearers can b e avoided by lashin g t h e top trans om und erneath
the ends o f the t o p r o w o f canti levers inste ad o f p lacin g it on
t he t o p or an extra row o f r oa db ear er s may b e added abov e
,

t h e t o p ro w o f canti levers In the cas e o f a lon g brid ge a

.

fe w wir e ti e s a r e a great improv ement a s th ey sti ffen t he ,

br idge gr eat ly Fig 4 . .

F
.

2 86 . The following are s imp le typ es of frame b ri dges

S in ge
l L k — S upport ing one central tra ns om and
(a ) oc .
,

sufii cin
g for a span up to 3 0 feet .

(6) D ou ble Lock —Furnishing . two tr a ns oms sp a n up , to

45 feet .

They are not so genera ll y use ful as trestle bridges .

The Span of a frame bridge is the hori zonta l di stance

between the footings of the frames and is independent of a n V ,

increase of span due to s lop ing banks or bays of tr estles .

2 87 A si g e lock brid ge ( PI 7 7 ) consists o f t wo frame s

. n l - .

locki ng to gether ; o n e frame must t herefor e b e narro w er than

the other .

doub e -loc k b r i d e
2 88 .A l g (Pl 7 7 ) consists o f two frame s .

he ld apart by d istance pie c es The fram e s must ther efore b e.

t he sam e width .

The frames a re n early identica l with two -le gged t restles

F
( g i. 2 P 1 5.0 ) b
. ut the s lope o f t h e le gs is not s o great —
,
2 9
1

ene ra lly su hicm g and t he transo m a n d le d ger are lashed on

‘
g ,

on O ppo site sides o f the le gs t ransom on t h e shore side so a s ,

t o be a r on t he le gs led ge r on t he outer side s o a s not to

,

interfe re wit h the footings B e fo re lo weri ng t he frames int o .

thei r places foo t i n gs mus t b e p rep a r e d ho ldfa sts d riven fore , ,

and bac k guys attached to the t o p o f each le g and foot rope s ,

a t tach ed to ea ch leg b elo w t he ledger T he frames are then .

 C H A P T E R XX — FRA M E . B R ID GE S ,
E TC .

made in two or more tiers In this case the upper tiers must .

n o t be made too he a vy or they wi ll be ve ry d if fi cult to hoist,

into position The groundsi lls of the lower tier must b e strong
.

e nough to support and distribute the weight of the uprights .

Where the soi l is fi r m and can be leve lled to an even bed no ,

other foundation than the groundsi ll is necessary ; where the

soi l is soft a lo w crib pier may b e made to distribute the weight .

The adj oini ng c a psill and groundsill where one trestle rests ,

on another need not be very strong A 3 inch p lank wi ll suffi ce

,
.
-

for each and may be spiked to the uprights In this c a se

,
.

the uprights may be fi xed in position with c leats and dogged ,

to each other (P1 78 Fig .

,
.

S t r ut s. 2 9 1 The inc lination o f the struts depend to some extent

.

on the height width an d length of the bridge They are not

,
.

essential for wide b ridges o f no great height .

S truts for rai lway bri dges m ust have a greater inc lination
than fo r o rdinary bri dges to provide fo r wind pressur e on the
side of the train tending to overturn the whole structure .

This is especially the case when the bridge is high and long .

c
B r a in g .
2 92 Fo r the arrangement of the diagon a l br a cing see
.
,

Plates 78 and 7 9 .

The ends of struts should not b e notched into uprights u nl ess

the latter have a co n siderab le margin of strength and st ifi n ess .

Uprights and struts should b e notched into grounds ills and

c a p sills when possib le ; but when time presses and few car
en t ers are avai lab le a careful arr a ngement of dogs wi ll suffi c e
p , ,

without notching .

C o r b el .
2 9 3 PI 78 Fig 4 shows a corbe l an arrangement for giving
. .
,
.
, ,

a wider hearing at the top of a trestle and Fig 5 an a lternative .

method which a lso helps to fix the cap sill

, .

2 94 D ogs Spikes and b o lts are the most usefu l fasteni ngs
.
,

for framed trestles The p osition of each do g should a lways

.

b e considered with a defin it e obj ect of preventing a possib le

distort ion of the frame They should be on b oth sides of the .

trestle D ogs should not b e dr iven withi n 3 inches of the edge

.

of a timb er or withi n 4 inches of its end

, .

S pikes when used in pairs shou ld be driven inc li ni ng

, ,

towards e a ch other They run 5 inches to 1 0 inches in

.

le n gth
.
114 CH AP T E R XX .
— FR A M E B RI D G E S , E TC .

2 97 . T he followin g tab le wi ll b e found use fu l for ca lcu latin g stre ss e s

d ue to uni form loads on sus pension bri dge s ; in it t he load is W x a

T en si o n Va
l
at u e of
D ip
lo west p o in t

10 x lc a d
‘

1
‘

3 46 x lo a d 1 0 27 x s an
p c
i n h es 2 5 E X

at
“
1 1 1 3 75 1 022 2 0 62 5

1 0 1 85

I 6 25 1 01 58 2 4 3 75
‘ '

1 3

“
1 01 3 6

1
‘

01 2 2 81 5
’

2 9 8 Fo r len gth
. of s lin gs 3/

a s pan .

d d ip .

y 2 le n gth s li n g
of ,

a: dist ance fro m lowe st point in fee .

2 99 , on a n chora ge
P1 1 1 1 t ension in cab le s at p ie r s .

S tren gth o f lo g anchor a ge (Fig 9 P] 4 8) ho ldi n g power .

, .

of the anchor fac e and c a n b e obta ined from t he fo llo win g f

,
 CH A P T E R X X — FRAM E ~

. B RI D GE S , E TC .

t ab le , sh o wing t h e
holdin g pow er of dry lo am at variou s
depths and inc linations o f cable

M ea n d ept h o f Fa c e o f
c c
I n li n at io n o f t h e for e d ra win gt h e a n h o r a ge c
c
A n h o r a ge b el ow ( in a d i c
r e t io n
p p
er en d i u lar t o it s f ca e) , c
S u r fa e c an d c
o r r espo n d in g u l t i m a t e r esist an e in c
.

l b s p er squ a r e foo t o f a n h or fa e
. c c .

2 feet

R elat ive H o ldin g

Na t u r e o f S o il .

P o wer .

c
C o m p a t lo a m, r a mm ed (d ry)
c c
H a r d o m p a t gr a v el , r am m e d (d ry)
Wet r iv er l ay (b elo w su b so il wa t er lev el) ,
c r am m ed
c
I n oh er en t r iver san d , n o t r am m ed (da m p )

3 01 . holdfast made of 5 feet park pickets driven

A 3 2 . . 1 .
, ,

2 feet 6 i nches to 3 feet in the ground should stand a strain ,

of 2 tons (t ide Pl .

3 02 The following detai l shows the most convenient w ay Ca sk p iers

. .

of making cask piers with large casks see P1 5 4 ,

. .

The gun nels should for a pier of the si ze shown in the fi gure G un n els
'

(the c a sks used b eing b ut t s) be 2 1 feet b y 4 inches b y 5 inches

, .

The sli ngs of 2 g -inch rope 6 fathoms long with a n eye

S iice Sl in gs
,p ,
.

1 foot long at one end .

 CH A P T E R XX — FR AME . B RI D G E S , E T C .

B r a ces
. B ra ces
of l é inch ro pe 3 fathoms long a small eye Sp lic e
-
, ,

at one end a nd a fi gure of 8 knot 1 f o ot 5 inches from t he

,

ey e .

The pier b eing made is launched into the water by mea n s of

,

a sledge ca lled the wa ys .

To make a pier the numb er of men required is two more than

doub le the number of casks or 2 n 2 where n is the numbe r
, ,

of casks .

Four men stand at the ends of the gunne ls the remainde r ,

opposite the interva ls between the casks on either side The .

gunne ls b e ing in position the gun ne l men at one end p lace the
,

eyes of the slings over the gunnels t h e gunnel men at the othe r
end secure the s lings to their ends of the gunnels with a round
turn a nd two half hi t ches The brace men keep the s li n g s .

under the casks with their feet and a s soon as they are secur ed ,

adj ust the braces as follows the men working simultaneo us ly ,

by word of co mmand .

The eye of the brace is passed under the sling in the centr e
of the interval between two casks the end passed through t h e ,

eye a nd h a ul ed taut the s ling being kept steady with the lef t
,

foot The brace is then b rought up outside the gun nel im

.

medi a te ly over the eye and a tur n roun d the gunnel taken t o
,

t he left the foot is removed from the s ling and e a ch man then
, ,

h a uls up the standi ng part of hi s b race with the left hand ,

holding on to the turn with the right ; as soon as the brac e

is taut the turn is he ld fast with the heel of the left hand a n d ,

the remainder of the brace in a coi l is p laced on the cas k , ,

’
t o t he left E ach man then takes his opposite neighbo u r s
.

b race from the cask on the right a nd passes it between t he ,

standing part of his b race and the c a sk on his left then bac k ,

between his brace and the cask on his right keeping the bigh t ,

so formed below the fi gure of 8 knot on hi s own brace and ,

p lacing the end on the cask to hi s right E ach man then take s .

back his own brace from the cask on his left passes it unde r ,

the gunnel t o t he left of the standi ng pa rt p laces hi s foot against ,

the gunne l and ha ul s taut The pier is then rocked b ackward s

, .

and fo rwards all the b race men taking in the slack of thei r
,

b r a ces a nd h a uli n g t a ut unti l the word stea dy is given whe n ,

 118
—
CH AP T E R XXL DE MOLIT I ON FOR MULZE .

C H AR G E S FO R H AS TY D E M O LI T I O NS .

NOTE .
—Th e c h arge is in lb s
. B len gt h t o b e d emo l i sh e d in FE E T .

T c
t h i kn ess t o b e d em o li sh ed in FE E T .

t c
t hi kn ess t o b e d e m o li sh e d i n I N C H E S (i a th e
c
a se o f ir o n
p la t e o n ly) .

I n t h e pr esen c e of t h e c
en emy in r ea se t h e c h a r ges b y 5 0 p e r en t c .

G UNP O W D E R (T p )
a m ed .

O b j ec t a t ta cked . R em ar ks .

B ri ck ar ch —on e h au n ch T o t al am o un t d iv id ed in t o

B u ck “
reh — cm wn
ch ar ges p lac ed a part ab o u t
t wi c e t h e t h i c kn ess o f b ri ck .

B r ick wall “O rk '

W oo d st o c ka de—h ar d wo od 4 0 to 1 0 0 On e ch a r
ge . S o ft wood half
t h is .

S t o cka d e o f e ar th b et ween 60 t o 80 p er O n e ch ar ge .

t imb er u p t o 3 ft 6 in t hi c k
. . 5 ft .

Fort gat e O n e ch ar ge .

T u n n el s Wh er e T t o t al di st an ce fr om
th e su r fac e of t h e li n i n
g to
c
t h e h ar ge .
 119

CH AP TE R XXL— D E MOLITI O N FORMULZE .

C H AR G E S FO R H AS T Y DE M O LI T IO NS .

NO T E —Th e c h a r e i s in l b s B len gt h t o b e d em o l ish ed in FE E T

.
g .
.

T c
t h i kn ess t o b e d em o l is h ed i n FE E T .

t c
t hi kn ess t o b e d emo lish e d i n I NC H E S
c
a se o f-i ro n
p la t e on l )
y .

I n t h e p resen c e o f t he en em c c
y in r ea se t h e h a r ge s b y 5 0 p er en t c .

G UNC O T TO N (Un t am p ed ) .

c
I f t h e h ar ge i s t a m p ed , d e c r e ase by one h a lf .

Ob j ec t at t a cke d . R e m a r ks .

B r i c k a r c h — h au n c h or cr own Co nt in uo u s c h ar ges .

B ri ck wall— u p t o 2 ft t h i k
. c 2 p er fo o t
Le n gt h o f b r ee h B n o t t o b e less c
B ri c k wall —o ver 2 ft t h i ck
. t h a n t h e h e igh t o f t h e wall t o b e
b r o u gh t d o wn .

Bri ck pi er
H ard wo od— st o ckad e o r sin gle In a sin
g l e h a c
r e o u t sid e
g . Fofl 8
1

a r o u n d t im b er harge c 3 T3 .
h
t
f
l

H ar d woo d— n eckla c e
a
T r ee s u p t o 1 2 in s diam et er Fo r h

i
. .

a r oun d t i mb er h a ge
r 3T 3 c .
d
o
o
w
H ard woo d —auger h ole W h er e t h e t im b er is n o t roun d t
f

sm a ll er a xi s
JS
o
T .

S t o cka de o f b et ween t im
ea r t h 4 p er fo o t 1
her u p t o 3 ft 6 in s t h i k
.
. . c I
H ea vy ra il sto cka d e 7 p er foo t t S in gl e c h ar ge .

I
Fort ga t e J
B r eech loa din g gun s Fo r 3 i n c h gun
.
2 lb s Do u ble u se .

c
t h e h a r ge fo r e er y i n h i n rea se v c c
c
i n a lib r e T o b e p la ed i n b r ee h
. c c .

T h e gu n sh o u l d b e lo a ded wi t h a
sh ell i f p o ssib l e .

A t h ir d o f a l % -lb sl ab a gain st t h e
Fir st c lass ra i l
.

u e b n ea r a c
h a ir if t h o se ar e u sed .

I r on pla te t i s in I NC H ES .

C al c u l a t e fo r i r on p lat e, given
as

I r on gi r d er s c
t hi kn ess o f fl a n ge t o b e m ea sur ed
wh er e i t j o in s t h e web .

Fr o n t i er t owe r, st on e a n d m ud 1 6 to 3 0 In on e cha r
ge in c en t re of to wer .

0 b e in g t h e c i c umfe r r en ce in
Wir e c ab le c
in h es .
1 20 WOR KIN G

Nat ure o f Wo rk . Di men sion s . No . of Men . T i me .

1 . Felli n g tr ees Up to 1 ft . dia met er 1 man 1 mi nu t e p er i men

o f di a met er

2 . Cu tt i ng b r ush wo od Up to b
a o ut 1 "
4 di 4 h ours
a m et er

3 . Cl ea rin g p la n ta t io n o f r ush b 1 00 yds x 4 0 yds

. . l mp an y (1 0 0
co
woo d , wit h t r ees up t o 1 2 i n men )
b
.

d ia met er ; so rt i n g, in d in g,
c a n in g

4 . C ut t in g h edge Woo d 4” ,
t o 2 " d iameter 1 man m i n ut es t o 1 8
mi nut es

5 . Maki ng fas ines c ’

1 8 l on g, 9 ”
di am eter 5 men 1 h o ur

6 . Ga ions b 2
'
9 ” h i gh , 2 '
ext ern a l 2 h ours
d i a me t er

7 . B a n d ga i on sb 2
' ”
9 h igh , 2 ’
d i a met er 10 min ut es
'
8 H urd les
. 6 l on g, 2
’
9 ” h igh 2 4 h ou rs

9 . C ut t in g sods 1 8" x 9 " x 44 1 h ou r

10 . Lo oph ol e in wal l, t wo b ri ck s
t h i ck

1 1 . N otc h t wo . b ick
r s t hi kc 10 minu t es

1 "
A b a t is, rou gh l y c o n st ru ct ed 5 0 yds d eep
. 1 renet

13 . Lo w wire 1 0 men 1 h our

14 . H igh 4 h o ur s

N B —G a b io n v ment s,
7 6 h i gh , r equi res 1 4 ga i on s, 3 fascin es p er b
’ ”
re et
b b b
. .

w d ”
h igh , r equ ir es 9 un d les rush wood ,
’
H ur dle o r rus
s h oo 2 9
S b v b
.

a n d a g r e et men t r equi res 2 0 0 s a n d a gs p e r 1 0 0 su p fee t . .

c c cv b
For onst ru t in g h ea d o er , san d a gs a nd sods, on ea rth p arap ets,
122 CH A PTE R XX II .
— RO AD S— B O N I NG A N D LE V E LLI NG .

1 2 0
1

O H N

ca m eo

F 5 0 8 7
1
 CH AP T E R XX II .
—ROAD S —
B ONI NG AND ~

LE V E LLIN G .

R OA D S .

3 03 A ro a dw a y 1 0 feet wide (8 feet minimum ) wi ll take a W idt h O f

.

single line *
of wagons passing in one direction or infantry in d w y , roa a .

four s ; 1 2 feet is b ette r a s a llowing horsemen to pass without

d ifii cult y for each additiona l line of vehic les 1 0 feet shoul d be
a dded to the width of the road .

Where there is little t ra fii c a width of 1 0 feet may suffice ,

for wagons b oth going and coming provi ded sidings are made ,

at int erv als into which one w a gon ma y go to a llow another

,

to p a ss .

A width of 6 feet is sufficient for infantry in fi le or pack

a ni m als movi n g in one direction .

3 0 4 The gra di ent for a short di stance such a s a r a mp leading Gr ad ien t s

.
, .

on to a b ridge m a y b e 4 or even 4 for i nfantry 4 for arti llery

, , , ,

b ut for anima ls or whee led t rafli c s lopes steeper than { a are

inconve ni ent a nd if the incline b e long it is sti ll more desirable
to reduce them Traction e n gines wi ll on good roads dra wa
,

.
, ,

lo a d e q ual to their own weight up $ twice their o wn weight 5 ,

up 3 3 and three times their own weight on the leve l or up

1
, ,

s lopes not exceeding whi ch is the maximum gra dient

in fir st c lass ro a ds
-
.

3 0 5 Whe n a n ew ro ad has to b e co nst ru ct ed it sho u ld b e made L yin g

. a

as str a ight as is consistent with the extreme gradient permissib le o u t eW a n

‘

r oa d
In laying it out the centre line should b e marked b y pickets ,
'

s itlockin g
p m a rking out the li ne with the p oint of a pick ) ,

&0 .

If the ro a d p asses through a wood it wi ll be we ll to cut down ,

a line of trees in the re quired direction The space occupied .

Th e o r din a ry wi d t h o f t h e wh eel t r a k of W D ar riage s i s 5 feet c . . c

c c
2 in h es from o ut t o o ut , e x e pt t h at o f t h e p o n t oo n wa go n s, whi h is c
5 feet 1 0 i n h es c .

T h e p o i n t s o f t h e a xle t r ee ar m s pr ojecb ab ou t Gt i n c hes b eyo n d t h e i

c
wh eel t ra k o n ea h sid e c .
1 24 C A H P TE R XX II .
—R OA D S —B O N IN G A N D LE V E LLI N G .

b y the ro ad should then be cleared of all irregu larities a nd the ,

tree roots grubbed u p .

3 0 6 Fig 1 P I 81 gives a section of a metall ed ro ad on leve l

. .
,
.
,

ground or only s light ly inc lined in the di rection of the width

,

of the road .

S ide drains must be ou t where necessary and communications ,

made underneath the road at interva ls to a llow the water

to escape The earth from these side drains when we ll rammed
.
, ,

may be emp loyed to give a shape to the road if meta lling

is afterwards to be put on to it otherwise it is bet te r scatte red ,
.

In applyi ng the metalli ng large stones should be Spread as a

foun dation and above this should come a layer of broken
,

stones some 3 inches o r 4 inches thick A thin t o p layer of .

grave l or other binding material is an advantage This should .

b e rolled or rammed a p lentif ul supp ly of wat er being used

,
.

The surface of the road should s lope from the centre to the
side at about to a llow the water to drain 0 11
3 O
1
,
.

S ometimes only one layer of stone o f the s ma ller si ze is used .

In many situations gravel is the only availab le mate rial ;

it sho ul d contain a portion o f loam sand or oth er s mall stu ff , ,

to bind the pebb les to gether .

Where meta l is not obtainab le such growths as reeds heather , , ,

or long gra ss laid thick ly across t h e road are b etter than

,

nothing .

3 0 7 When on the side of a hi ll the road wi ll b e partly cutting

.

and part ly embankment (Fig u n less the hi ll 1 8 ve ry steep .

,

when i t may b e all cutting as in Fig 2 PI 82 . . .

The gro und on whi ch the emb a hk me n t rests shoul d he

,

stepped to prevent s lipping and a retaini ng wa ll of dry stb n es

, .

( Fig ,2 P 1 8 1 ) or logs fascines (Fig 1 P I or ,

so ds & c may .
,
.
,
.
,

sometimes be re quired Th e sur face of the ro ad sho ul d s lope .

inwar ds towards the hi ll the water being got rid of at interva ls ,

by drains pass ing un der the road If no dr ain pipes be avai lab le .
,

Fr en ch drains may be construc t ed by digging a trench and fi lli ng

i t with large stones fi t t ed loos ely so as to a llow the wate r ,

t o p a ss thr ough the top being covered with br ushwoo d whi ch

, ,

carries the roadway S erviceab le dr ains may a ls o be ma de

.

w ith barre ls or p lanks .

When ascending a hi ll by means of zig-zags the road shoul d

b e m a de a s leve l as possib le at each ang le and h alf as wi de ,
 126 C H A P TE R XX I I — R O A D S .
-B O NI N G AN D LE V E LLI NG .

in weight with handles 2 4

, 2 feet long so as to work standing , ,

or of 1 4 lb s weight with handl es 1 8 inches to 2 feet long to

.
, ,

work sitting .

B O NI N G AN D LE V E LLI N G .

Levelli ng by mea ns f
oB o n i n g Rods .

D efi ni t ion .
31 4 . It is of t en necessary in the fi eld to make a rough section
of a piece o f groun d e r parapet so as to ca lculate the amount ,

o f work to be carried out or to lay out sho r t lengths of ground ,

at a given s lope as in road -making dr ainage & c

, Fo r such , , .

pur p oses levelling by means of bo n ing rods may be emp loye d .

T o ols
.
3 1 5 The tools required for b oning a re a fi eld leve l (o r a
.
.

mason s level or a Spirit leve l with a straightedge ) a ma llet

’
, , ,

pickets measuring tape a set of t hree boning ro ds and where

, , ,

great differences of leve l a re met with a long rod gradu a te d to ,

read feet and inches .

The mas on s leve l is shown in Fig 1 PI 83 and c a n b e m a de

’
.
,
.
,

b y any ordina ry carpe nte r where a fi eld level is not availa b le ; ,

B on ing rods a re usua lly made of dea l 3 inches wide and ,

4 inch thick and cons ist each

, of a l on g arm with a head ,

doveta iled on at right angles to it (Fig 2 P1 Care must .

, .

b e taken that all of a set are of exactly the same length .

3 1 6 To make a s ection with such r ods it is usua l to se lect the

.
,

highest point of the s ection and there drive in a p ic ket fl ush with
the ground driving in a second picke t on the line of the secti on
,

wi th its top care fully leve lled to the top o f the fi rst picket (b y
mea ns of the fi eld mason s or Spirit leve l) and as far away
,
’
, ,

from the fir st picket as the length of the leve l or straightedge

wi ll allow (see A B Fig 3 PI ,
It is evident then b y look
,
.
, .

ing over the tops of the two pickets (A B ) the depth b e low , ,

the line of sight of any other points (0 D ) on the section could , ,

be deter mi ned b y ho ldi ng up a measuring rod at those p oints ,

and the hori zonta l di stance apa rt of the v a rio us points b eing
a lso measured a rough section co ul d b e m a de To avoid the
. .

ob vious difficul ty o f gettin g one 8 eye down to the top of the ’

fi rst two pickets (A B ) bo ni ng rods are set up on them a nd

, , ,

a thi rd b oning rod (or the long rod) is set up a t the di fferent
 C H AP T E R X XI I .
—
‘

RO AD S —B O NI N G AN D
'

LE V E LLi N G . 1 27

points (0 D E ) whose leve l is re quired to b e known The

, , .

b oning rods b eing all of the same length give by their tops ,

a hori zonta l line p a rall el to the fi rst line of sight but 3 feet ,

(o r thereabouts ) a b ov e it In the same way a given. s lope

can b e set out (Fig 4 ) b y arranging the t c ps of the
( y3 )
sa 1
6
.

first two pickets a t the re quired s lope (leve l A and B 1 0 fee t ,

a p a rt and then cut 1 foot 0 11 B) setting up two b oning rods

, ,

on them and b y me a ns of the third bo ning rod dri ving in

,

pickets to show the top of the s lope at any re quired points ,

N O P
, ,
Again a continuous s lope between any two points
.
,

can be laid out with pickets as in Fig 5 b y putting the fi rst ,

.
,

b oning rod at F the second a t G and with the third rod setting
, ,

up the intermediate pickets .

3 1 7 In taking a sec t ion it is usu a l to enter the lev els 85 0

.
,

in a b ook (see p a ge

F I E LD LE V E L .

31 8 . The fi eld leve l is shown in Plates 84 85 , a nd ~

86 .

It c a n b e used when c losed

( )
1 A s a n ord inary spirit leve l for b oning leve lling &c , , .
,

the spirit leve l b eing on the edge of the lim b C .

Fi
( g 1 .
, PI .

When open
2
( ) As a s q uare for setting 0 11 right a ngles (Fig . .

(3 ) A s a protractor for setting off a n g les (Fig . .

4
( ) For setting o f
f s lopes of a ll grades and as a mason s ,
’

level with p lum b bob F

( g i . .

In all cases pla ce the lim b A agains t t he s lope to b e

meas ured .

T he dott ed lines in Fig 1 show how the i n strument i .

s

closed .

N B —On e edge
. . of the level is gra dua ted in fee t and inches .
1 28 CH A P TE R XX I II .
-R AI
LW A YS AN D T E LE G R A PH S .

CH AP TE R XXIII — RAI LW AYS

. AND TE LEGRAPH S .

RA I L W A Y S .

319 . Th e
duti e s lik ely to b e required o f troop s in t he fi eld
wit h r e ga rd to rai lways (a part from lar ge rai lway sch eme s ,

fo r which Specia l arran gements wou ld be ne c e ss a ry ) ma y b e

considered a s e ithe r tempo rary r e pairs or the layin g of shor t ,

l en gths o f line to j oi n up b r eaks the const ruction o f addi ,

t io n a l w orks such a s pla t fo rms & c to a d apt t h e lin e fo r , .

,

mi litary u se o r t h e d emo lit io n of an existing lin e

, .

3 2 0 T h e formation inc lu de s t h e who le o f the e a rt hwor k

.

“
necessa ry to comp lete t h e li n e to formation leve l an d ”

s ecure the r e qui re d width o f way to ge ther wit h

“ side a n d ”

catchwate r d rains a n d any retaining wa lls or p r ote ctiv e

,
”

works to se c ure t h e bank a gain st flo o ds T un nels a re inc lude d .

und er the hea d Formation .

”

3 2 1 For ma t zon level m eans t he leve l o f t he complete d surfac e

'

be fo re t h e ballast is put o n On rapi dly const ructe d milita ry

.

lin es wher e ba llast is po ssib ly not avai lab le t h e formation

, ,

l ev el w ou ld b e t he d ept h of t he rai l and s leep er be lo w t he

rai l leve l T he fo rmation level is not abs o lute ly ho r i zontal
.

t ransverse ly a s it should slop e s li ght ly do wnwar ds from t he

,

c entr e line to wa rds t he sides o f the bank or cutt in g fo r

purpo s e s of d r aina ge .

3 2 2 T he width o f t he rai lr oad de pend s on t he gau ge t he

. ,

width o f t he rai ls t he c lea r spac e outside t he r a i ls an d t he

,

Space necessary fo r draina ge .

3 2 3 The ga uge is t he s horte st distanc e b et we e n t h e ins id e

.

e dges o f t h e uppe r s u rfac es o f the rai ls and is 4 to 1 inch ,

g reat e r than t h e distanc e betw e en the fl an ges o f a pai r

o f whe el s .

In Great Britain and most of the Europ ean count ri es t he

, ,

o r dina r y gau ge i s 4 fe et 84 inches ; in Ir e land it is 5 feet ,

3 inches ; in Ru ssia 5 f ee t ; in B l itish India 5 feet 6 inches

, ,

( m et re 3 fe et 3 4 inc h es ) and 2 fe et 6 inch e s

,
.

For a 4 -fe et 84-inch gau ge sin gle line t he minimum widt h , ,

o f ban k s and o f cuttin gs at fo rmation leve l shou ld not be les s

than 1 2 feet and 1 6 feet res p e c t ively Th es e dimensions .

 1 30 C H AP T E R X X II I .
— R AI LW A YS A N D T E L E GR AP H S .

S leep e rs .
3 2 7 S lee pe r s
. are bearer s whether o f wo od or o f ste el used
, ,

to d istribute the w e i ght o n the rai ls ove r the ba llast o r

r oad way and in the case o f cros s -s lee pers a s a con n ection
,

be twe en the tw o rai ls to pres erve t he gau ge .

Eac h mile o f rai lway re quire s to s lee p ers .

C h i 3 2 8 C h a ir s a r e used to conne ct the rai ls to the sle e e rs

p
'
l l s. .
,

when ne cessary o win g to t he sectiona l form o f the rai l ,

and to dist ribute the wei ght o ver a greater bearin g ar ea

on the sl ee pe r than is obtain e d b y the rai l r esting on it .

co nn ec 3 2 9 C hairs are fas t ened d own to sle epers b y Spik e s and

.

t io n t renai ls .

b et W ee n T r en a zls are wooden Spikes so co mpressed by machin e r y

’

,
ch w s nd
as to expel a ll moisture from t h em
a
Wh en they have b ee n.

8l ee i s r
p driven into t h e sleepers their tendency is t o absorb moistu re
’

and s we ll and so to grip t h e sleeper more ti ghtly They

, .

must not b e employed a lo ne but w h e re t hey are used there ,

should be at lea st on e iron fastening to each chair fo r , ,

a lthou gh the tr enai l is a fi r m m e ans o f ho ldi n g down t h e

c h air to the s le epe r it i s liab le to rupt ure f rom a shearing

,

st re ss Fo r this r eason oak t re n ai ls with iron spi ke s d riv e n

.

into them (P1 87 Fig 3 ) a re often us ed. . .

In t he cas e of fi a t -fo o t ed rails with good b ea ring a rea and

e xposed to moderate ax le loa ds t h e rai ls may b e Spik e d dir e ct ,

to the s leepers without chairs or be a rin g-plates .

C onn ec 3 3 0 The d
. oub le -hea d ed a n d a ls o t h e bu ll-headed rai l i s
-
t io n o f he ld in it s c hair by a key or small b lock o f w ood compre s se d ,

ra il W it h by ma c h inery
s F
( g i This key
. i s s li ght ly w e d ge -shaped ,
Ch aim
a n d is d riv en fi rm ly into the gap in t he cha ir at the sid e
of t he rail Rail s m ay be ke y ed on the out side or insi d e
. .

C on n c e 3 3 1 F lat -foote d rail s are

. g ene r a l ly conne cted d ire ct ly w ith
t io n the sleep ers b y d o g spike s or with t he int erve n t ion o f
-
,

b e wee n bea r ing-p la tes

fi .

r ai ls a n d

sl eeper s .

B al las t
. 332 B a lla st is b r oke n s t o n e or oth er suitab le m ateria l
.

plac ed on t h e fo rmation leve l, on which t h e s le eper s rest ,

and with which they are pack ed “ t o t h e p ro p e r le v e l
or inc lination .

The obj ects o f ballast a r e

i To d istribute t h e p re ssur e i mpa rted to it by
. t he
sleepers ove r a la rger area .
 C H APT E R
i

X X I II r —R AI LW A YS AND T E LE G R APH S .

11 T o kee p t he s leepers d ry by a ffo rdi n g a pe rmeab l e

. ,

m ass for rain wate r to pas s th r ou gh and t hus ,

p revent th eir de c a y .

iii To a fford facilities for packing un d er t h e s leepe rs

.

when the y h a ve sunk .

The ba llast i s usually laid to a t hickne ss of a b o ut 1 foot ,

o r 1 8 i n c h e s i n ve ry w et p l a c e s ; t h e pe rman e nt w a y is the n

l aid on it and
,
it s t hickn e s s i s a fterwards inc re as e d to t he

h gei h t o f the bottom of t h e r a i l T h e two

. lay e r s a re ca l led

t h e b ott om ba lla st and t h e top ba lla st o r boxi n g .

In fi eld rai lways t h e bott o m ba llast may b e r equi r ed fo r

d raina ge b ut t h e top b a llas t could b e omit t e d As a t empo ra r y
,
.

m ea su r e ba llast cou ld b e dis pens ed with a lto ge th er .

3 3 3 An y rai l wa y tools o r materia ls fo und a lon g the line R

. a il way
must b e han ded ove r to t h e o ffic ers in char ge of repai r and t o ,
ols a n d

not on any account app op iat ed by troops

r r .
m a t eri al s.

R A I L W A Y RE P A I R A ND R E C O N S T R UC T I O N .

334 . The main princip le s on which the wo r k o f repair a d

n G en e
?“
0 91 1 93
r econstructio n i s ca r ri ed out a r e
4
3 2 0

( )
1 To make t h e s pe edie st tem p orary r e pai r s possi ble ,

d eviations and lo w-leve l b r id e s) i n ord e r to ge t w O

'

s
y a .

a line o f s ome s ort th r ou gh with the least possi b le

d e lay .

2
( ) S imu ltan e ous ly to com m ence h i gh -l ev e l t r e stl e b ri d es
g
o n concrete f o undations wh e r e r e ui red in o rder to do
q
away with the disa dvanta ge o f lon g devia t ions wit h
s te ep gradien t s and sharp cu rves .

To mm n ce wit ho u t any de la perm nent repairs

( )
3 c o e , y a ll a , ,

v iz rebui ldin g the mason r y re pai ring t he gir d e r s

.
, , ,

o r rep laci n g them with n e w one s in o rde r t hat the

lin e shou ld b e a s soon a s p o ssibl e resto red to it s

former po sition and entire ly sa fe a gainst fl o ods .

3 3 5 The best s ys t em to ado pt whe r eby to carry out rapid C n t u c

“
o s r
.

re pair s is t o e stablish Con st r uct i on T r a ins The r eco n st r uc .

” 0 ?

f ms ra’
tion sta ff live in these trains whic h gradually advance a long
'
'

t he line a s i t i s bein g repai red c onve yin g a lso t h e neces sary

,

mate ri a l .

(5 2 89)
 132 C H AP T E R XX II I — RAI LWAYS
. AND T E LE eR APn s .

Lab o ur .
336 . railwa y work o f any ma gn itude lar ge ga n gs o f
Fo r
unski lled lab o ur a re requi red a nd this is e specia lly t ru e o f
’

t e mpora ry re pairs to be exe c u te d ra pi dly .

The p ro portio n o f unski lled to ski lle d la b o ur o n t e mporar y .

re pai rs is a s 7 to 1 ; on semi -perman en t and pe rmanent

repa i rs a s 3 to 1 .

3 3 7 A h a d va n ce dep ét for rai lway mate ria l a n d sto r es mu s t

.

invariably b e fo rme d at some plac e wi t hi n 5 0 mi les o f t he

startin g p o int fo r r epai r s and that be for e wor k b e i n s
g , .

3 3 8 S ufficient wa gon t rans p o rt to car ry 6 0 tons should i t

.
,
.

possible be avai lable at rai lhead to a llo w an a d va n ced pa rty t o

,

mo ve o h repairin g minor breaks Much tim e is thus save d

, . .

3 3 9 P r o v i de d
. that t he arran gements fo r li ghting w ork s at
n i ght a re good an e qua l amount o f wo rk can b e do n e b y da y
,

and n i ght shifts and when re p ai r s a r e bein g pre ss ed da y a n d

, ,

n i ght shifts are ess entia l T he only c lass o f w o rk which .

cannot well b e carr ied on by ni ght is p la t ela yin g whic h ,

r eq ui res plenty o f li ght a long t he t rack .

Flare s o il o r acety len e a re easi ly ma nipu lat e d and gi ve

, , ,

g oo d li ght fo r worki n g parties .

T em 3 40 Up t o 1 8 f ee t h eight
. C ri b piers o f s le epe rs mak e .

p y
o r ar satis factory bri dge s which are rapid ly b ui lt a s a lar ge numbe r
, ,
b rid ge s .
o f men can b e emp l oye d to hand le mate ri a ls .

Be tw een 1 8 and 2 5 f eet the Sp e ed at which such b ri dge s can,

b e bui lt dec reas es rapid ly not on ly on account o f the a ddit io na t

,

h e i gh t but becaus e mor e materia l is us e d

,
.

W a t er 3 41 Da ma ge s to wat er supp ly by t he enemy is a p t to caus e

.

su p ply. much diffi cul ty Troops mus t n ot use rai lway wate r supplie s
.

wi t hout S pe c ia l autho r it y A steam pump a n d boi ler car 1 ie d.

o n a truck i s a use fu l adj unct Li ft an d force pumps wo rked b y .

m anua l p o we r each with s evera l len gths o f hos e sho u ld a ls o

, ,

be carri ed En gine s ca n then make shi ft with temporary

.

w ater in g ar ran gem ents .

3 42 To p rovide fo r entraini n g or d et rainin g anima ls

. ,

vehic les and guns extra sidi ng and plat form accommo dation
,

wi ll b e c o me n e ces s ary at va rious poi n ts .

T he sid mgs wou ld b e in ext ension o f exi stin g si din gs o r ,

branch f om the main lin e accor ding to ci rcumstance s

a ,
.

The p la tj b r ms w ould a s a ru le be most con venient ly plac ed

, ,

alon gside a sidin g o f suffi cient len gth to a llo w o f the train
 CH A P TE R XX I I I —R AI LW A YS
. AN D T E LE G R A PH S .

connection with the earth or other wires Th is is e ffected .

usua lly either by a eria l lines or by ca b les .

3 4 8 Ah a eria l line cons ists of a wire s us pended on insula tors

.

of p orce lain or glass supporte d on po les p laced at about

,

6 0 -yard or 80 -yard inte rva ls The p o les should be of such .

height as wi ll keep the wire c lear 6 1 ob stac les and tra ffi c ,

and safe from ma li cious damage No wi re shoul d be less tha n .

1 2 feet from the groun d .

In su la to rs . 3 4 9 The insul ato rs are shaped li ke invert ed cups having o n e

.

or more grooves r ound them Porce lain i n s ul ators are usu ally .

fixed to the p ol e or arm by mea n s of 1 r o n b o lts the c uPs being ,

pro vi ded with an inte rnal screw thread to fit the top of t h e

b olt (Pl 89 Fig .
,
.

Wir i n g 3 5 0 In erecting the line the wi re is fir st st ret ched c o n

.
‘

v en ie n t ly ti ght over severa l p oles It is then p laced in one of .

the gro o ves of the i ns ul ators and b ound in secure ly wi th

a piece of sma ller wire or tape binder ; thus at ordin ary
insu lato rs t here is no break in the continui ty of the wire .

Wires fo r te legraph circ ui ts are invariab ly run stra ight ,

that is to say their i ns ulators occupy simi lar positi o ns on e ach

,

pole Oh the other hand i mportant te lephone circ ui t s require

.
,

two wires each o f which revolves or t wists roun d the other

, ,

though o f course they are kept well ap art .

.

Po les . 3 5 1 The poles may be of i ron or woo d u ual y the latter

.
,
s
.

They should be buried l n the ground to one fift h their length ,

and their t o ps protected by a piece o f ga lvanised sheet iron

termed a pole roof .
”

Arm s . 3 5 2 Where more than one wire is carri ed on the same line of
.

po les the wires are attached to insul ators fixed on wooden or

,

iron arms let into the pole and at right angles to it (PI 89;
, ,
.

Fi g 1 ) The lengt h of the arm depen ds on the number 0 1

. .

wires to b e carried When more than one arm is re quired the y

.

are usually placed at vertica l inte rvals of 1 fo o t .

3 5 3 W o oden poles except 1 n 6 ry rocky gr o und sho ul d be

.
, ,

W i res provided wi th e arth wires c o n 1i st in g of a piece of iron wire ,

5

runni ng down the pole under the h ead o f each arm bo lt t o the
,
-

b utt where it is stapled in the fo m o f a sma ll Spiral ; t hi s

,
r

ens ur es the eart h wire being we ll under ground E ach of t he .

arms is wired and a t urn of the wire is taken round the arm
,
 CH AP T E R X X I I I .
~ —P AI LW AY S
. AN D A
T E LE G R P H S .

c a n b e drawn in convenient lengths Joint boxes shou ld be pro

.

V id ed in the line of pipes at about 1 0 0 yards inter va ls to enab le

the lengths of wires to be conn ected Afte r the j o ints are .

made they are covered over with in di a rub b er tape or gutta

percha to i ns ul ate them The position of these un der ground
.

b oxes are marked so as to render them accessib le when desir ed

fo r testing the wires or other purposes .

3 5 9 For very rapid ly estab lishi ng te le grap hi c c o mm unica

.

tion in the fi eld a light s ingle core cable is often emp lo y ed This
, .

consists of a stranded s t eel conductor moderate ly ins ul ate d ,

with in diarub b er and covered wi th p laite d hemp ; thus

,

cons iderab le tensile stre ngth is obtained with a mi nimum

weight The cab le is laid out on the surface o f the groun d
.

temporari ly ; if the communication is re quired for any length

o f time a n a eri a l line is co ns tructed a nd then the c ab le i
s
,

re move d .
 I 3 GA
DA T E , 3 0 1 h M ay, 1 9 0 4 .

No . of

RE M R A KS .

i nfo r ma tio n for t h e 0 171 0 0 ; N . -C. ‘

ld con ta i n su ficien t ly fu ll
f a nd c lea r Ofi icer o r o t he1

who h as t o execu te t he work, to b e a b le t o ca r ry on wi t ho ut h esi ta t i o n .

Blo ck h o u se .

rench es an d red ou bt S ect io n bl oc k h o use ,

b l st rel i ef
.

up righ t s o un d t o get h er
.

wu h wi re Lo o p -h o les
.

8 1 “ l st d a y,
3 it 6 in in t ei va l ,
2 2 5 I n fa n t ry
. .

S p la yed in wa r d s
emp lo ye 4
.

D o o r 3 1 t h i gh
T ren c h 11 1
c
.

b y 2 ft , fa ed
b
.

b y an k .

Red ou t b .
1 28 O A RY
GL S S .

Enfilade fi re . Fire
-
which sweeps a line of troops or d efence s
from a
flank .

E p a ul me nt — A sma ll parapet t o give cover to a gun and

.

detachment in action .

E sca rp —The s lope of a ditch nearest the parapet

.
.

E xt eri or slo p e — The ou t side s lope of a parapet exten di ng

down wa ds from the superior s lope r .

Fa sci n a — A long bundl e of brus hwood tied up tightly used , ,

for revetting & c ,

.

Fl che
e — A work consisting of two faces formi ng a salien t
.
,

angle towards the enemy .

F0 ugasse — A small mi ne fill ed with stones whi ch are proj ecte d

.

towards the enemy on the mi ne being fi r ed .

Fm ise A pa lisade fi xed hori zonta lly in a s lope

.
-
.

Ga bio n — An open cylind er of br ushwood sheet iron & c used

.
.
, , ,

for revetting .

G l ac i s — The ground round a work outside the ditch T hi s is

. .

sometimes made up a rt ifi c ially .

Gor ge — The face of a work f u rthest from the enemy .

'
Gu y .
— A rope fastened to t h e tip of a Spar or frame to support , ,

raise or lower it .

Gyn —
. A tripod cons tructed with three spars us ed for raising ,

weights
'
.

I nt emo r slope — The ins ide s lope of a parapet (seen in section ) ,

exten di ng fro m the crest to the b anquette .

K p —A separate enclosur e withi n another work to

’

ee or R edu i t .

enab le the defenders to resist afte r the outer line of defence

has been carried .

Da nett e — A work consisting o f fo ur faces the two centre one s ,

formi ng an obtus e salient the two side ones affording fi re ,

to the flanks .

Lunett e blunt ed —A work cons isting of fi v e faces (other wise

,
.

sim lar to a lunette )

i
.

M achico ulis gallery —A balcony with a musket proof parapet .

~ -

in front loopholed in the floor to a fford fir e in a downward

, ,

direction .

P a ra dos —A traverse to give cover from reverse fi r e

. .

P r o file —The section of a parapet at right angles to the cres t

. .

Reda n — A work cons isting of two faces forming a sa lient ang le

.
,

towards the enem y .

 O A RY
GL S S . 139

Red a n , bl unted .
—A
work consisting of three faces the centre ,

one fi rin g to the fr ont the others to the fla n ks , .

Redo ubt — A fi eld work entire ly enc losed by a defensib le

.

parapet :

Relief —The length of time that men have to work before

.

being relieved .

Revet m e n t — An y method o f making ear t h stand at a steeper

.

s 1 0 pe than the natur al s lope .

Reverse fir e Fire directed on the b a cks of a line of defenders

.
-
.

Ri ba nd —A b aulk fastened down on e ach s

. ide of aro a d wa y to
keep t he ch esses in p lace .

S ap . A trench formed by constantly extending the end

-
.

S heers — Two spars lashed together at the t ip and raised to rest

.

on their butts which are separated They are used to lift

,
.

and move weights in one p lane .

S plint er pr oof - — A she lter proof against Sp linters of she ll

. .
,

S p i l — The top of a parapet seen in section

u er o r s op e ( ) .

T achl e f— An y system of b locks and ropes b y which p ower is

gained at the expense o f time more power— less .

speed ) .

Ta mbo ur A pro ] ect 1 n g chamb er or stockaded e nclosure con

.
-
,
.

structed so as t o flank the wa lls o f a buildi ng .

Terreplei n —The sur face of the ground inside a wo rk

. .

T c
r a e .
— The o utline o f a work l n p lan .

v erse A bank of eart h erected to give cover against

.
-

en fi la d e fi r e and to loca lise the bursts of she lls

, .

W tl
a t e .
— Continuous b r ushwood hurdle work .
 P AG E
A b a t is 42 , 1 3 7 C a b le s
Alar m s, a u t o ma t i c 47 C a m pin g a rra n ge men ts
A m m uni t i on r e e sses c 37 C a m p s, d efen e o f c
wa go n s , c over fo r 37 C a n as , Wille sd en
v
64 Ca ps t an
m a keshift 65 Ca sks b u o ya n y o f c
Ar t iller y, c o v er for 37 sli n gin
g
fi eld 7, 9 5 t a b le o f
fi re 9 c
C h a in r a n e
hea y v 8, 6 6 , 9 6 s t r en t h o f
g
r o j e c t iles en e t ra t i o n C ha ir s
p , p
of Jh a r ges, o r dit e
c
At t a c ks, n igh t c
gun o t t o n
A u to m a t i c a lar ms p o wd er
si m ul t an eo us

Che d d i t
B alan cin gp arapet an d exc a v a t io n 1 4 Ch o ker
B allast 1 30 Cle ar in g t h e foregr o un d O .

B a rri c ad es 43 C o llin s r ule

’

B elayin g 54 C o mm an d
B erkefeld fil te r 73 c
C o m m uni a t i o n s, t e m p o r ar y
Bi v o ua c s 73 ,
1 37 c
C o n d u t ors t e legra p h
,

B lo ckh o use 46 C o o kin g

Blo c ks a n d t a c kl e 1 07
.
,
1 39 Co r d a ge
B o a t p a t r ols 66 Co r dit e
B o at s 62 c h a r ges
b u o yan c y o f 63 Co r d uro y r o a d s
Bo nin g a n d le v ellin g 1 26 v
Co er fo r a r t iller y
B o o mi n g o ut 65 head
B r a ol et s fo r t elegr a p h s 1 35 v
o er h e a d

B re a st wor ks o f lo gs 28 t r en h esc
Brid ges, c a n t 1 lev er 1 09 c
Cr a n e h a in
d e m o li t i o n o f 89, 9 8 Cr i b wo r k
fl o a t in g 62 Cu t t in g b r ush wo o d
fl yin g 6 t o o ls
fr a m e 1 1 0 C u t t in gs
r ailway, d efen ce of 46
si t e s O f 55
B rid gin g e xpedi en t s 61 D efen c e o f b uild in gs
B rush wo od . 1 8, 2 5 , 1 2 4 lo c a lit ies
re v et men t 23 V illa ges

B uildi n gs ,
d efen c e o f 29 D em o li t io n s, ge n er a l r ules fo r
d e m o li t ion of 2 6, 9 ) h ast y— wit h e xplo
B uo yan c y o f b oa s t 63 s wes
c
o f a sk s 1 05 wi t h o ut ex

o f t i m b er 1 06 plosi ves
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 UC SOUTHERN REGIONALLIBRARY FACIUTY

A 0 0 0 5 83 0 6 1 7

WORKS p r ep a r ed b y t he Gene r al S 1af -ee

hn t in u ed .

FR AN C O -G ERM AN WAR, 1 870 —7 1 —co nt in ue d .

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1 9 —O cc ur r en ce s o n t h e S ut h - eas t T h ea t r e o f W a r P ri ce 1 3 3 e 6d
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G ERM AN A R M Y FI E LD S E RV I C E R e gn s 1 90 0 P ic e 6 d . . . . r .

G ERMAN AR MY ( H o m e a n d C o l o n i a l ) H a n d b o ok S ec d E di t i o . . on n .

P i c 1 6d
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G ERM A N F I E L D A R T I L L E R Y D r i ll R e gn s B y M ajor J H V . . . . .

C R O W E, R A . S t a ff C a p t a in . Pr i ce 1 3 . 6d .

GE RM AN Y: C am p a g i n o f 1 86 8 ih . C o m p il e d b y t h e D e p a r t m e n t
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B y C p t i C UN G E C EN G
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S UR V E Y S (G O V E R N M E N T ) O F T H E P R I N C I P A L C O UN T R I E S .

N O TE S O N 1 882 P i e . . r ce s

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Z U UL A N D P réc i f I n fo m a t i o n c o n c er n i n g W i t h M p 1 894
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