Graph Papers

a) Arithmetic graph paper:

x: arithmetic scale
y: arithmetic scale

b) Semi-logarithmic graph paper:

x: arithmetic scale
y: logarthmic scale

c) Full-logarithmic graph paper:

x: logarthmic scale
y: logarthmic scale. 1
2
Why to use logarithmic papers?

 To use the original experimental

data.

 No need for any transformation of

experimental data.

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 Semi-logarithmic graphs are used for
exponential functions (y = b ax).

 Fulllogarithmic graphs are used for

geometric functions (y = b xa).

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Exponential graphs

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On the base of 10 of a logarithmic
graphs:
 logarithmic cycle increases by 10 (0.001,
0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, 1000 etc.).

 Each cycle of logarithmic scale is marked by

numbers from 1 to 10.
 Distance of data from origin on log scale is
determined from the following equation.
(log x) (length of one log cycle) = distance of
data from origin
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 Example 2. 8
 What would be the logarithmic cycles if the
experimental data are between 0.025 and
3.02?

 What would be the logarithmic cycles if the

experimental data are between 1.2 and
19.7?

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Construction of logarithmic paper
 Logarithmic graph paper can be
constructed using logarithmic principles.

 Following steps are used to form one

logarithmic cycle.
 The length of axis is divided in equal parts for
the cycles required. For example, if the
number of log cycles is 3 and axis length is 15
cm, then each log cycle should be …. cm.
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 Depending on experimental values, first cycle
starts with 0.01, 0.1, 1 or 10 (multiple of 10,
«10’nun katları»), and ends with value of
multiple of 10. For example, if the cycle starts
with 0.1, it ends with 1.0.

 Intermediate values (from 1 to 10) for each cycle

are determined by the equation.

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 Construction of log paper

 (log x) x (length of one log cycle) = distance of

the data from origin

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if “1 log cycle = 8.4 cm”:

 log 1 x 8.4 cm = 0 cm (dist. from origin)

 log 2 x 8.4 cm = 2.5 cm
 log 3 x 8.4 cm = 4.0 cm
 log 4 x 8.4 cm = 5.1 cm
 log 5 x 8.4 cm = 5.9 cm
 log 6 x 8.4 cm = 6.5 cm
 log 7 x 8.4 cm = 7.1 cm
 log 8 x 8.4 cm = 7.6 cm
 log 9 x 8.4 cm = 8.0 cm
 log 10 x 8.4 cm=8.4 cm
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 …………………………
 log 20 x 8.4 cm = 10.9 cm
 .
 ..
 log 100 x 8.4 cm = 16.8 cm

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Figure 2.9 Two-cycle semi-log
graph paper

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Figure 2.10 One-cycle log-log
graph paper

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There are two common logarithm
systems in use
 A base of 10 is called as common logarithm:
 log10 is commonly written as «log»

 a base of «e» (e=2.718) is called as natural

logarithm:
 loge is commonly written as «ln»

 The two systems are interchangeable by using

the factor 2.303:
ln x = 2.303 log x
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 The logarithm of a product is the sum of
the logarithms of the values.
log AB = log A + log B

 The logarithm of a quotient (ratio) is the

difference between the logarithms of the
values.
log A/B = log A – log B

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 Slope values in log papers
log y2 – log y1
 Slope = a = —————––– (semi-log)
x2 – x1

log y2 – log y1
 Slope = a = —————––– (full-log)
log x2 – log x1
 In these equations, “x" and "y" values are
the original experimental data. 18
 y-intercept (b) in log papers

 In semi-log graphs,
 Found directly from the graph,
 No need for any transformation.
 To find y-intercept, x axis should start from ….

 In full-log graphs,
 Found directly from the graph,
 No need for any transformation of data,
 To find y-intercept, x axis should start from ….

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 Arithmetic graphs can be
used in plotting «log» values
 logarithms are taken and plotted in arithmetic
graph.
 Slope: calculated from the following equation:

y2 – y1
Slope = a = ————
x2 – x1

y-intercept (b): Calculated by taking anti-log of

intercept value found in graph. 20
 Example 2.10

Intercept value was found as 3.7 from

arithmetic graph constructed from logarithms
of original experimental value. Find real
intercept value.

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 Plotting experimental data on
semi-log graph paper

The following examples illustrate

(show) the use of semilog graphs.

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 Example 2.11
The generation time (g) of m.o.’s (time
needed for doubling of m.o.’s) is an index of
the rate of growth. It is defined as the
average time between two consecutive
generations of m.o. In logarithmic phase of
microbial growth, the number of viable
m.o.’s (N) changes with time of growth (t)
according to the following equation:

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Bacterial growth curve

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 N = No [2] t/g
Where;
No : Number of viable m.o. at the
beginning of a time interval,
N : Number of viable m.o. at the end of the
time interval,
t : Time interval (time between No and N)

g : Generation time (time between two

consecutive generations).
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Table 2.13 Numbers of bacteria as a
function of time of growth

Numbers (N) Time of growth (min)

980 0
1700 10
4000 30
6200 40

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a) Find out the generation time of this bacteria by
graphic method using «freehand method of curve
fitting.»

b) Calculate the generation time of this bacteria by

linear regression method. Then, draw the
regression line.

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 Homework

 Calculate the R2 for this equation

(Answer: R2= 0.9989)

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Solution by graphical method

 First, linearize the equation.

N = No [2] t/g

 What is «x» and what is «y»?

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 According to this “linearized” equation, if
number of viable m.o’s (log y) is plotted
against growth time (x) in a semi-log
graph paper, straight line is obtained.

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 log [2]
 Slope (a) = ––––––
g

 Intercept (b) = log No

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 Original experimental data are plotted
on a semi-log graph paper without any
transformation (Figure 2.11).

 Straight line reflecting growth of m.o’s is

drawn by freehand method of curve
fitting.

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Figure 2.11 Growth curve of m.o’s

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 Calculation of slope and
generation time
 Choose two points on the straight line
(x1=5 and x2=35) and find out the
corresponding «y» values.

 Calculate the slope.

 Find out generation time.

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 Intercept and the equation

 Find the intercept value.

 Write out the quation defining the straight

line:

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log y = 0.0203 (x) + log 1020

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Solution by regression analysis

 Since straight line drawn by freehand

method of curve fitting changes from
person to person, slope and intercept
values of these lines will also be different.

 To prevent personal differences,

regression analysis is applied to
experimental data.
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 Σ xy – (Σx Σy / n)
a = ————————–
Σ x2 – [(Σx)2 / n)]

Σ y Σ x2 – Σx Σxy
b = —————————
n (Σ x2 – [(Σx)2 / n)])

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Before calculation of «a» and «b»
values, we need to take into
consideration of two important points:
 Since regression equations are aritmetic
and our «y» values are lograitmic, then we
need to ………..
 The calculated intercept value (b) should
be equal to ……….
log2
log N = ------- (t) + log No
g 39
Table 2.15 Data for regression analysis

X log Y X2 (log Y)2 X logY

0 2.991

10 3.230

30 3.602

40 3.792
ΣX = ΣY = ΣX2 = ΣY2 = ΣXY =
40
Table Data for regression analysis

X log Y X2 (log Y)2 X logY

0 2.991 0 8.946 0

10 3.230 100 10.433 32.30

30 3.602 900 12.974 108.06

40 3.792 1600 14.379 151.68

ΣY2 = ΣXY =
ΣX = 80 ΣY = 13.615 ΣX2 = 2600
46.732 292.04
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Calculation of slope and intercept

 a = 0.01974 min–1

 log b = 3.0090 (shift log 3.0090 =)

or,
b = 103.0090 (10 ˆ 3.0090 =)
b = 1021 number mL–1

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Equation based on common logarithm (log10)

log y = 0.01974 (t) + log 1021

or;

log y = 0.01974 (t) + 3.0090

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Calculation of generation time
log2
log N = ------- (t) + log No
g
 Generation time (g) is calculeted from
slope.
log [2]
slope = –––––––
g

g = 15.25 min
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 Drawing regression line
Place lowest and highest «time» values (x) in
regression equation to find the “corrected y”
values.

log y = 0.01974 (t) + 3.0090

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log y = 0.01974 (t) + 3.0090
x1 = 0 → y1 = 1021
x4 = 40 → y4 = 6289

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 Place the following two data points on the
graph: (0, 1021) and (40, 6289).

 Then, connect these two points to draw

the regression line.

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Figure 2.12 Growth curve of m.o.s

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Bacterial growth curve

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 Lag phase

 Cells grow in volume or mass,

synthesizing enzymes, proteins etc.,

 No apparent cell division occurs,

 The length of the lag phase is usually 1 h.

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 Exponential (log) phase

 All cells divide regularly by geometric

progression.

 Plenty of nutrients.

 Cells doubles their number each

generation time (usually 20 min).

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 Stationary phase
 Population growth is limited by one of
three factors:
 exhaustion of nutrients,
 accumulation of inhibitory metabolites
 exhaustion of space,

 During this phase, cell population stops

growing and dividing.
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 Death phase
 Number of viable cells decreases
exponentially,

 No more nutrients,

 A lot of metabolites present.

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 Example 2.12

What is the generation time of a bacterial

population that increases from 10,000 cells
to 10,000,000 cells during growth of this
bacteria in Figure 2.13?

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 N = No [2] t/g
Where;
No : Number of m.o. at the beginning of
a time interval,
N : Number of m.o. at the end of the
time interval,
t : Time interval (time between No and N)

g : Generation time (time between two

consecutive generations).
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Figure 2.13 Bacterial growth curve

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 Answer

log [2]
log N = –––––– t + log No
g

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 log [2]
log N = –––––– t + log No
g

log [2]
7 = ––––––– 240 min + 4
g

g = 24 min
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 Example 2.13 (homework)
Degradation of anthocyanins in sour cherry juice
heated at 80°C was studied and experimental data
was given in Table 2.14.
Note: Anthocyanin degradation during heating gives
staright line in a semi-log graphic paper.

a) Calculate the the regression coefficients and R2

with units (if applicable),
b) Draw the regression line,
c) How much of anthocyanins (%) would be
degraded after 25 h of heating at 70o and 80oC.
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Table 2.14 Anthocyanin contents of sour
cherry juice heated at 80°C for various time.
Anthocyanin Anthocyanin
Time Time
content content
(h) (h)
(mg/L) (mg/L)

0 160 12 60

2 136 14 55

4 115 16 45

6 98 18 37

8 90 20 33

10 67 – – 60
 Answers
a= –0.0348 units?
b= 2.207 units?
R2 =0.9960 units?

Interpretation: Very close R2 value

shows that experimental data
excellently fit straight line.

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 Regression equation???

 ??????????????

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Regression equation

log y = – 0.0348 (t) + 2.207

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At 70oC???

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 At 80oC???

log y = – 0.0348 (t) + 2.207

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 At 80oC???

log y = – 0.0348 (t) + 2.207

86.42% of anthocyanins was degraded after

25 h of heating at 80oC

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 Example 2.14
The term half-life is an index used to express the
stability of a compound and is defined as the time
required for the concentration to drop to half the
original value. The equation for half-life value is:

C = Co [2] –t/t1/2
where;
Co: Concentration at the beginning of a time interval,
C: Concentration at the end of a time interval,
t: Time interval,
t1/2: Half life period. 67
If orange juice packaged aseptically
initially contained 60 mg ascorbic acid/100
mL, what should be declared on the label
so that after 10 weeks the declared level is
at least 90% of the actual value. The half-
life of ascorbic acid is known to be 30
weeks.
How much of aa (in %) would be degraded
after 24 days of storage?

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 Solution

The question can be both solved

with equation and graph.

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 Solution by equation
First, organize the equation.
…………………………………

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 Solution by equation
C = Co [2] –t / t1/2
t
log C = log Co + – ––– log [2]
t1/2

log [2]
log C = – –––––– (t) + log Co
t1/2
↕ ↕ ↕ ↕

y = a (x) + b

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 Solution by equation
log [2]
log C = – –––––– (t) + log Co
t1/2

t1/2 = 30 weeks,
Co = 60 mg 100 mL–1
t = 10 weeks

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After 10 weeks of storage, aa content will
be:
C = 47.62 mg/100 mL

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After 10 weeks of storage, aa which should
be declared on the label is:

47.62 mg/100 mL (0.90)

= 42.86 mg/100 mL

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 Graphical solution

 Coordinates of first point: ………….

 Coordinates of second point: …………

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 Coordinates of first point: (0, 60)

 Coordinates of second point: (30, 30)

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Which graph paper should
you use?
 ??????

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Which graph paper should
you use?

Of course, semi-log!!!!!!!

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