EXPERIMENTS IN COGNITION- EMORY

AND LEARNING
 NAME OF THE EXPERIMENTS

❖ Introduction to Learning
❖ Introduction to Memory
1. To Study the Style of Learning
2. Study of Habit Interference
3. Effect of Priming in Cognitive Processes
4. Serial Positioning Curve
5. Paired Associate Learning
 Experiment – 1 To Study the Style of Learning
INTRODUCTION
Learning refers to the acquisition of knowledge. Learning styles are
the different warp people interpret and organize and represent
information. For example, some people learn best by having
information presented to them in audio form in a classroom lecture,
an audiobook is played others need hands-on experience or real
world concepts to fully grasp a new concept.
The frequently mentioned learning styles model in the VARK/ Vark
model proposed by Neil Hening in 1992 which divides people into
visual, auditor, read/write or kinesthetic learners. This model is one
way to categorize learners by how they take in information which
makes it easily applicable to classroom instruction.
 METHODOLOGY

• Aim: To assess learning performance of the subject using the learning

styles inventory
• Plan : The learning styles inventory is administered and scored the
learning preferences of the subject is identified.
• Materials:
a. The learning styles inventory scoring key and norm
b. Writing materials
c. Scoring key and norms

• Procedure : The subject is seated comfortably and given a copy of the

learning styles inventory . The instructions are given the inventory is
self-administered. After the subject completes the inventory, the
experimenter scores. The response and analysis the subject learning
preferences referring to the norms.
• Instructions: Given below are a number of statement about
your preferences while learning. Read each statement and
put a tick mark against it. If you don’t agree with the
statement do not put a tick mark against it. This is not a
timed test, but work as fast as you can.
• Precautions:
a. Make sure the subject has understood the instructions.
b. Avoid giving additional contextual or situational
information as this may bias the responses to the questionaries.
c. The subject should be instructed to answer the questions for
himself/herself and not for others.
d. The subject should be restricted that he/she can select more
than one statement, that is a statement under each question.
• Analysis of Results:
Refer to scoring key and identify the subject for each type of
learning. Find out the total statements preferred in each style
separately. Now refer to the norms and see whether she/he has
high moderate or low preferences for each of the styles.

Table-1
Sl. No Modalities Total No
1. Visual
2. Auditory
3. Read/ Write
4. Kinestic

Discussion and Conclusion is given based on the scores.

 Experiment -2 Study of Habit Interference
• INTRODUCTION
• Habit interference is when previous learning disrupts the performance
of a subsequent task or it refers to the inhibition of performance
produced by prior learning. Interference is a phenomenon of human
memory involving the learning of new material where the learning of
new information or behaviour interacts with old learning or memories
or thoughts and behaviours that come from past learning and interferes
with the acquisition or comprehension of the new information.
• The word transfer is used to describe the effects of past learning upon
present acquisition. In laboratory and in the outside world how well and
how rapidly we learn anything depends to a large extent upon the hints
and amount of things we have learned previously. Transfer may be
defined as the partial or total application or carryover of knowledge,
skills, habits, attitudes from one situation to another situation. Hence,
carryover of skills of one learning to other learning is transfer of
training or learning. Such transfer occurs when learning of one material
influences the learning of another set of material later.
Types of transfer of learning:
1. Positive transfer: when learning in one
situation facilitates learning in another
situation.
2. Negative transfer: when learning one task
makes the learning of another tasks harder.
3. Neutral transfer: when learning of one
activity neither facilitates nor hinders the
learning of another task. It is also called
zero transfer.
Methodology
• Aim: To study negative transfer of training with the help of
card sorting
• Materials : 1. card sorting tray with two sections ‘A’ and
‘B’ each divided into compartments. The order in which
designs are placed is different in the two sections.
2. A set of 40 cards (the cards consists of 4 subsets of 10 cards
each . Each subset has a different designs.
3. Stop watch
4. Writing materials
• Hypothesis: Habit formation negatively influences new
learning.
• Independent Variables: Change in order of card sorting
• Dependent Variables: Time score

• Intervening variables and their control:

a. The subject should not change his/her position during any
part of the experiment.
b. The cards must be shuffled thoroughly
c. Whenever the subject places a card in a wrong
compartment, he/she has to rectify the mistakes.

• Plan: conduct the experiment in two series, and compare

the time scores.
• Procedure: Series-1 The card sorting tray is placed on a table. The subject sorts
the cards standing in front of the tray. The cards are shuffled thoroughly, and the
subject is asked to hold the cards face-up. The subject is instructed that the pack
of cards have different design. Section A of the tray is placed which has four
compartments, each marked with a design. The subject has to take each card,
and place it in the compartment with the corresponding design. When an error is
made, the subject has to pick up the card immediately and place it in the
corresponding compartment. The subject has to work as fast as possible and try
to reduce the time taken to sort from trial to trial. But he/she must not sacrifice
accuracy for speed. Instruct the subject to begin, and start the stop clock
simultaneously. Give 5 such trials and note down the time taken in each trial.
• Series 2: on the sixth trial, section ‘B’ of the tray is place before the subject.
The subject is asked to sort the cards again. The time taken is noted.
• Instructions: “ with the signal ‘start’ start sorting the cards
into their respective compartments of the tray. Whenever
you place a cards in the wrong compartment, place it back
correctly. Work fast”.
• Analysis of data:
a. The time score of the sixth trial is compared with that of
the fifth trial for the evidence of the negative transfer of
learning in the subject.
b. The average time score of the 6th trial is compared with the
mean of the fifth trial of the group.
• Table-1 Showing the time taken by the subject
to sort the cards in each trial.
Name Section- A Section- B

1 2 3 4 5 6

• Discussion and conclusion is given based on

the subjects scores.
 Experiment- 3 To study the Effect of Priming in Cognitive
Processes

• INTRODUCTION:
• It is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus
influences a response to a later stimulus.

• It is a technique in psychology used to train a person’s

memory both in positive and negative ways. It can be both
visual and auditory.
• Positive Priming: Involves using sketches or words or other
stimuli to help an individual recognize another word or
phrase in the future. Example: Blue colour is introduced to
help him/her recognize ‘sky’ as associated word.

• Negative Priming: Involves sowing someone a stimulus

which are directly unrelated to the following tests. This
slows down people when completing tests such as word
association.
• Perceptual priming: Based on the form of the stimulus and
is enhanced by the match between early and later stimuli. It
is sensitive to the modality and exact format of stimuli.
• Semantic Priming: It is defined as relating to the meaning of
the words. Example: “Chair’ and ‘table’ association as the
brain places them in the same category.
• Exposure to one word facilitates the recognition or other
cognitive processing of a semantically related word.
• Repetition Priming: Also called as Direct priming. When a
stimulus is experienced, it is also primed. This means that
later experience of the stimuli will be processed more
quickly by the brain.

• Lexical Priming: This suggest that we are primed and also

expect words to be in the company of other words and also
expect words to appear in certain grammatical situations
Methodology
• Aim: to study the effect of priming on recall.

• Materials: 10 semantics of 3, 4 and 5 letters (dotted form)

2. 10 prompts/string of 4 words where one word is the
synonym of the prime word.
3. Stop watch
4. Writing materials.
5.Wooden screen
• Hypothesis: We assume alternate hypothesis that there is an
effect of priming on its recall.
• Independent Variable: 10 semantic primes 3,4,5 letters
followed by a set of word string of 4 prompt in which one of the
prompt is connected to the prime presented.

• Intervening Variables:
1. Knowledge of the experiment: Make sure that the subject has
not been exposed to any similar experiment.
2. Distraction: To avoid distraction, the experiment has to be
conducted in a silent place.
3. Exposure time: Each card containing prime word prime word
has to be exposed to the subject for a second and string of
words for 4 seconds.
4. Order of presentation: Prime card has to be presented before the
prompt card.
5. Rehearsal: To avoid the rehearsal of the prompt words digit
naming task has to be given for 10 seconds.
• Plan: The experiment is to be conducted in a single series.
Present the subject the 10 set of cards in which, one card have a
prime word on one face and a string of 4 words on the other face.
One word among the string of words is associated with the hazy
word. Present the prime word for a second and the string of
words for 4 seconds. After exposing each card, give a distraction
period of 10 seconds to the subject. Then give another 10 seconds
for the subject to recall prompt words.
• Procedure: The subject has to be seated comfortably and rapport
has to be established. Clear instructions has to be given to the
subject. Then, with the signal “ready” the prime word has to be
exposed for a second followed by corresponding prompt words
for 4 seconds. After this, a distraction period of 10 seconds
should be given in which the subject is given a digit naming task.
After the distraction period the subject is given 10 seconds to
recall the prompt words. The same procedure has to be repeated
for all the 10 cards.
• Instruction: “I will show you a card which has hazy word
but meaningful, then I will show you another set of cards
which has four strings which may or may not be related to
the first card. Observe carefully. Later you have to recall all
the four words.”
• Precautions:
1. The cards must be presented in such a way that the card
having 3 letter words are shown first and then 4 letter
words and so on.
2. Make sure that the subject is not aware of the experiment.
3. Digit naming task has to be done orally.
4. Prime card must be exposed before the prompt card.
5. Speed and order of the presentation is kept constant.
• Analysis of Results:
1. The number of prompt cards recalled correctly by the
subject is noted down.
2. The proportion and percentage of total prompt recalled
correctly is calculated.
3. A graph is drawn by taking number of prompt words along
X axis and percentage of words in Y- axis
Results:
Table 1: Shows the number of prompts recalled by the subject
by associating with prime words
Number of prompts recalled by the subject by associating
with prime words
• Table 2: Shows each word recalled from the word string,
proportion and percentage
Sl. No I word II word III word IV word

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Total
Proportio
n
Percentag
e
• Discussion:

Mention about the aim of the experiment and table 1. Discuss

how much prompts has been recalled by the subject out of 10
prompts. Discuss whether the subject is according to the
alternate hypothesis or not.

Mention about table 2 and discuss how many words have been
recalled in I,II,III,IV words, its proportion and percentage
respectively.

• Conclusion: Mention whether the subject is according to

the alternate hypothesis or not.
 Experiment- 4 Serial Positioning Curve

• INTRODUCTION
• It is a learning situation in which the learner is presented
with learning material which exhibits some sequential or
serial order

• Serial learning involves having subjects to learn a list of

items according to the order in which the items appear in
the list. (Example: Children are expected to master the list
of material such as alphabet, names of country etc.
• Serial learning works on the principle that items presented
at the beginning and end of the list are easier to remember
than those in the middle whether the items are nonsense
syllables or meaningful syllables.

• According to Ritter and Nerb “The order in which material

is presented can strongly influence what is learned, how fast
performance increases and sometimes even whether the
material is learned at all”.

• Types of Sequential Learning:

• Explicit learning: Learning something with awareness.
• Implicit Learning: Refers to underlying methods of learning
that people are unaware of.

• Other forms of implicit sequence learning include: Motor

sequence learning, temporal sequence learning and
associative sequence learning.
• Sequence Learning Problems
• Sequence Prediction: Attempts to predict next immediate
element of a sequence based on all of the preceding
elements.

• Sequence Generation: Attempts to piece together a

sequence one by one the way it naturally occurs

• Sequence Recognition: Takes certain criteria and determines

whether sequence is legitimate

• Sequential Decision Making: Determines how to produce

the sequence as perceived
• Serial Position Effect
• It is a term coined by Hermann Ebbinghaus through studies
he performed on himself. It refers to the finding that recall
accuracy varies as a function of an items position within a
study list.

• Lower recall rates for the first (primacy effect) and last few
(recency effect) items on the list, with higher recall error
rates for items appearing in the middle of the list is called
serial position effect.
• There are two types of associations which brings out the
recency effect in subject

• Forward association: It is a term applied to the formation of

an association link between 2 items that will follow in a
series or a sequence
LAG-RECENCY EFFECT:
• It predicts that having made a successful recall, the next
recall is likely to be neighboring item in serial position
during study period.

• Conditional Response Probability: Represents the

likelihood that a recall of certain serial position lag was
made.

• A graph of serial position lag versus conditional response

probability reveals that the next item recalled minimize
absolute lag, with a higher likelihood for adjacent item
rather than previous one.
• It is used to plot the results of a free recall experiment. the x
axis of the curve indicates the serial position to be
remembered items in the list.
• Y axis of this curve indicates the probability of recall for the
items, which typically obtained by averaging across a
number of subjects.
• Generally the curve is U shaped and the primacy effect
corresponds to the tail of the U shape on the left
• This indicates that words presented at start of a list to be
remembered items better than words presented in the
middle of this list.

• Recency Effect: corresponds to the tail of the U on the right.

• This tail indicates that words presented at the end of a list to
be remembered items are better remembered than words
presented in the middle of this list.
• Factors Affecting Serial Learning:
• Meaningfulness effect: Highly meaningful words are easier
to learn and remember than less meaningful words.

• Serial Position Effect: Memory is better for items placed at

the beginning or end of list rather than in the middle.

• Practice Effect: Active practice or rehearsal improves

retention and distributed practice is usually more effective
than massed practice.
• Organization Effect: This occurs when learner chunks or
categorize the input.

• Similarity: The similarity existing between serial items

makes the subject early to recall them in order.

• Fatigue: It makes subject difficult to recall the items in

serial order because of lack of concentration.
• Methodology
• Aim: To study position effect in serial learning

• Materials: Set of 15 trigrams printed in each card.

2. Stop Watch
3. Wooden Screen
4. Writing materials.

• Hypothesis: The assumed alternate hypothesis is that there

is positive effect on serial learning.
• Independent Variable: The serial order in which the
trigrams are presented

• Dependent Variable: The number of trigram recalled

correctly in serial learning.
• Intervening Variable and their Control:
1. Knowledge of the experiment: It has to be made sure that
the subject has not been exposed to any stimulus
experiment.
2. Exposure of the trigrams: During experiment, each card has
to be exposed to the subject only for 2 seconds.
3. Difficulty Level of Trigrams: The trigram must be of the
same difficult level.
4. Rehearsal: To avoid the rehearsal of the trigrams, a
distraction period of one minute is given to the subject.
5. Order of presentation: The trigrams presented should be in
serial order
6. Rest Period: A rest pause of 10 seconds is given in order t
prevent effect of interference.
• Plan: The experiment is conducted in single series. A list
of 15 trigrams is presented to the subject at the rate of 2
seconds per card in a serial order. Three trials are given with
a rest pause of 10 seconds between each trial. After the end
of the third trial a distraction period of 1 minute is given.
After that 2 minute is given in order to recall the trigrams.
• Procedure/Instructions: Seat the subject comfortably and
establish rapport. “ I will show you a set of cards, which
contains trigrams. Look at it carefully and try to keep them
in mind”. At the start signal ‘ready’ I will start exposing
cards one by one. The cards should be exposed for 2
seconds for each, with a rest pause of 10 seconds. After the
trial, given a distraction period of one minute and two
minutes for subject to recall the trigrams as he/she wishes
• Precautions
1. There should be uniformity in the presentation of trigrams.
2. The subject should not be aware of the experiment.
3. The subject should not be aware that he/she should recall
it in order.
4. Care should be taken that no interference should take place
during the trial study.
• Analysis of Data
Table 1: Showing the subject results on serial learning/Total
number of trigrams recalled correctly in serial number
 Number of Trigrams Recalled

• Discussion: Discuss about the aim of experiment and

mention about table 1. Infer the table and discuss whether
the primacy and recency effect has been exhibited by the
subject or not and mention whether subject results are
according to hypothesis or not.

• Conclusion: Conclude whether subject proves or disproves

the alternate hypothesis.
 Experiment- 9 Paired Associates

• Introduction:
Paired associates learning is another method to study learning and
memory. Parallel to serial learning. It has been used as early as 1894
by Mary Whiton Calkins, 1897 by Jost, 1900 by Muller and
Pilzecker and 1908 by Thorndike.
Usually in paired associate learning, the order of pairs is not
important. The pairs are presented on individual cards and the
criteria measured are the number of correctly recalled responses
when the stimuli are presented.
The method is particularly useful when we want clear cut and
isolated connections within pairs of items. In information of
associations, meaning has major role to play. An item may be
regarded as meaningful to the extent to which it gives rise to
associations. There is a very close positive relationship between
meaningfulness of verbal units, the faster and easier the learning.
• Ways of presenting Paired Associates
1. Anticipation Method
2. Alternate study Recall Method
3. Random Method
4. Prompting Method
5. Cumulative Method

• Factors Influencing Verbal learning

1. Frequency
2. Recency
3. Memory Span
4. Similarity
5. Meaningfulness
6. Motivation
Methodology
• Aim: to study the effect of meaningfulness of response
on formation of associations.
• Materials: 1. two lists of paired-associates, each written
on a card. A stimulus word from each pair is also written
on the back of the corresponding card
a. List A- 10 pairs of words with no specific meaningful
relationship
b. List B -10 pairs of words with logical or meaningful
connections between stimuli and responses.
2. Stop watch
3. Wooden screen
4. Writing materials
• Hypothesis: Response meaningfulness has a positive
effect on formation of association and consequently on
recall.
• Independent Variable: Meaningfulness of response-stimulus connection.
• Dependent Variable: Number of response-words correctly recalled.
• Intervening Variable and their control:
1. Knowledge of the experiment: the subject is not supposed to know about the
nature of the experiment.
2. Exposure time: Each card is exposed for 2 seconds during the trial.
3. Fatigue: After each trial rest of 10 seconds is given.
4. Proactive Learning: Five minutes interval between two series is given as rest
period.
5. Confusion: Clear instruction was given to avoid confusion.
• Plan: The subject has to be exposed to two sets of cards as two series. Each
card consists of paired words in which one is stimulus and the other word is a
response.
First the subject has to be exposed to list A in an orderly manner, that is, 10 cards
with no specific meaningful relationship. Each card should be exposed for 2
seconds. The subject is asked to associate both the words in each card and learn
them as well. They are shown 5 trials. After each trial a break of 10 seconds is
given. After the 5th trial, the subject is shown the stimulus word for 3 seconds of
each card and is asked to reproduce its response word. At the end of this series
break of 5 minutes should be given.
• In the next series, the next set of cards, that is
list B-10 cards with meaningful association
should be exposed in the same procedure,
where each is shown only for 2 seconds. 5 trials
are given where 10 seconds of break is given
after each trial. After all the trials are over, the
subject is shown the stimulus word for 3
seconds of each card and is asked to reproduce
its response word.
• The experiment has to check if the responses
written are correct or wrong. The number of
correct answer in both the series is recorded and
the difference is found.
• Procedure:
Series-1 10 cards consisting pair of words with no specific
meaningful relationship
As the subject is seated comfortably, instruct thus, “I will show
you a set of cards and each card consists of paired words
where one is a stimulus and the other is the response for it.
You have to associate bot the words and try to learn them.”
Each card is exposed for 2 seconds. 5 trials in this series with a
break of 10 seconds after each trail are given. Then instruct
thus, “now I will show you the stimulus word and you have to
reproduce the response word for it.”
After the subject finishes reproducing the response, give a
break of 5 minutes before starting the next series.
• Series 2: 10 Cards consisting pair of words with
meaningful relationship
Present list B and instruct the subject, “I will show you
another set of cards, where again each have paired
words with one stimulus and one response word. You
have to associate the words with each other and try to
learn them. Like the first series, expose each card for 2
seconds; give such 5 trials with a break of 10 seconds
after each trial.
Again instruct thus, “ Now I will show you the stimulus
word and you have to reproduce the response word.”
Check the number of correct answers the subject has
reproduced in both the series, and record the difference
of correct answer obtained in both series.
• Precautions: 1. Do not tell the nature of the experiment
to the subject
2. Instructions should be clear and simple.
3. Three seconds exposure time for stimulus words should
be given while subject recalls the response words.
4. List A should be exposed prior to list B.
5. Five minutes of break should be given in between both
the series.
6. The cards should be exposed to the eye level of the
subject.
7. Uniformity should be maintained.

• Analysis of Data: 1. Record the number of correct

answer for both the series.
2. Find out the difference of correct answer obtained in both
the series.
• Individual Table: Shows the number of
response words recalled by the subject correctly
in each series.
Number of Response words Difference
Recalled

Series -1 Series -2

• Discussion and conclusion is given based on

the subjects scores.