‫ﻗ ﺴ ـــــ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﺮ ﯾ ﺎ ﺿ ﯿ ـ ـــ ﺎ ت‬ Department of Mathematics

Math 105 (Calculus 1) Lecture Notes

Prepared by Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

Course Title Course Number of Study Hours Year Level Prerequisites

Code Theo. Tut. Lab. Credit

CALCULUS 1 105 MATH 4 4 1 1st

(1) Brief Course Description

Calculus 1 is the first course in calculus series courses, it covers: Functions, Limits and continuity,
derivatives, Mean value theorem, extreme values, L’Hospital rule and indeterminate forms.

(2) Course Objectives

After finishing the course, the student is expected to be familiar with:
• Functions
• Limits and Continuity
• Differentiation
• Integration
• Show the importance of differentiation and integration in branches of computer science, algorithmic computation
and Geometrical presentation and also recognize the relationship between differentiation and integration.
• Understand the basic rules of differentiation, integration and their applications in computer science and
technology.

(3) Course Contents

• Functions: Functions and their graphs, Types of functions shifting, stretching and reflecting, Inverse Functions,
Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
• Limits and Continuity: Limit of function, Calculating limits using the limit laws, Continuity, Limits at Infinity,
Horizontal Asymptotes.
• Derivatives of functions: Differentiation Formulas, Derivatives of polynomials and exponential functions, The
Product and Quotient Rules, Derivatives of Trigonometric functions, The Chain Rule , Implicit Differentiation and
Higher Derivatives, Derivatives of Logarithmic functions, Hyperbolic Functions and its inverse, L’ Hospital rule
and indeterminate forms.
• Applications of differentiation: Maximum and Minimum Values, Mean Value Theorem.
• Integrations: The anti-derivative method for finding area, anti-derivatives. Indefinite integrals, integral formulas.
(4) Assessment Criteria
Home Assignment 1 5%
Quiz 10%
Mid Exam 30%
Home Assignment 2 5%
Final Exam 50%
(5) Text Book

1. Calculus, J. Stewart, 8thEdition, Cengage learning (2016).

2. Calculus, H. Anton, 10thEdition, John Wiley and Sons, (2012).
3. Calculus, G. B. Thomas, Early Transcendental, 12thEdition, Addition-Wesley, New York (2006)
Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI � Math ��� Jazan University
 Contents

Chapter � Functions and Their Graphs �

�.� Functions .............................................................................................................. �
�.� Common Functions ................................................................................................ 6
�.� Shifting and Scaling Graphs .................................................................................... ��
�.� Combining Functions.............................................................................................. ��
�.� Trigonometric Functions ......................................................................................... ��
�.6 Exponential function............................................................................................... �8
�.� Inverse function and Logarithmic function ................................................................ ��
�.8 Properties of functions ........................................................................................... ��

Chapter � Limits and Continuity of Functions ��

�.� The Limit of a Function ........................................................................................... ��
�.� Calculating Limit using the Limits Law...................................................................... �8
�.� Continuity ............................................................................................................. ��
�.� Limits at In�nity, Horizontal Asymptotes ................................................................... ��

Chapter � Differentiation ��
�.� Derivatives and Rate of Change ............................................................................... ��
�.� The Derivative as a Function.................................................................................... 6�
�.� Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions................................................ 6�
�.� The Product and Quotient Rule ................................................................................ 68
�.� Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions..................................................................... ��
�.6 The Chain Rule ...................................................................................................... ��
�.� Implicit Differentiation ............................................................................................ �6
�.8 Derivative of Inverse Trigonometric Functions ........................................................... �8
�.� Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions ....................................................................... 8�

Chapter � Applications of Derivatives 8�

�.� Extreme values of functions .................................................................................... 8�
�.� The Mean Value Theorem ....................................................................................... 88
�.� How Derivatives affect the Shape of a Graph ............................................................. ��
�.� L’Hospital’s Rule and Indeterminate Forms ................................................................ ��

Chapter � Integrals ��
�.� The Inde�nite Integrals .......................................................................................... ��
�.� Integration by Substitution ..................................................................................... ���
�.� Integration by Part ................................................................................................. ��6

Math ��� Jazan University � Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI � Math ��� Jazan University
Chapter � Functions and Their Graphs

�.� Functions
In this chapter we review the de�nition of functions and their graphs, how they are combined and trans-
formed, and ways they can be classi�ed. We review the trigonometric functions, and we discuss com-
mon methods for representing functions.

De�nition of functions
Functions are the major tools for describing the real world in mathematical terms. A function can
be represented by a formula (Algebraically), a graph (Geometrically), a table (Numerically), or a verbal
description (Verbally); we will use all four representations throughout this course.

De�nition �.�
A function ƒ from a set D to a set E is a rule that assigns a unique element ƒ ( ) 2 E to each
element 2 D. The set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the function. The set
of all values of ƒ ( ) is called the range of the function.

+ Remark
A symbol that represents an arbitrary number
in the domain of a function is called an
independent variable and a symbol that represents
a number in the range of is called a dependent variable.

Example �.�
Determine whether each set speci�es a function. If it does, then state the domain and range.
(a) S = {( 2, 1), ( 1, 2), (0, 0), ( 1, 1), ( 2, 2)}.
(b) T = {( 2, 1), ( 1, 2), (0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 1)}.

Solution

(a) In the set S there is ordered pair with the same �rst component [for example, ( 1, 2) and
( 1, 1)]. Thus, this set does not specify a function.

(b) In the set T all the ordered pairs have distinct �rst components. Thus, this set speci�es a
function. So, Dom n = { 2, 1, 0, 1, 2} and R nge = {0, 1, 2}.

Exercise �.�
Determine whether each set speci�es a function. If it does, then state the domain and range.
(a) S = {(1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 3), (5, 4)}
(b) T = {(1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2), (2, 4), (1, 5)}

Math ��� Jazan University � Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. COMMON FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Graph of functions
The graph of a function shows the behavior of a function. Since the Y-coordinate of any point ( , y)
on the graph is y = ƒ ( ), we can read the value of from the graph as being the height of the graph
above the point. The graph of ƒ also allows us to picture the domain of on the X-axis and its range on
the Y-axis as mention in the �gure below.

Therefore if ƒ is a function with domain D, its graph consists of the points in the Cartesian plane whose
coordinates are the input-output pairs for ƒ . In set notation, the graph is {( , ƒ ( )) | 2 D}.

+ Remark
In order to �nd the domain of a given function we must keep the following two restrictions in mind:
_ We can not divide by zero.
_ We can not take the n-th root of a negative number if n is an even integer. There are areas of
math in which people take square roots of negatives. The course Complex Variables (MATH
���) deals with this topic and it could be described as “the calculus of complex numbers.”

The vertical line test

The fact that each number in the domain of ƒ is assigned a unique number in the range of ƒ , implies
that the graph of ƒ will satisfy the vertical line test. That is, a vertical line will intersect the graph of a
function in at most one point.

This curve represent a function This curve doesn’t represent a function

�.� Common Functions

A variety of important types of functions are frequently encountered in calculus. We identify and brie�y
describe them here.

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI 6 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.�. COMMON FUNCTIONS

Linear Functions
A linear function is a function of the form y = m + b where m, b 2 R. The constant m is the slope of
the linear function and b is the y-intercept.

(a) Lines with slope m and y-intercept equal to 0. (b) A constant function with slope m = 0.

Power Functions
A power function is a function of the form ƒ ( ) = where is a constant.

Math ��� Jazan University � Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. COMMON FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Polynomials

A polynomial function is a function of the form p( ) = n n + n 1 n 1 . . . + 2 2 + 1 + 0 where

n is a nonnegative integer called the degree of the polynomial. The constants n , n 1 , . . ., 2 , 1 ,
0 are the coef�cients of the polynomial. All polynomials have domain ( , ) = R. For example,
4
5 + 1 is a polynomial of degree 4.

Rational Functions
A rational function is a quotient (or ratio) of polynomials ƒ ( ) = p( )/ q( ) where p( ) and q( ) are
polynomials. The domain of a rational function is the set of all real for which q( ) 6= 0. For example
4 5 +1
y= . The domain of the function ƒ is R {2} = ( , 2) [ (2, ).
2

+ Remark
We will learn how to graph polynomials and rational functions in Chapter � (Applications of Deriva-
tives).

Algebraic Functions

Any function constructed from polynomials using the algebraic operations of addition, subtraction, mul-
tiplication, division, and taking roots is called algebraic function. Note that all rational functions are
algebraic. For example, y = (1 )2/ 5

Example �.�
Determine whether the following algebraic expression represents Polynomials or Nonpolynomials.
If it does, then state the degree.
2
a. 3 + 2.
p 3
b. 3 + 5.

Solution
a. It is a polynomial and its degree is 2.
b. It is Nonpolynomials because has a root and a negative power.

Exercise �.�
Determine whether the following algebraic expression represents Polynomials or Nonpolynomials.
If it does, then state the degree.
p 3
�. 5 2 5 .
4
2 3 +2
�. .
4
∆
�. 2 3 + 1.

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CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.�. COMMON FUNCTIONS

Trigonometric Functions
The trigonometric functions are sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent. The graph of the
sine function and cosine function are given below, respectively. The six basic trigonometric functions
will explain in detail in Section �.�.

Exponential Functions
A function of the form ƒ ( ) = , where > 0 and 6= 1, is an exponential function. All exponential
functions have domain ( , ) = R and range (0, ). Exponential functions will be more thoroughly
explored in Section �.6.

Logarithmic Functions
Functions of the form ƒ ( ) = log where the base 6= 1 is a positive constant is called logarithmic
functions. They are the inverse functions of the exponential functions, and we discuss these functions
in Section �.�.

Transcendental Functions
These are functions that are not algebraic such as logarithms, exponential, and trigonometric Functions.

Math ��� Jazan University � Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. SHIFTING AND SCALING GRAPHS CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Exercise �.�
Graph the following functions: (This exercise will be a quiz next lecture)
n
�. y = at n =
2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3.
1 1 3 2
�. y = n at n = , , , .
2 3 2 3
�. y = s n .
�. y = cos .
�. y = 5
6. y = 5
�. y = log4

�.� Shifting and Scaling Graphs

_ Vertical and Horizontal Shifts:
Suppose c > 0. To obtain the graph of
�. y = ƒ ( ) + c, shift the graph of y = ƒ ( ) a distance c units upward.
�. y = ƒ ( ) c, shift the graph of y = ƒ ( ) a distance c units downward.
�. y = ƒ ( c), shift the graph of y = ƒ ( ) a distance c units to the right.
�. y = ƒ ( + c), shift the graph of y = ƒ ( ) a distance c units to the left.

Translating the graph of ƒ Stretching and re�ecting the graph of ƒ

_ Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Re�ecting:

Suppose c > 1. To obtain the graph of
�. y = cƒ ( ), stretch the graph of y = ƒ ( ) vertically by a factor c.
1
�. y = ƒ ( ), compress the graph of y = ƒ ( ) vertically by a factor c.
c
�. y = ƒ (c ), compress the graph of y = ƒ ( ) horizontally by a factor c.
Å ã
�. y = ƒ , stretch the graph of y = ƒ ( ) horizontally by a factor c.
c
�. y = ƒ ( ), re�ect the graph of y = ƒ ( ) about the -axis.
6. y = ƒ ( ), re�ect the graph of y = ƒ ( ) about the y-axis.

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.�. COMBINING FUNCTIONS

Example �.�
p p p
Given the graph of y = , use the transformations to graph (b) y = 2, (c) y = 2, (d)
p p p
y= , (e) y = 2 , (f) y = .

Solution

p p p p p p
(a) y = (b) y = 2 (c) y = 2 (d) y = (e) y = 2 (f) y = .

Example �.�
2
Sketch the graph of the function ƒ ( ) = + 6 + 10.

Solution

Completing the square,

we write the equation of the graph as
2
y= + 6 + 10 = ( + 3)2 + 1
Now the graph of the function ƒ obtained
2
by shifting the graph y = with 3 unit
to the left and 1 unit upward (see �gure).

Exercise �.�
Sketch the graph of the following functions.
2
�. ƒ ( ) = 4 +1
1
�. y =
1
�. y = 1 sin
�. y = 2

�.� Combining Functions

Given function ƒ and g. we de�ne

(ƒ + g)( ) = ƒ ( ) + g( )
(ƒ g)( ) = ƒ ( ) g( )
(ƒ .g)( ) = ƒ ( ).g( )
✓ ◆
ƒ ƒ( )
( )=
g g( )

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. COMBINING FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

_ The domain of function (ƒ + g), (ƒ g) and ƒ .g is the intersection of the domain of ƒ and g.
ƒ
_ The domain of function is the intersection of the domain of ƒ and g excluding the point where
g
g( ) = 0.

Example �.�
p p
Let ƒ ( ) = ✓and◆g( ) = 2 . Find the domain and formula for the functions, (ƒ + g),
ƒ
(ƒ g), (ƒ .g), .
g

Solution
We have, p
p
(ƒ + g)( ) = ƒ ( ) + g( ) = + 2
p p
(ƒ g)( ) = ƒ ( )
g( ) = 2
p p ∆
(ƒ .g)( ) = ƒ ( ) ⇥ g( ) = ⇥ 2 = 2 2
✓ ◆ p
ƒ ƒ( )
( )= =p
g g( ) 2
_ The domain ƒ is [ 0, ) and domain of g is ( , 2].
_ The domain (ƒ + g), (ƒ g) and ƒ .g is the intersection of the domain of ƒ and g, that is,
[ 0, ) \ ( , 2] = [ 0, 2].
ƒ
_ The domain of function is the intersection of the domain of ƒ and g excluding the point where
g

g( ) = 0, that is at = 2. So, D ƒ = [ 0, 2).

g

Composition of functions
Given function ƒ and g, the composition of function ƒ g is de�ned by

(ƒ g)( ) = ƒ (g( ))

_ The domain of ƒ g is de�ned to consist of all in the domain of g for which g( ) is in the domain
of ƒ .

Example �.6
2
If ƒ ( ) = and g( ) = 3, �nd the composition functions ƒ g and g ƒ .

Solution
We have
(ƒ g)( ) = ƒ (g( )) = ƒ ( 3) = ( 3)2
2 2
(g ƒ )( ) = g(ƒ ( )) = g( )= 3

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.�. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Example �.�
p p
If ƒ ( ) = and g( ) = 2 . Find each function and its domain.
(a) ƒ g
(b) g ƒ
(c) ƒ ƒ
(d) g g

Solution

We have, Dƒ = { | 0} = [ 0, ) and Dg = { | 2 0} = { |  2} = ( , 2]
p qp p
4
(a). We have,(ƒ g)( ) = ƒ (g( )) = ƒ ( 2 )= 2 = 2 .

The domain of ƒ g is { | 2 0} = { |  2} = ( , 2]
p q p
(b). We have,(g ƒ )( ) = g(ƒ ( )) = g( q )= 2 .
p p p p
For to be de�ned, when 0. For 2 to be de�ned, when 2 0, i.e. 2
p
or  4. Thus, the domain of g ƒ is { | 0 and 2 0} = [ 0, ) \ ( , 4] = [ 0, 4].
p q p p
4
(c). We have,(ƒ ƒ )( ) = ƒ (ƒ ( )) = ƒ ( )= = .
The domain of ƒ ƒ is { | 0}, that is [ 0, ).
p q p
(d). We have,(g g)( ) = g(g( )) = g( 2 )= 2 p2 .
This expression is de�ned when both 2 p 0 and 2 2 0. The �rst inequality means
 2 and the second inequality means 2  2, or 2  4, or 2.
So, domain of g g is 2   2, that is [-�,�].

Evaluation of functions
If 2 Dƒ , we call ƒ ( ) the value of ƒ at = .

Example �.8
p p
If ƒ ( ) = and g( ) = 2 . Find ƒ g( 3) and ƒ g(3).

Solution
∆
4
p
4
Since = 3 2 Dƒ g , ƒ g( 3) = 2 ( 3) = 5. However, = 3 does not belong to the
domain of ƒ g. So, ƒ g(3) unde�ned.

Exercise �.�
p p
If ƒ ( ) = and g( ) = 2 . Find g ƒ ( 3) and ƒ g(3).

�.� Trigonometric Functions

This section reviews radian measure, basic trigonometric functions, periodicity, and basic trigonometric
identities.

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Angles

Angles are measured in degrees or radians.

The number of radians in the central angle A0 CB0
within a circle of radius r is de�ned as
the number of “radius units” contained in
the arc s subtended by the central angle.
With the central angle measuring radians,
this means = s/ r or s = r .

+ Remark
_ One complete revolution of the unit circle is 360 or 2 radians. Therefore radians = 180 .
_ To convert degrees to radians multiply by / 180.
_ To convert radians to degrees multiply by 180/ .
_ Radians are a unitless measure of angles and we need not write “radians” (though we often will).
Degrees are not unitless and if we measure angles in degrees then we must include the degrees
symbol . In the calculus classes, we will only rarely use degrees to measure angles and will
almost exclusively use radians.

Exercise �.6
�. Convert / 2 to degree measure.
�. Convert 30 to radian measure.

Example �.�
A central angle in a circle of radius 8 is subtended by an arc of length 10 . Find the angle’s radian
and degree measures.

Solution
S 10 5
= = = radian. To Convert to degree, we multiply by 180/ . So = 245 .
r 8 4

Exercise �.�
4
On a circle of radius 10 m, how long is an arc that subtends a central angle of (a) radians?
5
(b) 110 ?

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.�. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

De�nition �.�
An angle in the y-plane is in standard position if its vertex lies at the origin and its initial ray lies
along the positive -axis. Angles measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis are assigned
positive measures; angles measured clockwise are assigned negative measures.

The six basic trigonometric functions

We can de�ne the six trigonometric functions for accute angles using a right triangle:

De�nition �.�
We de�ne the six trigonometric functions for any angle by �rst placing the angle in standard
position in a circle of radius r. Then de�ne the trigonometric functions in terms of the coordinates
of the point P( , y) where the angle’s terminal ray intersects the circle as follows:

+ Remark
By de�nition, we immediately have the trig identities:

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

sin cos
_t n = and cot =
cos sin
1 1
_ sec = and cos =
cos sin

Property �.�
_ Based on the special 0 30 45 60 90 , we can deduce the following trig functions
for the “special angles” where the order pair ( , y) means (cos , sin ). Note that calculator
is not allowed during exams.
_ The “All Student Take Calculus" (ASTC) rule is useful for remembering when the basic trigono-
metric functions are positive or negative.

Example �.��
p
3
Find the exact trigonometric ratios if sin(2 / 3) =
2

Solution
p
From Figure below we
p see that a point on the terminal line for = 2 / 3 is p( 1, 3). Therefore,
taking = 1, y = 3, and r = 2. In the de�nitions of the trigonometric ratios, we have

Exercise �.8
If cos = 2/ 5 and 0 < < / 2 , �nd the other �ve trigonometric functions of .

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CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.�. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Periodicity and Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

De�nition �.�
A function ƒ ( ) is periodic if there is a positive number p such that ƒ ( + p) = ƒ ( ) for every value
of . The smallest value of p is the period of ƒ .

_ the period of sine and cosine function is 2 , that is, sin( + 2 ) = sin and cos( + 2 ) = cos .
_ The domain of sine and cosine function is ( , ) and the range is the closed interval [ 1, 1].
_ The zeros of sine function, sin = 0 when = n where n is an integer.
_ The zeros of cosine function, cos = 0 when = (2n + 1) where n is an integer.
2

ƒ ( ) = sin ƒ ( ) = cos
sin 3 5
_ The tangent function, t n = is unde�ned whenever cos = 0, that is, when = ± ,± ,± ,
cos 2 2 2
Its range is ( , ), with period , that is, t n( + ) = t n for all .

_ the period of secant and cosecant functions are 2 , that is,

sec( + 2 ) = sec and csc( + 2 ) = csc .
_ the period of cotangent function is , that is, cot( + ) = cot .
_ The domain of secant function is R {(2n + 1) | n 2 Z} and the range is ( , 1] [ [ 1, ).
2
_ The domain of cosecant function is R = n | n 2 Z} and the range is ( , 1] [ [ 1, ).

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.6. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Trigonometric Identities
There are many equations, called trigonometric identities, that relates the basic trigonometric func-
tions. The most important ones are:

Property �.�
�. cos2 + sin2 =1 (Pythagorean identity)
�. cos( ± y) = cos cos y ⌥ sin sin y (Sum and Difference Formulas)
�. s n( ± y) = sin cos y ± cos sin y (Sum and Difference Formulas)

Example �.��
Show that 1 + t n2 = sec2

Solution

Divide the equation cos2 + sin2 = 1 by cos2 to get 1 + t n2 = sec2 .

Exercise �.�
�. Show that 1 + cot2 = csc2
�. Show that sin 2 = 2 sin cos
�. Show that sin( ) = cos .
2

Property �.�
Other common trig identities:
2t n
_ Double Angle Formulas: cos 2 = cos2 sin2 , t n2 = .
1 t n2
1 cos 2 1 + cos(2 ) 1 cos 2
_ Half-Angle Formulas: sin2 = , cos2 = , t n2 = .
2 2 1 + cos 2

�.6 Exponential function

An exponential function de�ned in the form of ƒ ( ) = , where > 0 is called exponential function.
There are three cases of exponential function as mentioned below in the form of �gure.

Dƒ = ( , ) and Rƒ = (0, ) Dƒ = ( , ) and Rƒ = {1} Dƒ = ( , ) and Rƒ = (0, )

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CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.6. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

Property �.�
Law of Exponents If and b are positive numbers and and y are any real numbers, then (�)

y y
+y
= . (�) = y
(�) ( )y = .y
(�) ( b) = . y

Property �.�
n
_ If = n, a positive integer, then = . ..... n t mes ....
| {z }
0
_ If = 0, then = 1.
n
1
_ If = n, then = n
p p
_ If is rational number, that is = where p and q are integer and q > 0, then = q .
q

Example �.��
Sketch the graph of the function y = 3 2 and determine its domain and range.

Solution

_ Re�ect the graph y = 2 about the -axis to get the graph of y = 2

_ Shift the graph y = 2 upward 3 unit to obtain the graph of y = 3 2 .

y=2 , y= 2 , y=3 2
The domain of y = 3 2 is real number R and range is ( , 3).

Natural Exponential Function:

The function y = e is called natural exponential

having slope m = 1 at the point (0, 1),
where the value of e is (e ⇡ 2.71828).
Note: e = 0 and e = .

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. INVERSE FUNCTION AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Example �.��
1
Graph the function y = e 1 and state the domain and range.
2

Solution

_ Re�ect the graph y = e about the y axis to get the graph of y = e

1
_ Compress the graph y = e by a factor 2 to obtain the graph of y = e
2
1 1
_ Shift the graph of y = e to 1 unit downward to obtain the graph of y = e 1
2 2

1 1
y=e y=e y= e y= e 1
2 2

�.� Inverse function and Logarithmic function

De�nition �.�
A function is called one-to-one if it never takes on the same value twice, that is ƒ ( 1) 6= ƒ ( 2)
whenever 1 6= 2 .

One-to-one function not one-to-one function

Horizontal Line Test:

A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects its graph more than once.

The function is
not one-to-one ƒ ( 1) = ƒ( 2)

but 1 6= 2

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.�. INVERSE FUNCTION AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

Example �.��
3
Is the function ƒ ( ) = is one-to-one?

Solution
3 3 3
If 1 6= 2, then 1 6= 2 . Therefore ƒ ( 1) 6= ƒ ( 2 ). So the function ƒ ( ) = is one-to-one.

In the �gure no horizontal line intersect the curve

more than once. Thus by the horizontal line test
function is one-to-one.

Exercise �.��
1
Is the function ƒ ( ) = is one-to-one?

Example �.��
2
Is the function ƒ ( ) = is one-to-one?

Solution
2 2 2
If 1 6= 2 , then 1 = 2 . Therefore ƒ ( 1) = ƒ( 2 ). So the function ƒ ( ) = is not one-to-one.

In the �gure horizontal line intersect the curve

more than once. Thus by the horizontal line test
function is not one-to-one.

De�nition �.6
1
Let ƒ be one-to-one function with domain A and range B. Then its inverse function ƒ has domain
B and range A and is de�ned as ƒ 1 (y) = () ƒ ( ) = y.

The arrow diagram in the �gure indicates

1
that ƒ reverses the effect of ƒ .
1
Dom n oƒ ƒ = R nge oƒ ƒ
1
R nge oƒ ƒ = Dom n oƒ ƒ .

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. INVERSE FUNCTION AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

+ Remark
1
_ƒ (ƒ ( )) = for all in the domain of ƒ
1 1
_ ƒ (ƒ ( )) = for all in the domain of ƒ

Example �.�6
1 1
Given the function ƒ has an inverse and ƒ (1) = 5, ƒ (3) = 7 and ƒ (8) = 10. Find ƒ (5), ƒ (7)
and ƒ 1 ( 10).

Solution
1
From the de�nition of ƒ , we have

1
ƒ (5) = 1 because ƒ (1) = 5
1
ƒ (7) = 3 because ƒ (3) = 7
1
ƒ ( 10) = 8 because ƒ (8) = 10.

+ Remark
How to �nd the inverse function of a one-to-one function ƒ :
_ Step �. Write y = ƒ ( ).
_ Step �. Solve the equation for in terms of y.
1 1
_ Step �. To express ƒ as function of , interchange and y to get y = ƒ ( ).

Example �.��
3
Find the inverse of ƒ ( ) = + 2.

Solution
We have,
3
y= +2
) 3=y 2
∆
3 1
) = y 2=ƒ (y)
p
3
Interchange the variable and y, one get ƒ 1 ( ) = 2.

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.�. INVERSE FUNCTION AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

+ Remark 1
The graph of ƒ is obtained by re�ecting the graph of ƒ about the line y = .

1
Graph of ƒ and ƒ

Logarithmic Function
If > 0 and 6= 1 then the inverse of exponential function is called logarithmic function, that
is, if
y
= () y = log

Property �.6
Laws of Logarithms: If and y are positive numbers, then
�. log (✓ y)◆ = log ( ) + log (y)
�. log = log ( ) log (y)
y
�. log ( )m = m. log ( ), (where m is any real number).

Example �.�8
Find the exact value of each expression.
(a) log2 (16) (b) log27 (3)
(c) log2 (6) og2 (15) + log2 (20)

Solution

(a). Let y = log2 (16) () 16 = 2y () 24 = 2y ) y = 4. Thus, log2 (16) = 4.

p3 1 1
(b). Let y = log27 (3) () 3 = (27)y () 3 = 27 = (27)y ) y = . Thus, log27 (3) = .
✓ ◆ 3✓ ◆ 3
6 6 ⇥ 20
(c). log2 (6) og2 (15) + log2 (20) = log2 + log2 (20) = log2 = log2 (8) =
15 15
log2 (2)3 = 3

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. INVERSE FUNCTION AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Exercise �.��
Find the exact value. (a) log3 (100) log3 (18) + log3 (50)

Natural Logarithms

+ Remark
If we replace = e in the function ƒ ( ) = log ( ), then ƒ ( ) = loge ( ) = ln( ), where > 0 is
called natural logarithm and it is inverse of natural exponential function e .

Property �.�
Properties of natural Logarithm:

(a). ln( ) = y () = ey
(b). ln(e ) = , for all
(d). lne (e) = ln(e) = 1
(e). ln( .y) = ln( ) + ln(y)
✓ ◆
(f). ln = ln( ) ln(y)
y
ln( )
(g). log ( ) =
ln( )

Example �.��
Solve each equation for .
(a) e5 3 = 10 (b) ln(5 2 )=5

Solution

(a). Taking natural logarithm on both sides, we get

ln(e)5 3
= ln(10) () 5 3 = ln(10)

1
)3 =5 ln(10) () = (5 ln(10))
3

(b). Taking natural exponential on both sides, we get

eln(5 2 )
=e 3
() 5 2 =e 3

5 e 3
) = t 2.4751
2

Exercise �.��
Solve each equation for .
(a) e2 +3 7 = 0 (b) ln( + 1) = 5

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.�. INVERSE FUNCTION AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

De�nition �.�
1
_ The inverse sine function or arcsine denoted by sin is de�ned as
1
sin = y () = sin y and
y
2 2
1
_ The inverse cosine function or arccosine denoted by cos is de�ned as
cos 1 = y () = cos y and 0  y 
1
_ The inverse tangent function or arctan denoted by t n is de�ned as
1
t n = y () = t n y and y
2 2

Example �.��
Evaluate: ✓ ◆ ✓ ✓ ◆◆
1 1
(a). sin 1 (b). t n rcs n
2 3

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. INVERSE FUNCTION AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Solution
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1
1 1
(a). Let = sn () s n = . Thus, = lies between and . So,
✓ ◆ 2 2 6 2 2
1
sn 1 = .
2 6 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 1
1 1 perpend c r
(b). Let = rcs n =sn () sin = = .
3 3 3 hypoteno s

Now draw the right angled triangle having angle .

p p
By using the pythagorean rule the third side has length 9 1 = 2 2 Thus, t n =
perpend c r 1
= p .
dj cent 2 2

Exercise �.��
Find the exact value of each expression
✓ ✓ ◆◆
1 1
3
(a). t n sec 4 (b). sin 2 sin
5

Example �.��
1
Simplify, cos(t n )

Solution

1
perpend c r
Let y = (t n ) ) t ny = = .
dj cent

Now draw the right angled triangle having angle y.

∆
By using the pythagorean rule the third side has length 1 + 2
dj cent 1
Thus, cos y = cos(t n 1 )) = =p .
hypoteno s 1+ 2

Exercise �.��
1
Simplify, t n(sin )

Example �.��
1
If ƒ ( ) = 2 sin 5, �nd ƒ ( ).

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �6 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.8. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS

Solution

Let, y = 2 sin 5 () y + 5 = 2 sin ✓ ◆

y+5 1
y+5
) sin = () = sin
2 2 ✓ ◆
1 1
+5
Interchanging the variable and y, we get ƒ ( ) = sin .
2

�.8 Properties of functions

Piece-wise de�ned function

If a function is de�ned by different formulas in the different part of their domains, then it is called
Piece-wise de�ned function.
8
< t( ) ƒ <c
For example: ƒ ( ) = where t( ) and g( ) are any two functions and c 2 R
: g( ) ƒ c

Example �.��
8
>
> 1 ƒ  1
<
A function ƒ is de�ned by ƒ ( ) =
>
>
: 2
ƒ > 1
Evaluate ƒ (0), ƒ (1) and ƒ (2) and sketch the graph.

Solution

When  1, then the value of ƒ ( ) is 1 . On the other hand, if > 1, then the value of ƒ ( ) is
2
.

since 0  1, we have ƒ (0) = 1 0=1

since 1  1, we have ƒ (1) = 1 1=0
since 2 > 1, we have ƒ (2) = 22 = 4
How we draw the graph of ƒ ? We observe that,
if  1, then ƒ ( ) = 1 , so the part of graph
of ƒ that lies to the left of the vertical line =1
must coincide with the line y = 1 , which has
slope 1 and y- intercept 1.

If > 1, then ƒ ( ) = 2 , so the part of the graph lies to the right of the line = 1 must coincide
with the graph of parabola y = 2 .
The solid dot indicates that the point (1, 0) is included on the graph; the open dot indicates that
the point (1, 1) is excluded from the graph.

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.8. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Exercise �.��
8
>
> , ƒ 0
<
Graph the absolute value function which is de�ned by ƒ ( ) = | | =
>
>
: , ƒ <0

Property �.8
_| | 0 for every real number and | | = 0 if and only if = 0.
p p
_ Since 0, we may de�ne = | |.
_ Geometrically, | y| represents the distance between and y. In particular | | represents the
distance between | | and 0.
_| | = | |.
_ | y| = | ||y|.
| |
_ | |= .
y |y|
_ | + y|  | | + |y|.

Example �.��
(The greatest integer function or integer �oor function) ƒ ( ) = b c is the greatest integer less
than or equal to . That is b c = n such that n  < n + 1. Dƒ = R and Rƒ = Z.

Exercise �.�6
�. Find b 2.4c, b 2c, and b 0.3c.
�. Graph the least integer function or integer ceiling function ƒ ( ) = d e which is the least (small-
est) integer greater than or equal to . That is d e = n such that n 1<  n. State the its
domain and range.
�. Find d 2.4e, d 2e, and d 0.3e.

+ Remark
In this class, we will often de�ne a function piecewise. That is, instead of giving a single formula
for a function, we will give several formula which de�ne the function piecewise over certain points
or intervals.

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �8 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS �.8. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS

Even and odd functions

If a function ƒ satis�es the condition, ƒ ( ) = ƒ ( ) for every number in its domain, then it is called
an even funtion.
If a function ƒ satis�es the condition ƒ ( ) = ƒ ( ) for every number in its domain, then it is called an
odd funtion.

Example �.��
Determine which of the following function is even or odd.
(a) ƒ ( ) = 5 + (b) g( ) = 1 4
(c) h( ) = 2 2

Solution

(a) ƒ ( )=( )5 + ( ) = 5
6= ƒ ( ); therefore ƒ is not an even function
= ( 5+ )= ƒ ( ); therefore ƒ is an odd function.

(b) g( )=1 ( )4 = 1 4
= g( ); therefore g is an even function.

(c) h( ) = 2( ) )2 = 2
( 2
6= h( ); therefore h is not an even function
= (2 + 2 ) 6= h( ); therefore h is not an odd function.
Thus function is neither even nor odd.

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

A function ƒ is increasing on an interval if ƒ ( 1 ) < ƒ ( 2) whenever 1 < 2. It is called decreasing
on an interval if ƒ ( 1 ) > ƒ ( 2 ) whenever 1 < 2 .

Example �.�6
In the �gure of function ƒ ( ) = 2 , It is shown below that function is decreasing on the interval
( , 0] and increasing on the interval [ 0, ).

Example �.��
_ cos sec are even functions.
_ sin , csc , t n and cot are odd functions.

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.8. PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Homework Chapter �
Q �. Find the domain of the following functions.
∆ p p 2 +2
(a) ƒ ( ) = 4 2, (b) ƒ ( ) = + 4 , (c) ƒ ( ) = 2
,
3
2 3 +1
2
(d) ƒ ( ) = 6, (e) ƒ ( ) = 6, (f) ƒ ( ) = 2
.
4
Q �. Sketch the graph of the following functions:
(a) ƒ ( ) = 2 + 1. (b) ƒ ( ) = 1.
Q �. Determine whether the function is even, odd or neither even nor odd.
2
(a) ƒ ( ) = 2
, (b) ƒ ( ) = 4
, (c) ƒ ( ) = 3
,
+1 +1 +1
ƒ
Q �. Find the formula for ƒ + g, ƒ g, ƒ .g and and state the domain.
∆ g
p
(a) ƒ ( ) = 3 , g( ) = 2 1.
3 2 2
(b) ƒ ( ) = +2 , g( ) = 3 1.
Q �. Find the functions (a) ƒ g, (b)
p g ƒ , (c) ƒ ƒ and (d) g g and their domain.
p 3
(a) ƒ ( ) = , g( ) = 1 .
(b) ƒ ( ) = , g( ) = sin 2 .
1+
Q 6. Sketch the graph of the following functions by applying the appropriate transformation.
3 2
(a) y = (b) y = 1 (c) y = ( + 1)2
p
(d) y = 2 4 + 3 (e) y = +3 (f) y = 3 e
1
(g) y = 2 (h) y = n( ).
2
Q �. Find the inverse
p of the following function
p and state the domain of inverse.
(a) ƒ ( ) = 10 3 , (b) ƒ ( ) = 2, (c) ƒ ( ) = 2 3 + 3.

Q 8. Which of the following functions are one-to-one.

Q �. Solve each for .

2
(a) ln( ) = 1, (b) ln 1 + ln ( ) = ln 2 (c) e3 4
=2

Q ��. Find the exact value of each expression.

✓ ◆
3 p
1 1 1
(a). t n sec 4 (b). sec t n (c). t n sin (2 ) = 3
4

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

Chapter � Limits and Continuity of Functions

�.� The Limit of a Function

De�nition �.�
The limit of ƒ ( ) as approaches is L, means that if you substitute values that get arbitrarily
close to the number into ƒ ( ), the corresponding outputs will get arbitrarily close to the number
L, that is
lim ƒ ( ) = L
!
In other notation, ƒ ( ) ! L as ! , it means (ƒ ( ) approaches L as approaches ).

Example �.�
✓ ◆
1
Guess the value of ƒ ( ) = lim 2
.
!1 1

Solution

Since the function ƒ ( ) is not de�ned at = 1,

but by the de�nition of limit, that is ( lim ƒ ( ) = L),
!
we consider the values of that are very close to
from the left and from the right. So, on the basis of table
✓ ◆
1
we guess the value of ƒ ( ) = lim 2
= 0.5
!1 1

Example �.�
p
t2 + 9 3
Estimate the value of lim .
t !0 t2

Solution
The table lists values of the function for several values t near 0.

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

As t approaches 0, the values of the function seem

to approach 0.16666..... and so we guess that,

p
t2 + 9 3 1
lim =
t !0 t2 6

Exercise �.�
✓ ◆
sin
Guess the value of lim .
!0

One-Sided Limits
De�nition �.�
The limit of the function ƒ ( ) as approaches to from the left is called Left-hand limit, that is

lim ƒ ( ) = L
!

SImilarly, the limit of the function ƒ ( ) as approaches to from the right is called Right-hand
limit, that is
lim ƒ ( ) = L
! +

+ Remark
_ ! means that we consider only < .
_ ! +
means that we consider only > .

Two-Sided Limits
De�nition �.�
The two sided limit of a function ƒ ( ) exist at , if and only if both of the limit Left-hand limit and
Right-hand limit have the same value at , that is lim ƒ ( ) = L exist if and only if
!

lim ƒ ( ) = lim ƒ ( ) = L
! ! +

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS �.�. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Example �.�
The Heaviside function H is de�ned by

8
< 0 ƒ t<0
H(t) =
: 1 ƒ t 0

As t approaches 0 from the left, H(t) approaches 0. As t approaches 0 from the right, H(t)
approaches 1, that is
lim H(t) = 0 nd lim H(t) = 1
!0 !0+
Therefore, lim H(t) does not exist.
!0

Exercise �.�
The graph of a function g is shown in �gure below. Use it to state the values( if they exist) of the
following.

(a) lim g( ) (b) lim g( ) (c) lim g( )

!2 !2+ !2
(d) lim g( ) (e) lim g( ) (f) lim g( )
!5 !5+ !5

Example �.�
Use the given graph of ƒ to state the value of each quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain
why.

(a) lim ƒ ( ) (b) lim ƒ ( ) (c) lim ƒ ( )

!1 !1+ !1

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

(d) lim ƒ ( ) (e) lim ƒ ( ) (f) lim ƒ ( )

!5 !5+ !5

Solution
From the graph we see that,
_ The value of ƒ ( ) approaches 2 as approaches 1 from the left.
_ The value of ƒ ( ) approaches 3 as approaches 1 from the right.
Therefore, (a) lim ƒ ( ) = 2 (b) lim ƒ ( ) = 3 (c) lim ƒ ( ) does not exist.
!1 !1+ !1

_ The value of ƒ ( ) approaches 4 as approaches 5 from the left.

_ The value of ƒ ( ) approaches 4 as approaches 5 from the right.
(d) lim ƒ ( ) = 4 (e) lim ƒ ( ) = 4 (f) lim ƒ ( ) = 4 , since L.H.L.=R.H.L.
!5 !5+ !5

(e) ƒ (5) = unde�ned.

In�nite limits
De�nition �.�
The expression
lim ƒ ( ) = + nd lim ƒ ( ) = +
! ! +

denotes that ƒ ( ) increases without bound as approaches from the left and from the right,
then we write
lim ƒ ( ) = +
!
Similarly, the expression

lim ƒ ( ) = nd lim ƒ ( ) =
! ! +

denotes that ƒ ( ) decreases without bound as approaches from the left and from the right,
then we write
lim ƒ ( ) =
!

lim ƒ ( ) = lim ƒ ( ) =
! !

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS �.�. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Example �.�
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 1
Find lim 2
and lim 2
, if exists.
!0 !0

Solution
From the following table and graphs, it shows that
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 1
lim 2
= nd lim 2
=
!0 !0

+ Remark
Some graphical representation of one-sided in�nite limits.

lim ƒ ( ) = lim ƒ ( ) = lim ƒ ( ) = lim ƒ ( ) =

! ! + ! ! +

Example �.6
For the function in the �gure below:

Describe the limits at = in appropriate limit notation.

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

Solution

(a). The function decreases without bound as approaches from the left and increases without
bound as approaches from the right. Thus,

1 1
lim = nd lim =
! ! +

(b). The function increases without bound as approaches from the left and right. Thus,

1 1
lim = nd lim =
! ( )2 ! + ( )2

(c). The function increases without bound as approaches from the left and decreases without
bound as approaches from the right. Thus,

1 1
lim = nd lim =
! ! +

(d). The function decreases without bound as approaches from the left and right. Thus,

1 1
lim = nd lim =
! ( )2 ! + ( )2

Vertical Asymptote
The vertical line = is called vertical asymptote of the curve y = ƒ ( ) if at least one of the
following statement are true

lim ƒ ( ) = lim ƒ ( ) = lim ƒ ( ) =

! ! ! +

lim ƒ ( ) = lim ƒ ( ) = lim ƒ ( ) =

! ! ! +

Example �.�
2 2
Find, lim and lim .
!3+ 3 !3 3

Solution
_ If is close to 3 from the right, then the denominator 3 is small positive number and 2 is
2
close to 6. So, is large positive number. Thus, we see that
3
2
lim =
!3+ 3
_ Similarly, Ifis close to 3 from the left, then the denominator 3 is small negative number
2
and 2 is positive number close to 6. So, is large negative number. Thus, we see that
3
2
lim =
!3 3

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �6 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS �.�. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

2
Therefore, line = 3 is the vertical asymptote of the curve shown in above �gure.
3

Exercise �.�
+2 +2
Find, lim and lim .
!3+ +3 !3 +3

Example �.8
Find the vertical asymptote of ƒ ( ) = t n .

Solution

sin sin
Since t n = , then the curve have vertical asymptote when cos = 0. Thus n =
cos ✓ cos ◆
3 5
(2n + 1) for n-integers ± , ± ,± , .............
2 2 2 2

lim t n = nd lim t n =
!( / 2) !( / 2)+

This shows that = is a vertical asymptote. Similarly, = (2n + 1) , where n is an integer are
2 2
all the vertical asymptote of ƒ ( ) = t n .

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. CALCULATING LIMIT USING THE LIMITS LAWCHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

Exercise �.�
Find the vertical asymptote of ƒ ( ) = cot .

�.� Calculating Limit using the Limits Law

Limit Laws
De�nition �.�
Let and c are real number, and suppose lim ƒ ( ) = L and lim g( ) = M. Then
! !
�. Sum law: lim [ ƒ ( ) + g( )] = lim ƒ ( ) + lim g( ) = L + M.
! ! !
�. Difference law: lim [ ƒ ( ) g( )] = lim ƒ ( ) lim g( ) = L M.
! ! !
�. Constant multiple law: lim [ cƒ ( )] = c lim ƒ ( ) = cL.
! !
�. Product law: lim [ ƒ ( ).g( )] = lim ƒ ( ). lim g( ) = L.M.
! ! !
 lim ƒ ( )
ƒ( ) ! L
�. Quotient law: lim = = , if ( lim g( ) = M 6= 0).
! g( ) lim g( ) M !
!
h in
6. Power law: lim [ ƒ ( )] = lim ƒ ( ) = Ln , where n is positive integer.
n
! !
∆ r p
n
n
�. Root law: lim ƒ ( ) = n lim ƒ ( ) = L, provided that > 0 if n is even.
! !

8. lim c = c
!
�. lim =
!
n
��. lim =
!

Moreover, these statements are also true for the one-sided limits as ! or ! +
.

1
��. lim =
!0

1
��. lim =
!0+

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �8 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS�.�. CALCULATING LIMIT USING THE LIMITS LAW

Example �.�
Evaluate the following limits.
Ç 3 2
å
2 4 2
+2 1
(a). lim 2 3 +4 (b). lim 3 +2 +1 (c). lim
!5 ! 2 ! 2 5 3

Solution

(a). By using the sum and difference law.

2 2
lim 2 3 + 4 = lim (2 ) lim (3 ) + lim (4)
!5 !5 !5 !5

2
= 2 lim ( ) 3 lim ( ) + lim (4)
!5 !5 !5

= 2(5)2 3(5) + 4 = 39

(b). By using the sum and difference law.

4 2 4 2
lim 3 +2 + 1 = lim (3 ) + lim (2 ) lim ( ) + lim (1)
!2 ! 2 ! 2 ! 2 ! 2

4 2
= 3 lim ( ) + 2 lim ( ) lim ( ) + lim (1)
! 2 ! 2 ! 2 ! 2

= 3 ( 2)4 + 2 ( 2)2 ( 2) + 1 = 59

(c). By using the quotient law.

Ç 3 2
å lim 3 +2 2 1 lim 3 + 2 lim 2 lim (1)
+2 1 ! 2 ! 2 ! 2 ! 2
lim = =
! 2 5 3 lim (5 3 ) lim (5) 3 lim ( )
! 2 ! 2 ! 2

( 2)3 + 2 ( 2)2 1 1
= =
5 3( 2) 11

Exercise �.�
Evaluate the following limits.
Ç 2
å
2
2 +1
(a). lim 4 +3 (b). lim 2
!5 !5 +6 4

Example �.��
Evaluate the following limits.

(2 ) (2 ) (2 )
(a). lim (b). lim (c). lim
!4+ ( 4)( + 2) !4 ( 4)( + 2) !4 ( 4)( + 2)

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. CALCULATING LIMIT USING THE LIMITS LAWCHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

Solution

(2 ) (2 ) 1 2 1
(a). lim = lim . lim m = lim =
!4+ ( 4)( + 2) !4+ ( + 2) !4+ ( 4) 6 !4+ ( 4)
(2 ) (2 ) 1 2 1
(b). lim = lim . lim = lim =
!4 ( 4)( + 2) !4 ( + 2) !4 ( 4) 6 !4 ( 4)
(2 ) (2 ) (2 )
(c). lim 6= lim .Thus, lim does not exist.
!4+ ( 4)( + 2) !4 ( 4)( + 2) !4 ( 4)( + 2)

+ Remark

1 1
lim = and lim =
!0+ !0

Limit of rational function

De�nition �.6
p( )
Let ƒ ( ) = be a rational function and 2 R.
q( )
(a). If q( ) 6= 0 then lim ƒ ( ) = ƒ ( )
!
(b). If q( ) = 0 and p( ) 6= 0 then lim ƒ ( ) does not exist
!
(c). If p( ) = 0 and q( ) = 0, then the numerator and denominator must have one or more
p( )
common factors of . In this case the lim can be found by canceling all common
! q( )
factors of and then using one of the above method to �nd the limit of the simpli�ed function.

Example �.��
2 12
Find the limit, lim .
!4 4

Solution
2 12
Let ƒ ( ) = , by substituting = 4 we cannot �nd the limit because ƒ (4) is not
4
de�ned. So, we use quotient law. Since the limit of denominator is 0. Therefore, �rst we factor the
numerator and simplify
2 12 ( 4)( + 3)
lim = lim = lim ( + 3) = 4 + 3 = 7
!4 4 !4 ( 4) !4

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS�.�. CALCULATING LIMIT USING THE LIMITS LAW

Exercise �.6
Find the following limits.
2 1 2 + 6
(a). lim (b). lim .
!1 1 !2 2

Limit of piecewise de�ned function

For the functions that are de�ned piecewise, a two-sided limit at a point where the formula changes
is best obtained by �rst �nding the one-sided limits at that point.

Example �.��
8
< + 1, ƒ 6= 1
Find lim g( ) where g( ) = .
!1 : , ƒ =1

Solution

Given that, g(1) = , but the value of a limit as

approaches to 1 does not depend on the value of the
function at 1. Since g( ) = + 1 for 6= 1.
Thus, we have lim g( ) = lim ( + 1) = 2.
!1 !1

Exercise �.�
8
> 1 1
>
< +
4
Find lim g( ) where g( ) = , ƒ 6= 4 .
!4 > 4+
>
:
e, ƒ =4

Example �.��
(3 + h)2 9
Find lim
h !0 h

Solution

(3 + h)2 9 (h2 + 9 + 6h) 9 h(h + 6)

Let ƒ (h) = = = = 6 + h.
h h h
(3 + h)2 9
Thus, lim = lim (h + 6) = 0 + 6 = 6.
h !0 h h !0

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. CALCULATING LIMIT USING THE LIMITS LAWCHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

Exercise �.8
(2 + h)3 8
Find lim .
h !0 h

Example �.��
p
+2 3
Find lim .
!7 7

Solution
Since the limit of denominator is 0. So, we cannot apply quotient law directly. Therefore, �rst we
rationalize the numerator.
p p p p 2
+2 3 +2 3 +2+3 +2 (3)2
lim = lim .p = lim p
!7 7 !7 7 +2+3 !7 ( 7)( + 2 + 3)

( 7) 1 1 1
= lim p = lim p =p = .
!7 ( 7)( + 2 + 3) !7 +2+3 7+2+3 6

Exercise �.�
p
t2 + 9 3
Find lim .
t !0 t2

Theorem �.�
lim ƒ ( ) = L if and only if lim ƒ ( ) = L = lim ƒ ( ).
! ! ! +

Example �.��
Show that lim | | = 0.
!0

Solution
8
>
> , ƒ 0
<
Since, | | =
>
>
: , ƒ <0
For > 0, | | = . Thus lim | | = lim = 0.
!0+ !0+

For < 0, | | = . Thus lim | | = lim ( ) = 0.

!0 !0

Therefore, lim | | = lim | | = 0. So, lim | | = 0.

!0 !0+ !0

Example �.�6
| |
Prove that lim does not exist.
!0

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS�.�. CALCULATING LIMIT USING THE LIMITS LAW

Solution

| | Å ã
For > 0, lim = lim =1
!0+ !0+
| | Å ã
For < 0, lim = lim = 1
!0+ !0+
| |
Since, L.H.L.6= R.H.L.„ So lim does not exist.
!0

Example �.��
8 p
>
> 4, ƒ >4
<
If ƒ ( ) =
>
>
: 8 2 , ƒ <4
Determine whether the lim ƒ ( ) exist.
!4

Solution
p p p
For > 4, ƒ ( ) = 4. Thus lim ƒ ( ) = lim 4= 4 4 = 0.
!4+ !4+

For < 4, ƒ ( ) = 8 2 . Thus lim ƒ ( ) = lim (8 2 )=8 2(4) = 0.

!4 !4

Since, L.H.L.= R.H.L., So lim ƒ ( ) = 0 exist.

!4

Exercise �.��
2 1
(�.) Let ƒ ( ) = .
| 1|
(a). Find lim ƒ ( ) and lim ƒ ( ).
!1+ !1

(b). Does lim ƒ ( ) exist?

!1

Hint:
8
> ( 1)( + 1) 8
>
> , ƒ 1
>
> >
> + 1, ƒ 1
2 < ( 1) <
1
ƒ( ) = = =
| 1| >
> >
>
>
> ( 1)( + 1) :
> , ƒ <1 1, ƒ <1
:
( 1)

8
> 2
> 4 , ƒ 2
<
(�.) If ƒ ( ) =
>
>
: 1, ƒ >2

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. CALCULATING LIMIT USING THE LIMITS LAWCHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

(a). Find lim ƒ ( ) and lim ƒ ( ).

!2 !2+

(b). Does lim ƒ ( ) exist?

!2

Example �.�8
Show that lim b c does not exist.
!3

Solution

The graph of the greatest integer function

is shown in the following �gure
Since b c = 3 if 3  < 4 and b c = 2 if 2  < 3,
then lim b c = 3 6= lim b c = 2.
!3+ !3
Thus limit lim b c does not exist.
!3

Theorem �.�
If ƒ ( )  g( ) where is near (except possibly at ) and the limits of ƒ and g both exist as
approaches , then

lim ƒ ( )  lim g( )
! !
.

The Squeeze Theorem

Theorem �.�
If ƒ ( )  g( )  h( ) where is near (except possibly at ) and lim ƒ ( ) = lim h( ) = L,
! !
then
lim g( ) = L
!

Example �.��
✓ ◆
2
1
Show that lim . sin = 0.
!0

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS �.�. CONTINUITY

Solution
✓ ◆
1
Since, 1  sin  1, then it is illustrated in �gure

✓ ◆
2 2
1 2
 . sin 

we know that, lim ( )2 = lim ( )2 = 0

!0 !0

✓ ◆
2
1
Thus, by Squeeze theorem, lim . sin = 0.
!0

Exercise �.��
✓ ◆
2
1
Show that lim . cos = 0.
!0

�.� Continuity

Continuity at number a point c

De�nition �.�
A function ƒ is said to be continuous at = c, if the following conditions are satis�ed.

(�). ƒ (c) is de�ned.

(�). lim ƒ ( ) exists.
!c
(�). lim ƒ ( ) = ƒ (c).
!c

Otherwise, ƒ ( ) is said to be discontinuous at = c.

Example �.��
In the �gure below show that, at which number a function ƒ is discontinuous and why?

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. CONTINUITY CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

Solution
The function is discontinuous,
_ At = 1, because ƒ (1) is not de�ned.
Å ã
_ At = 3, ƒ (3) is de�ned but lim ƒ ( ) does not exist, as lim ƒ ( ) 6= lim ƒ ( ) .
!3 !3 !3+
Å ã
_ At = 5, ƒ (5) is de�ned and also lim ƒ ( ) exist, that is lim ƒ ( ) = lim ƒ ( ) but
!5 !5 !5+
lim ƒ ( ) 6= ƒ (5).
!5

Example �.��
Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?
2 2
(a). ƒ ( ) = , (b). ƒ ( ) = {
2
1
2
, ƒ 6= 0

1, ƒ =0
8
> 2 2
<
, ƒ 6= 0
(c). ƒ ( ) = 2 (d). ƒ ( ) = [[ ]]
>
: 1, ƒ =2

Solution

(a). ƒ (2) is not de�ned, so ƒ is discontinuous at 2.

1
(b). Here ƒ (0) = 1 is de�ned but lim ƒ ( ) = lim 2
= . Since lim ƒ ( ) 6= ƒ (0). So, ƒ
!0 !0 !0
is discontinuous at 0.
2 2 ( 2)( + 1)
(c). Here ƒ (2) = 1 is de�ned and lim ƒ ( ) = lim = lim =
!2 !2 2 !2 ( 2)
lim ( + 1) = 3 exists.
!2
But limit lim ƒ ( ) 6= ƒ (2). So, it is not continuous at 2.
!2

(d). The greatest integer function ƒ ( ) = [[ ]] has discontinuities at all of the integers, be-
cause
lim ƒ ( ) does not exist if n is an integer.
!n

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �6 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS �.�. CONTINUITY

Exercise �.��
Determine whether the following function are continuous at = 2.
8
> 2 4
2 4 <
, ƒ 6= 2
(a). ƒ ( ) = , (b). ƒ ( ) = 2
2 >
: 3, ƒ =2
8
> 2 4
<
, ƒ 6= 2
(c). ƒ ( ) = 2 .
>
: 4, ƒ =2

De�nition �.8
A function ƒ is continuous from the right at a number if lim ƒ ( ) = ƒ ( )
! +

and ƒ is continuous from the left at a number if lim ƒ ( ) = ƒ ( )

! +

Example �.��
Check the continuity from the left and right at any integer n for the function b c.

Solution

The greatest integer function ƒ ( ) = b c is continuous from the right and discontinuous from the
left, that is
lim ƒ ( ) = lim b c = n = ƒ ( )
!n+ !n+
lim ƒ ( ) = lim b c = n 1 6= ƒ ( ).
!n !n

Example �.��
Determine whether ƒ is continuous from the right, or from the left, or neither.

Solution

_ At ( 4), the function ƒ is discontinuous from the right and left because ƒ ( 4) is not de�ned,
that is
lim ƒ ( ) = lim ƒ ( ) 6= ƒ (4)
! 4 ! 4+

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. CONTINUITY CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

_ At ( 2), the function ƒ is continuous from the left and discontinuous from the right, that is
lim ƒ ( ) = ƒ ( 2), but lim ƒ ( ) 6= ƒ ( 2)
! 2 ! 2+

_ At (2), the function ƒ is continuous from the right and discontinuous from the left, that is
lim ƒ ( ) 6= ƒ ( 2), but lim ƒ ( ) = ƒ ( 2)
!2 !2+

_ At (4), the function ƒ is continuous from the right and discontinuous from the left, that is
lim ƒ ( ) = , but lim ƒ ( ) = ƒ (4)
!4 !4+

Continuity on an interval
De�nition �.�
A function ƒ is said to be continuous on an closed interval [ , b], if the following
conditions are satis�ed.
(�). ƒ is continuous on (a,b). Å ã
(�). ƒ is continuous from right at , that is lim ƒ ( ) = ƒ ( ) .
Å ! + ã
(�). ƒ is continuous from left at b, that is lim ƒ ( ) = ƒ (b) .
!

Example �.��
∆
Show that the function ƒ ( ) = 1 1 2 is continuous on the interval [ 1, 1].

Solution
If 1< < 1, then from the limit law we have,
⇣ ∆ ⌘ ∆
lim ƒ ( ) = lim 1 1 2 =1 1 2 = ƒ( )
! !

then ƒ is continuous on the interval ( 1, 1). Therefore,

⇣ ∆ ⌘ q
lim ƒ ( ) = lim 1 1 2 =1 1 ( 1)2 = 1 = ƒ ( 1)
+ +
! 1 ! 1
⇣ ∆ ⌘ q
lim ƒ ( ) = lim 1 1 2 =1 1 (1)2 = 1 = ƒ (1)
!1 !1
It shows that ƒ is continuous from the right at 1 and continuous from the left at 1. Thus, ƒ is
continuous on the interval [ 1, 1].

Theorem �.�
If ƒ and g are continuous at and c is a constant, then the following functions are
also continuous at :
ƒ
(�). ƒ + g (�). ƒ g (�). cƒ (�). ƒ g (�). if g( ) 6= 0.
g

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �8 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS �.�. CONTINUITY

Theorem �.�
(a). Any polynomial is continuous everywhere, that is continuous on ( , ).
(b). Any rational function is continuous on its domain.

Example �.��
3 +2 2 1
Find lim .
! 2 5 3

Solution
3 +2 2 1 5
The function is rational. So, it is continuous in its domain, that is { | 6= }.
5 3 3
Therefore, it is continuous at ( 2). Thus,
3 +2 2 1 ( 2)3 + 2( 2)2 1 1
lim = =
! 2 5 3 5 3( 2) 11

Theorem �.6
The following types of functions are continuous everywhere in their domain.
_ Polynomials
_ Rational functions
_ Root functions
_ Trigonometric functions
_ Inverse trigonometric functions
_ Exponential functions
_ Logarithmic functions

Example �.�6
Determine for what value of , function ƒ is discontinuous.
3 1
(a). ƒ ( ) = (b). ƒ ( ) = +
2 2+ 2 1

Solution

(a). This is rational function, and hence continuous at every number where the denominator is
nonzero, that is
2 2+ =0
1
yields discontinuities at = 0 and at = .
2

(b). This is rational function, and hence continuous at every number where the denominator is
nonzero, that is
= 0 and 2 1 = 0 ) ( 1)( + 1) = 0
yields discontinuities at = 0 and at = 1, 1.

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. CONTINUITY CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

Example �.��
1
ln( ) + t n
Where is the function ƒ ( ) = 2
is continuous?
1

Solution

The domain of y = ln( ) is (0, ) and domain of y = t n 1 is ( , ). Thus domain of

1 1
y = ln( )+ t n is (0, ). So y = ln( )+ t n is continuous on (0, ). The denominator
2 2
y= 1 is continuous in its domain, that is except 1 = 0, as ( , 1) [ ( 1, 1) [ (1, ).
So ƒ is continuous in the interval (0, 1) and (1, ).

Exercise �.��
Where the following functions are continuous?

p
3 3
sin
(a). ƒ ( ) = 1+ (b). ƒ ( ) = .
1+

Theorem �.�
If ƒ is continuous at b and lim g( ) = b then lim ƒ (g( )) = ƒ (b). In other words,
!⇣ ⌘ !
lim ƒ (g( )) = ƒ lim g( ) = ƒ (b).
! !

Example �.�8
Ç p å
1
Evaluate lim rcsin .
!1 1

Solution

Since, rcsin = sin 1 is continuous function, then according to the above theorem, we have
Ç p å Ç p å Ç p p å
(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 + )
lim sin 1 = sin 1 lim = sin 1 lim ⇥ p
!1 (1 ) !1 (1 ) !1 (1 ) (1 + )
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1
(1 ) 1
1 1
1
= sin lim p = sin lim p = sin =
!1 (1 )(1 + ) !1 (1 + ) 2 6

Theorem �.8
If g is continuous at and ƒ is continuous at g( ), then (ƒ og) ( ) = ƒ (g( )) is
continuous at .

Example �.��
Where are the following function are continuous?
(a). h( ) = sin( 2 ) (b). F( ) = ln(1 + cos )

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CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS�.�. LIMITS AT INFINITY, HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES

Solution

(a). We have h( ) = ƒ (g( )), where

g( ) = 2 and ƒ ( ) = sin
Now g is continuous on R, since it is a polynomial and ƒ is also continuous everywhere, that is
( , ). Thus h = ƒ og is continuous on R or ( , ).

(b). By the theorem, F( ) = ƒ (g( )), where

ƒ ( ) = ln( ) is continuous for all positive, that is [ 0, ) and g( ) = 1 + cos is continuous
because both y = 1 and y = cos are continuous.
Therefore, ln(1 + cos ) is de�ned when 1 + cos > 0. So it is unde�ned when cos = 1, that
is when ( = ± , ±3 ......).
Thus, we can say that F is continuous on the interval between these values and discontinuous
when is odd multiple of .

�.� Limits at In�nity, Horizontal Asymptotes

Limits at in�nity
De�nition �.��

Let ƒ be a function de�ned on some interval ( , ), then

lim = L (or ƒ ( ) ! L s ! )
!
It means that when is large then ƒ ( ) is arbitrarily close to L.

Similarly, if ƒ be a function de�ned on some interval ( , ), then

lim = L (or ƒ ( ) ! L s ! )
!
It means that when is large negative then ƒ ( ) is arbitrarily close
to L.

De�nition �.��
The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = ƒ ( ) if either
lim = L or lim = L
! !

Example �.��

1 1
In the �gure, lim = 0 and lim =0
! !

which shows that y = 0 is the horizontal

1
asymptote for the graph ƒ ( ) = .

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. LIMITS AT INFINITY, HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTESCHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

Example �.��
1
In the graph of ƒ ( ) = t n ,
1 1
lim t n = and lim t n =
! 2 ! 2
which shows that the line y = is
2
the horizontal asymptote for ƒ in the positive direction
and the line y = is a horizontal asymptote
2
in the negative direction.

Example �.��
Find the in�nite limits, limit at in�nity, and asymptotes for the function ƒ given in the following
graph.

Solution

From the graph of ƒ , it shows that

lim ƒ( ) = lim ƒ( ) =
! 1 ! 1+

lim ƒ ( ) = , lim ƒ ( ) =
!2 !2+
Thus both of the lines = 1 and = 2 are the vertical asymptotes.

lim ƒ ( ) = 2, lim ƒ ( ) = 4
! !

Thus both of the lines y = 4 and y = 2 are the horizontal asymptotes.

Theorem �.�
If r > 0 rational number, then
1 1
lim = 0, lim =0
! !
r
where is de�ned for all .

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS�.�. LIMITS AT INFINITY, HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES

Example �.��
Ç 2
å
3 2
Evaluate: lim 2
! 5 +4 +1

Solution
Divide each term in the numerator and denominator by the highest power of that occurs in the
denominator, that is by 2
0 1 0 1
3 2 2 1 2
Ç å
3 2 2 B
B 2
C
C B3 2C
lim = lim B C = lim B C
! 2
5 +4 +1 ! @ 2
5 +4 +1 A ! @ 4 1 A
5+ + 2
2

1 2
3 2 3 0 0 3
= = =
4 1 5+0+0 5
5+ 2

3 3
A similar calculation shows that the limit as ( ! ) is also . Thus, y = is the horizontal
5 5
asymptote.

+ Remark
A quick method for �nding limits of rational functions as ( ! ± ):
The limit at in�nity for the rational function can be found by taking the limit of the term of highest
power of from the numerator divided by the term with highest power of in the denominator.

Example �.��
Example: Find
Ç 2
å Ç 2
å
4 +7 3 +4
(a). lim 3
(b). lim 2
! 1 ! 2 +5 8

Solution
Ç å 2
4 2 +7 lim 4 +7 4 2 4 1
!
(a). lim 3
= 3
= lim 3
= lim = =0
! 1 lim 1 ! !
!
Ç å 2
3 2 +4 lim 3 +4 3 2 3 3
!
(b). lim 2 2
= lim 2
= lim =
! 2 +5 8 lim 2 +5 8 ! 2 ! 2 2
!

Exercise �.��
Find
Ç 2
å ✓ ◆
5 4 +3 4 +6
(a). lim 3
(b). lim
! 2 +1 ! 5 8

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. LIMITS AT INFINITY, HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTESCHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

Example �.��
p
2 2 +1
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function, ƒ ( ) =
3 5

Solution
Dividing both numerator and denominator by⇣ the highest
p power
⌘ of present in the denominator,
that is . But when ! , we replace | | = 2 = and when ! we replace
⇣ p ⌘
| |= 2 = . Now we have
p p v
u 2
2 2+1 2 2+1 t2 + 1
p p
2 2+1 | | 2 2
lim = lim = lim = lim
! 3 5 ! 3 5 ! 3 5 ! 3 5

v v
t 1 t 1
2+ 2+ p p
2 2 2+0 2
= lim = = =
! 5 5 3 0 3
3 3
p
2
Therefore y = is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of ƒ .
3
Now
p p v
u
2 2 +1 2 2+1 t2 2 +1
p p
2 2 +1 2
| | 2
lim = lim = lim = lim
! 3 5 ! 3 5 ! 3 5 ! 3 5

v v
t 1 t 1
2+ 2+ p p
2 2 2+0 2
= lim = = =
! 5 5 3 0 3
3 3
p
2
Thus y = is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of ƒ .
3
5
A vertical asymptote occur when the denominator is 0, that is when 3 5 = 0 or = . Therefore
3

p «
2 50
2 +1 9
+1
lim
Ä ä = =
! 5 + 3 5 0
3 v
t 50
p
2 2 +1 +1
9
lim
Ä ä = =
! 5 3 5 0
3
5
Thus = is a vertical asymptote.
3

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS�.�. LIMITS AT INFINITY, HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES

Exercise �.��
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function:
Ç 6
å ✓ ◆
9 2 +1
(a). lim 3
(b). lim
! +1 ! 2

+ Remark 0
_ Types of indeterminate form are: 0. , , 1 , 0 , , ,
0
_ lim e = , lim e = 0
! !

Example �.�6
⇣∆ ⌘
Compute lim 2 +1
!

Solution
⇣∆ ⌘
By direct substitution, lim 2 . So,to remove this indeterminate form, we
+1 =
! ⇣∆ ⌘
multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate radical 2+1+ .
Äp ä Äp ä
⇣∆ ⌘ 2 +1 2 +1+ ( 2 + 1) 2
lim 2 +1 = lim Äp ä = lim Äp ä
! ! 2 ! 2+1+
+1+

1
1
= lim Äp ä = lim Äp ä
! 2 ! 2
+1+ +1+

1
0
= lim Çv å=p = 0.
! t 1 1+0+1
1+ 2
+1

In�nite limits at in�nity

De�nition �.��
If the value of ƒ ( ) increases without bound as ! or as ! , then
lim ƒ ( ) = or lim ƒ ( ) =
! !
Similarly, if the value of ƒ ( ) decreases without bound as ! or as ! , then
lim ƒ ( ) = or lim ƒ ( ) =
! !

+ Remarkn
Limits of as ( !± ):

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. LIMITS AT INFINITY, HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTESCHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

8
>
> , ƒ n = 1, 3, 5, .....
<
n
lim ( )= , where (n = 1, 2, 3, .....) and ƒ ( ) =
! >
>
: , ƒ n = 2, 4, 6, .....

Example �.��

Example �.�8
2
Find lim .
!

Solution
2
By direct substitution, lim = . Thus, we write
!
⇣ ⌘ ⇣ ⌘
2
lim = lim ( 1) = lim . lim ( 1) = . =
! ! ! !

Exercise �.�6
2 +
Find lim .
! 3

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �6 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS�.�. LIMITS AT INFINITY, HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES

Homework Chapter �
Q �. Find the function F graphed in the �gure below:

(a) lim F( ), (b) lim F( )

! 2 ! 2+
(a) lim F( ), (d) F( 2)
! 2

Q �. Find the limit, if it exists.

∆ 2 2 +1
(a) lim ( 1)( + 1), (b) lim 4 + 3 + 6, (c) lim 2
!2 ! 1 !2 +6 4
2 + 6 2 9 1
(d) lim (e) lim (f) lim p
!2 2 !3 3 !1 1
p
+4 2 1 1
(g) lim (h) lim (i) lim
!0 !2+ |2 | !3 | 3|

Q �. Determine the in�nite limits.

(a) lim 2
(b) lim 2
(c) lim 2
!2 | 4| !2+ | 4| !2 | 4|
+2 +2 2
(d) lim (e) lim (f) lim
! 3 +3 ! 3+ +3 !1 ( 1)2
8
< 1, ƒ 3
Q �. Let ƒ ( ) =
: 3 7, ƒ >3
Find,
(a) lim ƒ ( ) (b) lim ƒ ( ) (c) lim ƒ ( ).
!3 !3+ !3

Q� . By using Squeeze
✓ theorem,
◆ show that
Ä ä
2 2 sin
1
(a) lim 2 cos =0 (b) lim e = 0.
!0 !0
Q 6. Determine whether ƒ is continuous from the right, or from the left, or neither.

Q �. Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. LIMITS AT INFINITY, HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTESCHAPTER �. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

p
3 +2
2
(a). ƒ ( ) = +2 4 (b). ƒ ( ) = 8 (c). ƒ ( ) = 2 4
8 2
>
>
2 >
< 2
, ƒ 6= 1
3 2 1
(d). ƒ ( ) = (e). ƒ ( ) = 2
(f). ƒ ( ) =
4 2 + >
>
>
:
1, ƒ =1
8
>
> (2 + 3), ƒ 4
>
<
(g). ƒ ( ) =
>
> 16
>
: 7+ , ƒ >4

Q 8. For what value of the constant k, if possible that will make the function continuous everywhere?
8 8
> > 2
> 7 2, ƒ 1 > k , ƒ 2
< <
(a). ƒ ( ) = (b). ƒ ( ) =
>
> >
>
: k 2, ƒ >1 : 2 + k, ƒ >2
8
< 9 2
, ƒ 3
(c). ƒ ( ) = k
: , ƒ < 3
2

Q �. For the function g whose graph is given, state the following.

(a). lim g( ) (b). lim g( ) (c). lim g( )
! ! !3

(d). lim g( ) (e). lim g( ) (f). The equation of the asymptotes

!0 ! 2+

Q ��. Find the limits. p

3 +5 9 6 ⇣∆ ⌘
(a). lim (b). lim 3
(c). lim 9 2 + 3
! 4 ! +1 !
p p
2+2 2 +2 5
(d). lim (e). lim (f). lim 1+2 3
! 3 6 ! 3 6 !

1 e 1 e 6 t3
(g). lim (h). lim (i). lim
! 1+e ! 1+e ! 7t 3 + 3

Q ��. Find the horizontal and vertical asymptote of the following functions.
2+1 2 2+ 1
(a). y = (b). ƒ ( ) =
2 2 3 2 2+ 2

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �8 Math ��� Jazan University

Chapter � Differentiation

�.� Derivatives and Rate of Change

Tangents
De�nition �.�

The tangent line to the curve y = ƒ ( ) at the point P( , ƒ ( )) is the line with equation
ƒ( ) ƒ( )
y ƒ ( ) = m( ) Where, the slope m = lim
!

Example �.�
2
Find the equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = at the point P(1, 1).

Solution
2
Given that, = 1 and ƒ ( ) = . Thus slope is given by

ƒ( ) ƒ (1) 2 1 ( + 1)( 1)
m = lim = lim = lim = lim ( + 1) = 2
!1 1 !1 1 !1 ( 1) !1

Now using the point-slope form of equation of line, we �nd equation of tangent line line at the point
P(1, 1) is
y 1 = 2( 1) =) y = 2 1.

De�nition �.�
The slope of the tangent line to the curve y = ƒ ( ) at the point P( , ƒ ( ) is de�ned as

ƒ ( + h) ƒ( )
m = lim
h !0 h

Example �.�
3
Find the equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = at the point P(3, 1).

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. DERIVATIVES AND RATE OF CHANGE CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

Solution
3
Given that ( , ƒ ( )) = (3, 1) and ƒ ( ) = . Now slope is

3 3 (3 + h)
ƒ ( + h) ƒ( ) ƒ (3 + h) ƒ (3) 1
3+h 3+h
m = lim = lim = lim = lim
h !0 h h !0 h h !0 h h !0 h
h
3+h h 1 1
= lim = lim = lim =
h !0 h h !0 h(3 + h) h !0 (3 + h) 3
1
Therefore an equation of the tangent line at the point (3, 1) is y 1= ( 3), after simpli�-
3
cation become + 3y 6=0

Derivatives
De�nition �.�
The derivative of a function ƒ at a number , denoted by ƒ 0 ( ) is

ƒ ( + h) ƒ( ) ƒ( ) ƒ( )
ƒ 0 ( ) = lim or ƒ 0 ( ) = lim
h !0 h !
if this limit exists.

Example �.�
2
Find the derivative of the function ƒ ( ) = 8 + 9 at the number .

Solution
We have,

0
ƒ ( + h) ƒ( ) ( + h)2 8( + h) + 9 ( 2 8 + 9)
ƒ ( ) = lim = lim
h !0 h h !0 h
2 + 2 h + h2 8 8h + 9 2 +8 9
= lim = lim (2 + h 8) = 2 8
h !0 h h !0

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI 6� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.�. THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION

+ Remark
The equation of the tangent line to the curve y = ƒ ( ) at the point P( , ƒ ( ) is the line through
0
whose slope is equal to ƒ ( ) is

y ƒ ( ) = ƒ 0 ( )( )

Example �.�
2
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola ƒ ( ) = 8 + 9 at the point (3, 6).

Solution

From the previous example, the derivative of ƒ ( ) = 2 8 + 9 at the number is ƒ 0 ( ) = 2 8.

Thus slope of tangent line at (3, 6) is ƒ 0 (3) = 2(3) 8 = 2.
So equation of tangent line is
y ƒ (3) = ƒ 0 (3)( 3)
y ( 6) = 2( 3)
y+6= 2 + 6 =) y = 2
.

�.� The Derivative as a Function

De�nition of derivative
De�nition �.�
ƒ ( + h) ƒ( )
The derivative of a function ƒ ( ) is, ƒ 0 ( ) = lim , if this limit exists.
h !0 h

Example �.�
Find the derivative of ƒ ( ) and state the domain of ƒ 0 ( ).
p
(a). ƒ ( ) = 3 (b). ƒ ( ) =

Solution

(a). From the de�nition,we have

⇥ ⇤
ƒ ( + h) ƒ( ) ( + h)3 ( + h) ( 3 )
ƒ 0 ( ) = lim = lim
h !0 h h !0 h
3 + h3 + 3 2h + 3h2 h 3 +
= lim
h !0 h
h h2 + 3 2 + 3h 1 2
= lim =3 1
h !0 h
0
Since ƒ ( ) is a polynomial. So, Dƒ 0 = ( , ).

Math ��� Jazan University 6� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

(b). From the de�nition,we have

p p p p p p
0
ƒ ( + h) ƒ( ) +h +h +h+
ƒ ( ) = lim = lim = lim . p p
h !0 h h !0 h h !0 h +h+

+h 1 1
= lim p p = lim p p = p
h !0 +h+ h !0 +h+ 2
Now, Dƒ 0 = (0, ).

Exercise �.�
Find the derivative of ƒ ( ).
2
1
(a). ƒ ( ) = (b). ƒ ( ) =
2+

Other notations

+ Remark
Some common alternative notation for the derivative of function y = ƒ ( ) are as follows:

dy dƒ d
ƒ 0 ( ) = y0 = = = ƒ ( ) = Dƒ ( ) = D ƒ ( )
d d d

De�nition �.�
A function ƒ is differentiable at if ƒ 0 ( ) exists. It is differentiable on an open
interval ( , b) [or ( , ), or ( , ), or ( , ), if it is differentiable at every number in the
interval.

Example �.6
Where is the function ƒ ( ) = | | is differentiable?

Solution

If > 0 then | | = , choose h very small, such that ( + h) > 0 then | + h| = + h.

Thus for > 0,
| + h| | | +h
ƒ 0 ( ) = lim = lim =1
h !0 h h !0 h
So, ƒ is differentiable for > 0.

Similarly, if < 0 then | | = , choose h very small, such that ( +h) < 0 then | +h| = ( +h).
Thus for < 0,
| + h| | | ( + h) ( )
ƒ 0 ( ) = lim = lim = 1
h !0 h h !0 h
So, ƒ is differentiable for < 0.

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI 6� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.�. THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION

For = 0, we have
(0 + h) (0) |0 + h| |0| h
lim = lim = lim =1
h !0+ h h !0+ h h !0+ h
(0 + h) (0) |0 + h| |0| h
lim = lim = lim
= 1
h !0 h h !0 h h !0 h
Since, both L.H.L. and R.H.L. are not equal. Therefore function ƒ is not differentiable at = 0.
Hence ƒ is differentiable on ( , 0) [ (0, ).
8
>
> 1, ƒ >0
<
So, ƒ 0 ( ) =
>
>
: 1, ƒ <0

Theorem �.�
A function ƒ is differentiable at , then it is continuous at .

Note: (The converse of above theorem is false); that is, there are functions that are continu-
ous
but not differentiable( See Example:ƒ ( ) = | | is continuous at = 0 but is not differentiable at
= 0.)

How can a function fail to be differentiable?

The following graphs of functions are not differentiable at = .

Higher derivative
De�nition �.6
If ƒ is differentiable function, then its derivative ƒ 0 is also a function. Further derivative of ƒ 0 is ƒ 00
called the second derivative of ƒ .
Other common notations are
dy d
y0 = = [ ƒ ( )]
d d

Math ��� Jazan University 6� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. DERIVATIVES OF POLYNOMIALS AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION


00
d2 y d d d2
y = 2
= [ ƒ ( )] = 2
[ ƒ ( )]
d d d d
Similarly,
dn y (n)
dn
n
=ƒ ( )= n
[ ƒ ( )]
d d

Example �.�
3
If ƒ ( ) = , �nd ƒ 00 ( ).

Solution

First we �nd ƒ 0 ( ),
⇥ ⇤
0
ƒ ( + h) ƒ( ) ( + h)3 ( + h) ( 3 )
ƒ ( ) = lim = lim
h !0 h h !0 h
3 + h3 + 3 2h + 3h2 h 3 + h3 + 3 2h + 3h2 h
= lim = lim
h !0 h h !0 h
h h2 +3 2 +3 h 1
= lim = lim h2 + 3 2
+3 h 1 =3 2
1
h !0 h h !0

Now, we �nd ƒ 00 ( )
⇥ ⇤
00
ƒ 0 ( + h) ƒ 0( ) 3( + h)2 1 (3 2 1)
ƒ ( ) = lim = lim
h !0 h h !0 h

3 2 + 6 h + 3h2 1 3 2 +1 h(6 + 3h)

= lim = lim =6
h !0 h h !0 h

Exercise �.�
2 3
If ƒ ( ) = 2 , �nd ƒ 0 ( ), ƒ 00 ( ) and ƒ 000 ( ).

�.� Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions

Derivative of a constant function

De�nition �.�
Let ƒ ( ) = c be any real number, then

ƒ ( + h) ƒ( ) c c
ƒ 0 ( ) = lim = lim =0
h !0 h h !0 h

d
or, (c) = 0
d

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI 6� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.�. DERIVATIVES OF POLYNOMIALS AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Example �.8
d d d p d
(1) = 0, ( 5) = 0, ( 3) = 0, (0) = 0.
d d d d

Power function
De�nition �.8
d
( )n = n( )n 1
, where n is a positive integer.
d

Example �.�
d d
( ) = 1, ( )4 = 4( )4 1
= 4( )3
d d
✓ ◆
d 1 d 6 6 1 7
6
6
= ( ) = 6( ) = 6( ) = 7
d d
d p d 1 1 1
1
1 1 1 1
( )= ( )2 = ( )2 = ( ) 2 = 1
= p
d d 2 2 2( ) 2 2

d p 1
) ( )= p
d 2

Example �.��
1 p
3
Differentiate: (a). ƒ ( ) = 2
(b). ƒ ( ) = 2

Solution
✓ ◆
d 1 d 2 2 1 3
2
(a). 2
= ( ) = 2( ) = 2( ) = 3
d d
d ⇣p
3
⌘ d ⇣ 2
⌘ 2 2
1
2 1 2 1
(b). 2 = 3 = ( )3 = ( ) 3 = p
d d 3 3 3 3

Example �.��
p
Find the equations of the tangent line and normal line to the curve y = at the point (1, 1).
Illustrate by graphing the curve and these lines.

Solution
p 3
The derivative of y = = 2 is
dy d 3 3 3
1
3 1 3p
= ( )2 = ( )2 = ( )2 =
d d 2 2 2
✓ ◆
dy 3
Thus slope at the point (1, 1) is, m = =
d =1 2

Math ��� Jazan University 6� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. DERIVATIVES OF POLYNOMIALS AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

Now equation of tangent line is

3 3 1
y 1= ( 1) ) y =
2 2 2
2
Since normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line. Therefore, slope of normal line is m = .
3
Thus equation of normal line is

2 2 5
y 1= ( 1) ) y = +
3 3 3

De�nition �.�
If ƒ and g are both differentiable and c is constant, then
d d
_ Constant multiple rule: [ cƒ ( )] = c ƒ( )
d d
d d d
_ Sum rule: [ ƒ ( ) + g( )] = ƒ( ) + g( )
d d d
d d d
_ Difference rule: [ƒ ( ) g( )] = ƒ( ) g( )
d d d

Example �.��
Find the derivative of the following functions: p
8 5 4 3
2
(a). ƒ ( ) = + 12 4 + 10 6 +5 (b). ƒ ( ) = p

Solution

(a).
d 8 5 4 3
ƒ 0( ) = + 12 4 + 10 6 +5
d
d d d d d d
= ( )8 + 12 ( )5 4 ( )4 + 10 ( )3 6 ( )+ (5)
d d d d d d
7 4 3 2
=8 + 12(5 ) 4(4 ) + 10(3 ) 6(1) + 0
7 4 3 2
=8 + 60 16 + 30 6

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI 66 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.�. DERIVATIVES OF POLYNOMIALS AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

(b).
Çp å Çp å
d 2 d 2 d p
ƒ 0( ) = p = p p = (1 2 )
d d d

d d p 1 1
= (1) 2 ( )=0 2. p = p
d d 2

Exercise �.�
Find the derivative of the following functions:
(a). ƒ ( ) = 3 8 2 5 + 6 + 1 (b). ƒ ( ) = 3
2 4
+7 5

Exponential function
De�nition �.��
d
Derivative of exponential function: (e ) = e
d

Example �.��
If ƒ ( ) = e , �nd ƒ 0 and ƒ 00 . Compare the graph of ƒ and ƒ 0 .

Solution

d
ƒ 0( ) = (e )=e 1
d
d
ƒ 00 ( ) = (e 1) = e
d

The graph of function ƒ and ƒ 0 shows that, function ƒ

have horizontal tangent when = 0 and ƒ 0 (0) = 0.
Now, for > 0, ƒ 0 ( ) is positive and ƒ ( ) is increasing.
when < 0, ƒ 0 ( ) is negative and ƒ ( ) is decreasing.

Example �.��
At what point on the curve y = e is the tangent line parallel to the line y = 2 ?

Solution

dy
The derivative of the y = e is = e . Line y = 2 is parallel to the tangent line. So, the slope
d
of both line is same, that is e = 2 =) = ln(2). Thus the point is (ln 2, 2)

Math ��� Jazan University 6� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT RULE CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

�.� The Product and Quotient Rule

The Product Rule

De�nition �.��
If ƒ and g are differentiable at , then
d d d
[ ƒ ( ).g( )] = ƒ ( ) [ g( )] + g( ) [ ƒ ( )]
d d d
or
⇥ ⇤
(ƒ g)0 = ƒ g0 + gƒ 0

Example �.��
(a). If ƒ ( ) = e , �nd ƒ 0 ( ).
(b). Find the nth derivative, ƒ n ( ).

Solution

(a). By using product rule,

d d d d
ƒ 0( ) = ƒ( ) = ( e )= (e ) + e ( ) = e + e (1)
d d d d
= ( + 1)e
(b). Again using product rule,

d d d d
ƒ 00 ( ) = ƒ 0( ) = ( + 1)e = ( + 1) (e ) + e ( + 1)
d d d d
= ( + 1)e + e (1) = ( + 2)e
Further using the product rule number of times, we get

ƒ 000 ( ) = ( + 3)e , ƒ (4) ( ) = ( + 4)e , .........., ƒ (n) ( ) = ( + n)e

Example �.�6
p
Differentiate the function, ƒ (t) = t.( + bt).

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI 68 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.�. THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT RULE

Solution
By using product rule,

d Äp ä Äp ä d d Äp ä
ƒ 0 (t) = t.( + bt) = t ( + bt) + ( + bt) t
dt dt dt
✓ ◆
p 1 1 p ( + bt)
= b t + ( + bt) t 2 =b t+ p
2 2 t
( + 3bt)
= p
2 t

Example �.��
p
If ƒ ( ) == .g( ), where g(4) = 2 and g0 (4) = 3, �nd ƒ 00 (4).

Solution
By using product rule,

d p p d d p
ƒ 0( ) = .g( ) = (g( )) + g( )
d d d
p g( )
= .g0 ( ) + p
2
p g(4) p 2 13
Thus, ƒ 0 (4) = 4g0 ( ) + p = 4(3) + p = .
2 4 2 4 2

Exercise �.�
Find the derivative of the following function.
p
(a). ƒ = 4 + 3 (b). y = 4 .e

Quotient Rule
De�nition �.��
If ƒ and g are differentiable at , then

d ƒ( ) g( ) dd [ ƒ ( )] ƒ ( ) dd [ g( )]
=
d g( ) [ g( )] 2
or  0
ƒ gƒ 0 ƒ g0
=
g g2

Example �.�8
2 + 2
If y = 3
, �nd y 0 .
+6

Math ��� Jazan University 6� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT RULE CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

Solution
By using quotient rule, we have

d d
( 3 + 6) ( 2 + 2) ( 2 + 2) ( 3 + 6)
0 d d
y = 3
( + 6)2

( 3 + 6)(2 + 1 0) ( 2 + 2)(3 2 + 0)
= 3
( + 6)2
4 2 3 +6 2 + 12 + 6
= 3
( + 6)2

Example �.��
e Å eã
Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = 2)
at the point 1, .
(1 + 2

Solution
By applying the quotient rule, we have

d d
(1 + 2) (e ) e (1 + 2)
dy (1 + 2 )(e ) e (2 ) e (1 )2
0 d d
y = = 2 )2
= 2 )2
= 2 )2
d (1 + (1 + (1 +
Å eã
Now, Slope of the tangent line at 1, is
2
✓ ◆
dy
=0
d =1

The equation of tangent line at ( Å1 , y1ã) is (y y1 ) = m( 1 ).

e
Thus equation of tangent line at 1, is
2
Å eã e
y = 0( 1) =) y = .
2 2

Exercise �.�
Find the derivative of the following function.

2
p
2 e 3 =2
(a). ƒ ( ) = p (b). ƒ ( ) = (c). ƒ ( ) =
2+ 1+

+ Remark
Table of Differentiation Formulas

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.�. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

d d d
(c) = 0 ( )n = n n 1
(e) = e (c.ƒ )0 = c.ƒ 0
d d d
✓ ◆
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ƒ gƒ 0 ƒ g0
(ƒ + g) = ƒ + g (ƒ g) = ƒ g (ƒ .g) = ƒ g + gƒ =
g g2

�.� Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

De�nition �.��
d d d
(sin ) = cos (cos ) = sin (t n ) = sec2
d d d

d d d
(csc ) = csc . cot (sec ) = sec . t n (cot ) = csc2
d d d

Example �.��
Differentiate the following functions.
(a). ƒ ( ) = 2 . sin
(b). ƒ ( ) = csc . cot
sec
(c). ƒ ( ) =
1+t n

Solution

d 2 2
d d 2 2
(a). ƒ 0 ( ) = ( . sin ) = (sin ) + sin ( ) = . cos + sin .(2 ) =
d d d
2
. cos + 2 sin

d d d
(b). ƒ 0 ( ) = (csc . cot ) = csc (cot ) + cot (csc )
d d d

= csc( csc2 ) + cot ( csc . cot ) = csc3 cot2 . csc

d d
d Å sec ã (1 + t n ) (sec ) (sec ) (1 + t n )
0 d d
(c). ƒ ( ) = =
d 1+t n (1 + t n )2

(1 + t n ). sec t n (sec )(0 + sec2 ) sec t n + sec t n2 sec3

= =
(1 + t n )2 (1 + t n )2

sec (t n + t n2 sec2 ) sec (t n 1)

= =
(1 + t n )2 (1 + t n )2

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

+ Remark
sin 1 cos cos 1
lim = 1, lim = lim =0
!0 !0 !0

Example �.��
sin 7
Find, lim
!0 4

Solution

sin 7 sin 7 7 7 sin 7

lim = lim ⇥ = lim
!0 4 !0 4 7 4 !0 7
Let = 7 , then ( ! 0) as ( ! 0)

sin 7 7 sin 7
lim = lim =
!0 4 4 !0 4

Example �.��
Find, lim . cot .
!0

Solution

cos cos lim cos cos 0

!0
lim . cot = lim . = lim ✓ ◆= ✓ ◆= =1
!0 !0 sin !0 sin sin 1
lim
!0

Example �.��
cos 1
Find, lim
!0 sin

Solution
✓ ◆
cos 1
lim
cos 1 cos 1 !0 0
lim = lim ⇥ = ✓ ◆ = = 0.
!0 sin !0 sin sin 1
lim
!0

Exercise �.6
sin 4 t n6
Find, (a). lim (b). lim
!0 sin 6 !0 sin 2

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.6. THE CHAIN RULE

�.6 The Chain Rule

De�nition �.��
If (g) is differentiable at ( ) and (ƒ ) is differentiable at g( ), then the composition F = ƒ og de�ned
by F( ) = ƒ (g( )) is differentiable at , that is
F 0 ( ) = ƒ 0 (g( )) .g0 ( )
dy dy d
In Leibnitz notation, if y = ƒ ( ) and = g( ), then = .
d d d

De�nition �.��
Power rule combined with the chain rule:
If n is any real number and = g( ) is differentiable, then

d n n 1
d
( )=n
d d
Alternatively,
d
[ g( )] n = n[ g( )] n 1
.g0 ( )
d

Example �.��
∆
Find F 0 ( ) if F( ) = 2 +1

Solution
p
Let F 0 ( ) = ƒ (g( )), where ƒ ( ) = and g( ) = 2 + 1.
1 1
1 1 1 1
Now, ƒ 0( ) = ( ) 2 = ( ) 2 = p and g0 ( ) = 2
2 2 2
Then we have,
1
F 0 ( ) = ƒ 0 (g( )).g0 ( ) = p .(2 ) = p
2 2 +1 2 2 +1

+ Remark
In using chain rule, we differentiate the outer function [at the inner function g( )] and then
we multiply by the derivative of the inner function.

Example �.��
Differentiate:
(a). y = sin( 2
) (b). y = sin2 .

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.6. THE CHAIN RULE CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

Solution

(a). The outer function is sine function and the inner function is squaring function. Thus by using
chain rule,

(b). The outer function is squaring function and the inner function is sine function. Thus by using
chain rule,

De�nition �.�6
Derivatives of Exponential functions:

d d
(e ) = e and ( )= . n( )
d d

Generalized derivative formulas:

d d d d
(e ) = e and ( )= . n( )
d d d d

Example �.�6
Find the derivative of the following functions:
3 100 1
(a). y = 1 (b). ƒ( ) = p
3
(c). ƒ( ) =
2 + +1
4
(2 + 1)5 3
+1
✓ ◆9
t 2
(d). g(t) = (e). y = esin (f). y = (4) 2
(g).
2t + 1
ƒ ( ) = sin (cos(t n ))

8 p
(h). y = esec 3 (i). y = 1 + 5
. cos (j). y = sin 1 + cos

Solution
3
(a). Taking = g( ) = 1 and n = 100, we have

dy d 3 100 3 100 1 d 3
= 1 = 100 1 1
d d d

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.6. THE CHAIN RULE

3 99 2 2 3 99
= 100 1 .3 = 300 . 1

0
d ⇣∆
3
⌘ 1
3 1 2
1
1 d 2
(b). ƒ ( )= 2 + +1 = + +1 3
. + +1
d 3 d
1 2
4
= + +1 3
(2 + 1)
3
d h 5 4
i d 4
(c). 0
ƒ ( ) = (2 + 1) 3
+1 = (2 + 1)5 3
+1 +
d d
4 d
3
+1 (2 + 1)5
d
3 d 4 d
= (2 + 1)5 .4 3
+1 3
+1 + 3
+1 .5 (2 + 1)4 (2 + 1)
d d
3 4
= (2 + 1)5 .4 3
+1 (3 2
1) + 3
+1 .5 (2 + 1)4 (2)
3 4
= 4 (2 + 1)5 3
+1 (3 2
1) + 10 3
+1 (2 + 1)4
✓ ◆9 ✓ ◆8 ✓ ◆
0
d t 2 t 2 d t 2
(d). g (t) = =9
dt 2t + 1
2t + 1 dt 2t + 1
d d
✓ ◆
t 2 8 (2t + 1) dt (t 2) (t 2) dt (2t + 1)
=9
2t + 1 (2t + 1)2
✓ ◆8
t 2 (2t + 1) 2(t 2) 27(t 2)8
=9 =
2t + 1 (2t + 1)2 (2t + 1)10
dy d d
(e). = (esin ) = (esin ) (sin ) = (esin ). cos
d d d
dy d 2 2
d 2
(f). = (4) = (4) ln(4) ( 2 )= 2(4) ln(4)
d d d
d d
(g). ƒ 0( ) = sin (cos(t n )) = cos (cos(t n )) (cos(t n ))
d d
d
= cos (cos(t n )) ( sin(t n )) (t n )
d
= cos (cos(t n )) . sin(t n ). sec2
dy d d d
(h). = (esec 3 ) = (esec 3 ) (sec 3 ) = (esec 3 ) sec 3 . t n 3 (3 ) =
d d d d
3(esec 3 ) sec 3 . t n 3
dy d 5 8 5 9 d 5
(i). = 1+ . cos = 8 1+ . cos 1+ . cos
d d  d
5 9 5
d d 5
= 8 1+ . cos 0+ (cos ) + cos
d d
5 9 5 4
= 8 1+ . cos ( sin + 5 . cos )
dy d Ä Äp ää Äp ä d 1
(j). = sin 1 + cos = cos 1 + cos . (1 + cos ) 2
d d d

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

p
1 Äp ä 1 d cos 1 + cos . sin
= cos 1 + cos (1 + cos ) 2 (1 + cos ) = p
2 d 2 (1 + cos )

Exercise �.�
3 35
Find the derivative of the following functions: (a). ƒ ( ) = +2
∆
(b). ƒ ( ) = 3 2 +5 (c). ƒ ( ) = 2 sec2 7

�.� Implicit Differentiation

De�nition �.��
A function
∆ expressed in the relation of and y, such as 3 + y 3 = 4 y, y = cos ,
y= 2 + 2,......etc. are called implicit functions. To �nd the derivative of such type of function

is called implicit differentiation.

+ Remark
Method to Solve:
Step �. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to .
Step �. Solve the resulting equation for y 0 .

Example �.��

2
dy
(a). If + y 2 = 25, �nd .
d
2
(b). Find an equation of the tangent to the circle + y 2 = 25 at the point (3, 4).

Solution
2
(a). Differentiate both side + y 2 = 25 with respect to , we get
d ⇥ 2
⇤ d
+ y2 = (25)
d d
d ⇥ 2
⇤ d ⇥ ⇤
+ y2 = 0
d d
dy dy
2 + 2y = 0 =) =
d d y

dy
(b). Since from previous solution, = . So, slope of the tangent line at point = 3 and y = 4
d y
is ✓ ◆
dy 3
=
d ( =3, y=4) 4
Thus the equation of tangent line to the circle at (3, 4) is
3
y 4= ( 3), or 3 + 4y = 25.
4

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �6 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.�. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

Example �.�8

3
dy
(a). If + y 3 = 6 y, �nd .
d
3
(b). Find an equation of the tangent of + y 3 = 6 y at the point (3, 3).

Solution
3
(a). Differentiate both side + y 3 = 6 y with respect to , we get

d ⇥ 3
⇤ d
+ y3 = (6 y)
d d
d ⇥ 3
⇤ d ⇥ ⇤ d d
+ y3 = 6 (y) + 6y ( )
d d d d
2
dy dy
3 + 3y 2 =6 + 6y
d d
dy dy 6y 3 2
2 2
(3y 6 ) = 6y 3 =) =
d d (3y 2 6 )

dy 6y 3 2
(b). Since from previous solution, = . So, slope of the tangent line at point =3
d (3y 2 6 )
and y = 3 is ✓ ◆
dy
= 1
d ( =3, y=3)

Thus the equation of tangent line to the folium of Descartes at (3, 3) is

y 3 = 1( 3), or + y = 6.

Example �.��
(a). Find y 0 , if sin( + y) = y 2 cos .
4
(b). Find y 00 , if + y 4 = 16

Solution

(a). Differentiate both side sin( + y) = y 2 cos with respect to , we get

d d ⇥ ⇤
[ sin( + y)] = y 2 cos
d d
d d d
cos ( + y).( + y) = y 2 . (cos ) + cos . (y 2 )
d d d
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
dy 2
dy
cos ( + y). 1 + = y .( sin ) + cos . 2y
d d
dy dy
cos ( + y). 2y cos . = y 2 sin cos ( + y)
d d
dy ⇥ 2 ⇤
[ cos ( + y) 2y cos ] . = y sin + cos ( + y)
d

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.8. DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

⇥ ⇤
dy y 2 sin + cos ( + y)
=
d [ cos ( + y) 2y cos ]
4
(b). Differentiate both side + y 4 = 16 with respect to , we get

d ⇥ 4
⇤ d
+ y4 = (16)
d d
3
3 3 0 0
4 + 4y y = 0 =) y =
y3
ñ ô
00
d 3 y 3 dd ( 3) ( 3) d
d
(y 3 ) 3 2 y3 +3 3 y2 y0
y = = =
d y3 y6 y6
Ç 3
å Ç 6
å
3
3 2 y3 +3 3 y2 3 2 y3
2 y4 6
00
y3 y 3 3
y = = =
y6 y6 y7
3 2 (y 4 + 4) 48 2
00 00
y = =) y =
y7 y7

Exercise �.8
Find y 0 of each of the following functions:
3 3 y
(a). y 5 + =1

(b). 5y 2 + sin y = 2

3
(c). + y3 = 3 y

Exercise �.�
Find y 00 of each of the following functions:
3
(a). + y3 = 1

2
(b). 2 3y 2 = 4

�.8 Derivative of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

De�nition �.�8
d 1
1 d 1
1 d 1
1
(sin )= p (cos )= p (t n )= 2
d 1 2 d 1 2 d 1+
d 1
1 d 1
1 d 1
1
(csc )= p (sec )= p (cot )= 2
d 2 1 d 2 1 d 1+

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI �8 Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.8. DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

De�nition �.��
Generalized derivative formula of inverse trigonometric functions
d 1
1 d d 1
1 d d 1
1 d
(sin )= p (cos )= p (t n )= 2
d 1 2 d d 1 2 d d 1+ d

d 1
1 d d 1
1 d d 1
1 d
(csc )= p (sec )= p (cot )= 2
d 2 1d d 2 1d d 1+ d

Example �.��
Differentiate the following functions.
1
(a). y = 1
sin
p
(b). y = . rct n
1 2
(c). y = sec ( 1)

Solution

(a).

d 1
✓ ◆ (sin 1
) p
d 1 d 1 2 1
y0 = 1
= 1
= 1
= p
d sin )2 )2 1
(sin (sin (sin )2 1 2

(b).
d p d 1
p 1
p d
y0 = ( . rct n )= (t n ) + (t n ) ( )
d d d
✓ ◆ p
1 1 1
p 1
p
= . p 2. p +t n = +t n
1+( ) 2 2(1 + )

(c).
d 1 2
1 d 2
y0 = (sec ( 1)) = ∆ . ( 1)
d ( 2 1) ( 2 1)2 1 d
2 2
= p = ∆
( 2 1) 4 2 2 +1 1 ( 2 1) ( 2 2)

Exercise �.��
Find y 0 of each of the following functions:
⇥ ⇤ ⇥ p ⇤
(a). y = sin 1 (2 ) (b). y = t n 1
(e ) (c). y = cot 1
( )

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

�.� Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

Example �.��
Using implicit differentiation, we get

d 1 d 1
[ ln ] = ; > 0, [ log ]= ; >0
d d . ln

Generalized derivative formulas,

d 1 d d 1 d
[ ln ] = . ; > 0, [ log ]= . ; >0
d d d . ln d

Property �.�
Laws of Logarithms: If and y are positive numbers, then

�. log ( y) = log ( ) + log (y).

✓ ◆
�. log = log ( ) log (y).
y

�. log ( )m = m. log ( ), (where m is any real number).

�. log ( ) = 1.

�. log ( )m = m. log ( ) = m, (where m is any real number).

log ( )
6. = .

Property �.�

Properties of natural Logarithm: (a). ln( ) = y () = ey

✓ ◆
(b). ln( .y) = ln( ) + ln(y) (c). ln = ln( ) ln(y)
y

(d). ln(e ) = , for all (e). loge (e) = ln(e) = 1

(f). ln ( )m = m. ln( ), (where m is any real number)

ln( )
(g). log ( ) = .
ln( )

Example �.��
Find the derivative of the following functions. p
(a). y = ln 3 + 1 (b). ƒ ( ) = ln (sin ) (c). ƒ ( ) = ln

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI 8� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.�. DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

✓ ◆
+1
(d). ƒ ( ) = log10 (2 + sin ) (e). ƒ ( ) = ln p (f). ƒ ( ) = ln | |
2

Solution
3
(a). Let = + 1, then

d ⇥ 1 d 3 2
3
⇤ 3
y0 = ln +1 = 3
. ( + 1) = 3
d +1 d +1
(b). Let = sin , then
d 1 d cos
ƒ 0( ) = [ ln (sin )] = . (sin ) = = cot
d sin d sin
(c). By using chain rule, we have

d h 1
i 1 1
1
d 1
ƒ 0( ) = (ln ) 2 = (ln ) 2 (ln ) = p
d 2 d 2 . ln
(d). Let = 2 + sin , then
d ⇥ ⇤ 1 d cos
ƒ 0( ) = log10 (2 + sin ) = (2 + sin ) =
d (2 + sin ). ln(10) d (2 + sin ). ln(10)
+1
(e). Let =p , then
2
 ✓ ◆
0
d +1 d d h 1
i
ƒ ( )= ln p = [ ln( + 1)] ln( 2) 2
d 2 d d
d 1 d 1 1 5
= [ ln( + 1)] [ ln( 2)] = =
d 2d +1 2( 2) 2( + 1)( 2)
8
>
> ln( ), ƒ >0
<
(f). Since, ƒ ( ) = , then
>
>
: ln( ), ƒ <0
8 8
> d > 1
>
> ln( ), ƒ >0 >
> , ƒ >0
>
< d >
<
ƒ 0( ) = =
>
> >
>
>
> d >
> 1 d
: ln( ), ƒ < 0 : . ( ), ƒ <0
d ( ) d
8
> 1
>
> , ƒ >0
>
< 1
= = , for all 6= 0.
>
>
>
> 1
: .( 1), ƒ < 0
( )

Math ��� Jazan University 8� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

Logarithmic differentiation
The derivatives of the functions involving product, quotients, or power can be simpli�ed by taking
logarithmic, this method is called logarithmic differentiation.

+ Remark
Steps in Logarithmic differentiation:
�. Take natural logarithms of both sides of an equation y = ƒ ( ) and then use the law of logarithms
to simplify.
�. Differentiate implicitly with respect to .
�. Solve the resulting equation for y 0 .

Example �.��
3 p
4 2 +1 p
Find the derivative of the following functions. (a). y = (b). y =
(3 + 2)5

Solution

(a). Taking natural logarithm on both sides,

0 p 1
3
4 2 +1 3
∆
ln y = ln @ A = ln 4 + ln 2 +1 ln(3 + 2)5
(3 + 2)5
3 1 2
= ln + ln(
+ 1) 5 ln(3 + 2)
4 2
Now differentiating both side implicitly with respect to , we get

d d 3 1
= ln + ln( 2 + 1) 5 ln(3 + 2)
d d 4 2
1 dy 3 2 3 3 15
. = + 5 = + 2
y d 4 2( 2 + 1) 3 +2 4 ( + 1) 3 +2

dy 3 15
) = y. + 2
d 4 ( + 1) 3 + 2
3p
dy 4 2+1 3 15
) = +
d (3 + 2)5 4 ( 2 + 1) 3 + 2
(b). Taking natural logarithm on both sides,
p p
ln(y) = ln( ) = . ln
Now differentiating both side implicitly with respect to , we get
d d ⇥p ⇤ p d d p
ln(y) = . ln = . (ln ) + ln . ( )
d d d d
p
1 dy 1 2 + ln
) . = + ln . p = p
y d 2 2
ñp ô ñp ô
dy 1 2 + ln p 1 2 + ln
) =y + ln . p = p = + ln . p = p
d 2 2 2 2

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI 8� Math ��� Jazan University

CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION �.�. DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Homework Chapter �

Q �. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at the speci�ed points.
2
(a). y = at (1, 1)
+1
3
(b). y = 2 5 at ( 1, 3)

(c). y = 2 e at (0, 0).

2
Q �. Find the derivative of the function ƒ ( ) = by using the Ist principle and use to �nd the
equation of tangent line at = 2.
2
Q �. Find the derivative of the function ƒ ( ) = by using the Ist principle (limit method) and
use to �nd the equation of tangent line at = 2.

Q �. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at the speci�ed points.
2 3
(a). y = at (1, 1) (b). y = 2 5 at ( 1, 3) (c). y = 2 e at (0, 0).
+1
Q �. In each part determine ƒ 0 ( ).
p p p
3 7
(a). ƒ ( ) = 8 (b). ƒ ( ) = (c). ƒ ( ) = 2 +2
2
p
p p 2
(d). ƒ ( ) = 2e (e). ƒ ( ) = ( 1) (f). ƒ ( ) =

Q 6. Find the derivative of the following functions.

3 +4 2 +4 +3
2 3
(a). ƒ ( ) = 4 1 7 + (b). ƒ ( ) = 2
(c). ƒ ( ) = p
+1
2
(d). ƒ ( ) = ( 1) e (e). ƒ ( ) = . sin . t n

2
sin . sec
(f). ƒ ( ) = + 1 sec (g). ƒ ( ) =
1+ t n
Q �. Suppose that ƒ (2) = 3, g(2) = 4, ƒ 0 (2) = 2 and g0 (2) = 7. Find h0 (2).

(a). h( ) = 5ƒ ( ) 4g( ) (b). h( ) = ƒ ( ).g( )

ƒ( ) g( )
(c). h( ) = (d). h( ) =
g( ) 1 + ƒ( )
Q 8. Find the limit.
sin 3 sin 5
(a). lim (b). lim
!0 !0 sin 2
cos 1 sin
(c). lim (d). lim
!0 sin 1+t n
!0
⇢
sin cos 1 1 cos
Hint: lim = 1, lim = lim =0
!0 !0 !0

Q �. Find the derivative of the following functions.

Math ��� Jazan University 8� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. DIFFERENTIATION

p ï Ä ä3 ò4
3 . cos 2
(a). ƒ ( ) = 1+t n (b). ƒ ( ) = e (c). ƒ ( ) = + + sin

1
(d). ƒ ( ) = 3
(e). ƒ ( ) = sin2 esin (f). ƒ ( ) = 3
. sin2 (5 )
4 +1
î ó12
(g). ƒ ( ) = 1 + sin3 5

dy
Q ��. Find by implicit differentiation.
d
2 2
(a). y + sin y = 4

(b). 4 cos . sin =1

p 2 2
(c). +y=1+ y

Q ��. Find the derivative of the following functions.

Äp ä
(a). ƒ ( ) = sin 1 sin
∆
(b). ƒ ( ) = 1 2 . ( rc sin )
∆
(c). ƒ ( ) = t n 1

Q ��. Find the derivative of the following functions.

2
(a). ƒ ( ) = ln + 10 (b). ƒ ( ) = log2 (1 3 )
⇥ ⇤2
(c). ƒ ( ) = ln (sec +t n ) (d). y = ln 1 + e
y
Q ��. Find y 0 , if =y . [ Hint: Taking ln on both side ]

Q ��. Use logarithmic differentiation to �nd the derivative of the following functions.
p
(a). y = cos (b). y = (c). y = (sin )ln

Q ��. Find the derivative of the following functions.

2
(a). ƒ ( ) = ln +1
Ç 2 å
. sin
(b). y = ln p
1+
⇥ ⇤
(c). ƒ ( ) = ln ( 1)3 .( 2
+ 1)4
2 sin
(d). y = +1

Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI 8� Math ��� Jazan University

Chapter � Applications of Derivatives

�.� Extreme values of functions

Absolute maximum and minimum
De�nition �.�
A function f has an absolute maximum at c, if

ƒ (c) ƒ ( ) for all in Dƒ

The number f(c) is called the maximum value of f on Dƒ .

Similarly, a function f has an absolute minimum at c, if

ƒ (c)  ƒ ( ) for all in Dƒ

The number f(c) is called the minimum value of f on Dƒ . The maximum and minimum values of ƒ
are called extreme values of f.

Local maximum and minimum

De�nition �.�
A function f has an local maximum (or relative maximum) at c, if

ƒ (c) ƒ ( ) for all in some open interval containing c.

Similarly, a function f has an local minimum (or relative minimum) at c, if

ƒ (c)  ƒ ( ) for all in some open interval containing c.

Example �.�
Check the absolute maximum or minimum, local maximum or minimum, or neither a maximum
nor a minimum of the following functions.
(a). ƒ ( ) = cos (b). ƒ ( ) = 2 (c). ƒ ( ) = 3 (d). ƒ ( ) = 3 4 16 3 +
18 2 , 1   1

Solution

(a).
Since, 1  cos  1 for all 2( , ), then ƒ ( ) = cos
has an absolute (and local) maximum at 2n and an
absolute (and local) minimum at (2n + 1) for all n integer.
As, cos(2n ) = 1 and cos ((2n + 1) ) = 1.

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�.�. EXTREME VALUES OF FUNCTIONS CHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

(b).
2 2
If ƒ ( ) = , then ƒ ( ) ƒ (0) because 0 for all in .
Therefore ƒ (0) = 0 is the absolute (and local minimum of ƒ ). So origin
is the lowest point, there is no highest point. So no maximum values.

(c).
From the graph, see that function has neither an absolute maximum
nor an absolute minimum values. Thus it has no local extreme values.

(d).
4 3 2
From the graph of the function ƒ ( ) = 3 16 + 18 , see that
• ƒ (1) = 5 is a local maximum.
• ƒ ( 1) = 37 is an absolute maximum but not local maximum
because it occurs at the end point.
• ƒ (0) = 0 is a local maximum.
• ƒ (3) = 27 is both a local and an absolute minimum.
• At = 4 function ƒ has neither a local nor an absolute maximum.

Critical number
De�nition �.�
A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that
either ƒ 0 (c) = 0 or ƒ 0 (c) does not exist.

Example �.�
3
Find the critical number of ƒ ( ) = 5 (4 )

Solution
Using the product rule of differentiation, we have
3

0
d h 3
i 3 3(4 ).( ) 5 1
ƒ ( )= 5 (4 ) = 5 ( 1) +
d 5
3 3(4 ) 5 + 3(4 ) 12 8
= 5 ( 1) + 2
= 2
= 2
5( ) 5 5( ) 5 5( ) 5

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CHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES �.�. EXTREME VALUES OF FUNCTIONS

3
Now, ƒ 0 ( ) = 0 if 12 8 = 0, that is, = and ƒ 0 ( ) does not exist when = 0. Thus critical
2
3
number are and 0.
2

Example �.�
3
Find the critical points of ƒ ( ) = 3 + 1.

Solution

The function ƒ is a polynomial, and is differential everywhere, so

2
ƒ 0( ) = 3 3 = 3( + 1)( 1)
For critical point, ƒ 0 ( ) = 0, that is ( + 1).( 1) = 0 =) + 1 = 0 and 1 = 0, that is
= 1, 1 are the critical point.

Exercise �.�
5 2
Find the critical number of ƒ ( ) = 3 3 15 3 .

Theorem �.� Fermat’s Theorem (critical number)

If ƒ has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c is a critical number of ƒ .

The Closed Interval Method

Example �.�
3 2
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function ƒ ( ) = 3 + 1, where
1
  4.
2

Solution

1
Given that ƒ ( ) is continuous on , 4 , the by Closed Interval Method, we have
2
2
ƒ 0( ) = 3 6 =3 ( 2)

(�). Since ƒ 0 ( ) exist for all , then the only critical numbers of ƒ occur when ƒ 0 ( ) = 0, that is
=0

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�.�. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM CHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

✓ ◆
1
and = 2 in the interval , 4 . The values of ƒ at these critical numbers are
2

ƒ (0) = (0)3 3(0)2 + 1 = 1

ƒ (2) = (2)3 3(2)2 + 1 = 3

(�). The values of ƒ at the end points of the interval are

1 1 1 1
ƒ( )=( )3 3( )2 + 1 =
2 2 2 8

ƒ (4) = (4)3 3(4)2 + 1 = 17

(�). Comparing these four numbers, we see that absolute maximum value is ƒ (4) = 17 and the
absolute minimum value is ƒ (2) = 3.

�.� The Mean Value Theorem

Rolle’s Theorem
De�nition �.�
Let f of a function that satis�es the following three hypothesis:
(�). ƒ is continuous in closed interval [ , b].
(�). ƒ is differentiable in open interval ( , b) .
(�). ƒ ( ) = ƒ (b)

Then there is a number c in ( , b) such that ƒ 0 (c) = 0.

Example �.�
Show that the function ƒ ( ) = 2 5 + 4 satis�es the hypothesis of the Rolle’s theorem over
the interval [ 1, 4], and �nd all values of c in the interval (1, 4), in which ƒ 0 (c) = 0.

Solution

Since, ƒ ( ) = 2 5 + 4 is a polynomial is continuous and differentiable everywhere. So, by the

hypothesis of Rolle’s theorem
_ ƒ is continuous in closed interval [ 1, 4].
_ ƒ is differentiable in open interval (1, 4) .
_ Now, ƒ ( ) = ƒ (1) = (1)2 5(1) + 4 = 0 and ƒ (b) = ƒ (4) = (4)2 5(4) + 4 = 0.
Thus, ƒ ( ) = ƒ (b) = 0.
Then there is a number c 2 (1, 4), such that ƒ 0 (c) = 0.

ƒ 0( ) = 2 5

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CHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES �.�. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM

5 5
Solving the equation ƒ 0 ( ) = 0, yields = . So, c = 2 (1, 4) at which ƒ 0 (c) = 0.
2 2

Exercise �.�
1 p
Show that the function ƒ ( ) = satis�es the hypothesis of the Rolle’s theorem over the
2
interval [ 0, 4], and �nd all values of c in the interval (0, 4), in which ƒ 0 (c) = 0.

Mean-Value Theorem
De�nition �.�
Let f of a function that satis�es the following three hypothesis:
(�). ƒ is continuous in closed interval [ , b].
(�). ƒ is differentiable in open interval ( , b) .

ƒ (b) ƒ( )
Then there is a number c in ( , b) such that ƒ 0 (c) = .
b

Example �.6
3
1
Show that the function ƒ ( ) = + 1 satis�es the hypothesis of the Mean-Value theorem over
4
the interval [ 0, 2], and �nd all values of c in the interval (0, 2) that satisfy the conclusion of the
theorem.

Solution
1 3
Since, ƒ ( ) = + 1 is a polynomial is continuous and differentiable everywhere. So, by the
4
hypothesis of Mean-Value theorem
_ ƒ is continuous in closed interval [ 0, 2].
_ ƒ is differentiable in open interval (0, 2) .
1 1
Now, ƒ ( ) = ƒ (0) = (0)3 + 1 = 1 and ƒ (b) = ƒ (2) = (2)3 + 1 = 3.
4 4
ƒ (b) ƒ( )
Then there is a number c 2 (0, 2), such that ƒ 0 (c) = .
b
3 2
3
Now, ƒ 0( ) = c2
=) ƒ 0 (c) =
4 4
ƒ (b) ƒ ( ) 3 3 1 2
ƒ 0 (c) = =) c2 = = =1
b 4 2 v 0 2
u
3 4 t4 2
=) c2 = 1 =) c2 = =) c = ± = ± p ⇡ ±1.15.
4 3 3 3

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�.�. HOW DERIVATIVES AFFECT THE SHAPE OF A GRAPHCHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

Example �.�
Show that the function ƒ ( ) = 3 + 4 satis�es the hypothesis of the Mean-Value theorem over
the interval [ 1, 2], and �nd all values of c in the interval ( 1, 2) that satisfy the conclusion of
the theorem.

Solution

Since, ƒ ( ) = 3 + 4 is a polynomial is continuous and differentiable everywhere. So, by the

hypothesis of Mean-Value theorem
_ ƒ is continuous in closed interval [ 1, 2].
_ ƒ is differentiable in open interval ( 1, 2) .
Now, ƒ ( ) = ƒ ( 1) = ( 1)3 + ( 1) 4= 6 and ƒ (b) = ƒ (2) = (2)3 + (2) 4 = 6.
ƒ (b) ƒ ( )
Then there is a number c 2 ( 1, 2), such that ƒ 0 (c) = .
b
Now, ƒ 0 ( ) = 3 2 + 1 =) ƒ 0 (c) = 3c2 + 1
ƒ (b) ƒ ( ) 6 ( 6) 12
ƒ 0 (c) = =) 3c2 + 1 = = =4
b 2 ( 1) 3
=) 3c2 + 1 = 4 =) 3c2 = 3 =) c = ±1
=) c1 = 1 2 [ 1, 2] and c2 = 1 2 [ 1, 2].

Exercise �.�
∆
Show that the function ƒ ( ) = 25 2 satis�es the hypothesis of the Mean-Value theorem over

the interval [ 5, 3], and �nd all values of c in the interval ( 5, 3) that satisfy the conclusion of
the theorem.

�.� How Derivatives affect the Shape of a Graph

Increasing/Decreasing Test
De�nition �.6
(a). If ƒ 0 ( ) > 0 on the interval, then function ƒ is increasing on that interval.
(b). If ƒ 0 ( ) < 0 on the interval, then function ƒ is decreasing on that interval.
(c). If ƒ 0 ( ) = 0 on the interval, then function ƒ is constant on that interval.

Example �.8
2
Find the intervals on which ƒ ( ) = 4 + 3 is increasing and where it is decreasing.

Solution
We have,

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CHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES �.�. HOW DERIVATIVES AFFECT THE SHAPE OF A GRAPH

ƒ 0( ) = 2 4 = 2( 2)
It follows that,
ƒ 0 ( ) < 0 if < 2.
ƒ 0 ( ) > 0 if > 2.
Thus, ƒ is decreasing on ( , 2] and ƒ is increasing on [ 2, ).

Example �.�
3
Find the intervals on which ƒ ( ) = is increasing and where it is decreasing.

Solution
We have,

2
ƒ 0( ) = 3
It follows that,
ƒ 0 ( ) > 0 if < 0.
ƒ 0 ( ) > 0 if > 0.
Since ƒ is continuous everywhere.
Thus, ƒ is increasing on ( , 0] and ƒ is increasing on [ 0, ).

Concave upward and Concave downward

De�nition �.�
If the graph of function ƒ lies above all the tangents on an interval , then it is called textbfConcave
upward on . If the graph of function ƒ lies below all the tangents on an interval , then it is called
Concave downward on .

Math ��� Jazan University �� Dr. KHALIL HAKAMI

�.�. HOW DERIVATIVES AFFECT THE SHAPE OF A GRAPHCHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

+ Remark
Concavity Test:
(a). If ƒ 00 ( ) > 0 for all in the interval , then the graph of ƒ is Concave upward.
(b). If ƒ 00 ( ) < 0 for all in the interval , then the graph of ƒ is Concave downward.

Example �.��
2
Find the intervals on which ƒ ( ) = 4 + 3 is concave up and concave down.

Solution
We have,
ƒ 0( ) = 2 4 =) ƒ 00 ( ) = 2
It follows that,
ƒ 00 ( ) > 0 on the interval ( , )
Then ƒ is concave up on ( , ).

Example �.��
3
Find the intervals on which ƒ ( ) = is concave up and concave down.

Solution
We have,
ƒ 0 ( ) = 3 2 =) ƒ 00 ( ) = 6
It follows that,
ƒ 00 ( ) > 0 that is 6 > 0 =) >0
Then ƒ is concave up on (0, ).
ƒ 00 ( ) < 0 that is 6 < 0 =) <0
Then ƒ is concave down on ( , 0).

In�ection point
De�nition �.8
The point at which continuous curve changes from Concave upward to textbfConcave downward
or vice-versa is called in�ection point.

Example �.��
The function ƒ ( ) = 3 3 2
+ 1. Determine the interval on which ƒ is concave up, concave down.
Locate all in�ection points.

Solution
We have,
ƒ 0 ( ) = 3 2 6 =) ƒ 00 ( ) = 6 6
It follows that,
ƒ 00 ( ) > 0 that is 6( 1) > 0 =) > 1

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CHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES �.�. HOW DERIVATIVES AFFECT THE SHAPE OF A GRAPH

Then ƒ is concave up on (1, ).

ƒ 00 ( ) < 0 that is 6( 1) < 0 =) <1
Then ƒ is concave down on ( , 1).
6
For In�ection point: Put ƒ 00 ( ) = 6 6 = 0 =) = = 1.
6
Thus, at = 1, ƒ (1) = (1)3 3(1)2 + 1 = 1. So, (1, ƒ (1)) = (1, 1) is the in�ection point.

The First Derivative Test

De�nition �.�
Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous function ƒ .
(a). If ƒ 0 ( ) changes from positive to negative at c, then has a local maximum at c.
(b). If ƒ 0 ( ) changes from negative to positive at c, then has a local minimum at c.
(c). If ƒ 0 ( ) does not change sign at c, than ƒ has no local maximum or minimum at c.

The Second Derivative Test

De�nition �.��
Suppose that ƒ 00 is continuous near c.
(a). If ƒ 0 (c) = 0 and ƒ 00 (c) > 0, then ƒ has a local minimum at c.
(b). If ƒ 0 (c) = 0 and ƒ 00 (c) < 0, then ƒ has a local maximum at c.

+ Remark

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�.�. HOW DERIVATIVES AFFECT THE SHAPE OF A GRAPHCHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

Example �.��
Find the interval on which ƒ ( ) = 4 + 3 are increasing, decreasing, critical point, concave up
and concave down, maximum/minimum values and in�ection point(if exist).

Solution
We have,
3 2 2
ƒ 0( ) = 4 +3 = (4 + 3)

3
For Critical number: ƒ 0 ( ) = 0 for = 0,
4
3
Thus, Critical numbers of the function ƒ are = 0, .
4

2
Interval 4 +3 ƒ 0( ) ƒ
✓ ◆
3 3
< + Decreasing on ,
4 ✓ ◆4
3 3
< <0 + + + Increasing on ,0
4 4
>0 + + + Increasing on (0, )
✓ ◆
4 3
3
Hence, ƒ ( ) = + is increasing from , 0 [ (0, ) and decreasing in the interval
✓ ◆ 4
3
, .
4

2
3
For Maximum and Minimum: ƒ 0 ( ) = (4 + 3) = 0 for = 0, . Since
4

ƒ 00 (0) = 12(0)2 + 6(0) = 0

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆
00
3 3 3 9
ƒ = 12 +6 = >0
4 4 4 4
✓ ◆
3
then by second derivative test, ƒ is local minimum.
4
Also ƒ 0 does not change sign at 0, then ƒ has no local maximum or minimum at 0.

2
1
For Concavity: ƒ 00 ( ) = 12 + 6 = 6 (2 + 1) =) 6 (2 + 1) = 0 =) = 0 and =
2
It follows that,

Interval 6 2 +1 ƒ 00 ( ) Concavity
✓ ◆
1 1
< + ƒ is concave upward on ,
2 ✓ 2◆
1 1
< <0 + ƒ is concave downward on ,0
2 2
>0 + + + ƒ is concave upward on (0, )

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CHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES �.�. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE AND INDETERMINATE FORMS

✓ ◆
4 3
1
Hence, ƒ ( ) = + is concave up on , [ (0, ) and concave down in the interval
✓ ◆ 2
1
,0 .
2
For In�ection point: Put ƒ 00 ( ) = 12 2 + 6 = 6 (2 + 1) =) 6 (2 + 1) = 0 =) = 0 and
1
=
2
Thus, at = 0, ƒ (0) = (0)4 + (0)3 = 0
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 1 1 4 1 3
and at = ,ƒ = + = 0.0625
2 2 2 2 ✓ ✓ ◆◆
1 1
So In�ection point are (0, ƒ (0)) = (0, 0) and ,ƒ = (0.5, 0.0625).
2 2

Exercise �.�
4 3
Sketch a graph of the function 4 + 10

�.� L’Hospital’s Rule and Indeterminate Forms

Theorem �.� L’HOSPITAL’S RULE
Suppose ƒ and g are differentiable and g0 ( ) 6= 0 on an open interval that contains (except possibly
at ). Suppose that
lim ƒ ( ) = 0 nd lim g( ) = 0
! !
or that
lim ƒ ( ) = ± nd lim g( ) = ±
! !

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�.�. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE AND INDETERMINATE FORMS CHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

0
(In other words, we have an indeterminate form of type or .) Then
0
ƒ( ) ƒ 0( )
lim = lim
! g( ) ! g0 ( )

if the limit on the right side exists (or is and/or ).

Exercise �.�
Find the following limits:
n
�. lim
!1 1
e
�. lim
!1 2

Indeterminate differences

+ Remark
If lim ƒ ( ) = and lim g( ) = then the limit lim [ ƒ ( ) g( )] is called an indeterminate
! ! !
form of type : In this case, to �nd lim [ ƒ ( ) g( )], we try to convert the difference into
!
0
a quotient so that we have an indeterminate form of type or
0

Exercise �.6
1
Find lim ( )
!1+ 1 n

and Indeterminate powers

Several indeterminate forms arise from the limit

+ Remark
lim [ ƒ ( )] g( )
!

_ lim ƒ ( ) = 0 and lim g( ) = 0 Type 00

! !
0
_ lim ƒ ( ) = and lim g( ) = 0 Type
! !
_ lim ƒ ( ) = 1 and lim g( ) = ± Type 1
! !
Each of these three cases can be treated either by taking the natural logarithm or by writing the
function as an exponential.

Exercise �.�
Calculate lim (1 + s n4 )cot
!0+

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CHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES �.�. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE AND INDETERMINATE FORMS

Homework Chapter �
Q �. Use the graph to state the absolute and local maximum and minimum values of the function.

Q �. Find the critical number of the function ƒ .

3 2
1
(a). ƒ ( ) = + + (b). ƒ ( ) = 2 +1
∆
4
(c). ƒ ( ) = 1 2 (d). ƒ ( ) = ( 1)3

Q �. Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of ƒ on the given closed interval.
3 2 4 2
(a). ƒ ( ) = 6 + 9 + 2, 1 4 (b). ƒ ( ) = 2 + 3, 2 3
∆
2
(c). ƒ (t) = t. 4 t2, 1t2 (d). ƒ ( ) = e e , 0 1

Q �. Show that the function ƒ ( ) = 2 8 + 15 satis�es the hypothesis of the Rolle’s theorem
over
the interval [ 3, 5], and �nd all values of c in the interval (3, 5), in which ƒ 0 (c) = 0.
p
Q �. Show that the function ƒ ( ) = satis�es the hypothesis of the Rolle’s theorem over the
2
interval [ 0, 4], and �nd all values of c in the interval (0, 4), in which ƒ 0 (c) = 0.

Q �. Show that the function ƒ ( ) = 3 + 4 satis�es the hypothesis of the Mean-Value theorem
over the interval [ 1, 2], and �nd all values of c in the interval ( 1, 2) that satisfy the conclusion
of the theorem.
1
Q 8. Show that the function ƒ ( ) = satis�es the hypothesis of the Mean-Value theorem over
the interval [ 3, 4], and �nd all values of c in the interval (3, 4) that satisfy the conclusion of
the theorem.

Q �. For the given function.

p
3
2 4 2
(i). ƒ ( ) = 5 +6 (ii). ƒ ( ) = 2 +3 (iii). ƒ ( ) = +2

Find,

(a). The interval on which ƒ is increasing.

(b). The interval on which ƒ is decreasing.
(c). The in�ection point.

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�.�. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE AND INDETERMINATE FORMS CHAPTER �. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

(d). Find the local maximum and local minimum values of ƒ .

(e). The open interval on which ƒ is concave upward.
(f). The open interval on which ƒ is concave downward.
( + 1)2
Q ��. Sketch the graph of ƒ ( ) = 2
.
1+

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Chapter � Integrals

�.� The Inde�nite Integrals

De�nition �.�
The process of �nding the antiderivative of a function ƒ on a open interval is called integration.
d
Such that, [ F( )] = ƒ ( ), then
d
Z
ƒ ( ) = F( ) + C.

where C is called the constant of integration.

Example �.�
Find the integral of the following functions.

Z Z 0+1
0
�. (1)d = d = +c= +c
0+1
Z 1+1 2
�. ( )d = +c= +c
1+1 2
Z 2+1 3
2
�. ( )d = +c= +c
2+1 3
Z Z 5+1 4
1 5
1
�. d = ( ) d = +c= +c= +c
5 5+1 4 4 4

Z Z 1 3
p 1 ( ) 2 +1 ( )2 2 3 2p
�. d = ( ) d =
2 +c= +c= ( )2 + c = 3 +c
1 3 3 3
+1
2 2

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�.�. THE INDEFINITE INTEGRALS CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS

Z 3 7
3 ( ) 4 +1 ( )4 4p
4
6. 4 d = +c= +c= 7 +c
3 7 7
+1
4 4

Properties of Inde�nite Integral

Theorem �.�
Suppose that F( ) and G( ) are antiderivative of a function ƒ ( ) and g( ), respectively, and C is
constant. Then
(a). A constantZ factor C can be moved through an integral sign, that is
k.ƒ ( )d = k.F( ) + C
(b). The integral
Z of sum of the functions ƒ ( ) and g( ).
[ ƒ ( ) + g( )] d = F( ) + G( ) + C
(c). The integral
Z of difference of the functions ƒ ( ) and g( ).
[ƒ ( ) g( )] d = F( ) G( ) + C

Example �.�
Z Z Z Z
2
cos t2 2t 4
(a). 4 cos d (b). + d (c). d (d). dt
Z Z sin2 Z
t4
2 î ó
(e). 2
d (f). csc .(sin + cot )d (g). 1 + sin2 . csc d
+1

Solution
Z Z
(a). 4 cos d = 4 cos d = 4 sin +c
Z Z Z 2 3
2 2
(b). + d = d + d = + +c
2 3
Z Z Z
cos 1 cos
(c). d = . d = csc . cot d = csc + c
sin2 sin sin
Z 2 Z ñ 2 ô Z
t 2t 4 t t4 2
t 1 1
(d). dt = 2 dt = t 2 dt = 2t + c = 2t + c
t4 t4 t4 1 t
Z 2 Z 2 Z Ç 2 å
+1 1 +1 1
(e). 2+1
d = 2+1
d = 2+1 2+1
d
Z ✓ ◆
1
= 1 2+1
d = t n 1 +c
Z Z
(f). csc .(sin + cot )d = (csc . sin + csc . cot ) d =

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CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS �.�. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

Z
(1 + csc . cot ) d = csc +c
Z Z ✓ ◆ Z
î ó 1
2 2
(g). 1 + sin . csc d = 1 + sin . d = (1 + sin ) d = cos +c
sin

Exercise �.�
Evaluate the following integral.
Z 5 Z Z
+2 2 1 1 2t 3
(a). 4
d (b). dt (c). sec [ sec +t n ]d
Z  t3 Z 
1 3 2
(d). p 2
d (e). + 3e d
2 1 2 1+

�.� Integration by Substitution

De�nition �.�
d
The derivative of F [ g( )] expressed by the chain rule as, F [ g( )] = F 0 [ g( )] .g0 ( )
d
which can be written
Z in integral form as,
F 0 [ g( )] .g0 ( )d = F [ g( )] + C
Since, F is antiderivative
Z of ƒ . So,
ƒ [ g( )] .g0 ( )d = F [ g( )] + C
d
Now, let = g0 ( ) =) d = g0 ( )d .
= g( ) =)
d
Thus above relation become,
Z
ƒ ( )d = F( ) + C

Example �.�
Evaluate the following integral.
Z Z Z
2 50 1
(a). +1 .2 d (b). cos 5 d (c). 2
d
Z Z Z 1+3
1
(d). sin( + 9)d (e). .d (f). sin2 . cos d
. ln( )

Solution
2
(a). Let, = + 1 then, d = 2 .d
Z Z
2 50 50
( )51 ( 2 + 1)51
+1 .2 d = ( ) d = +c= +c
51 51

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�.�. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS

1
(b). Let, 5 = =) 5.d = d =) d = .d , then
Z Z Z 5
1 1 1 1
cos 5 d = cos . .d = cos .d = sin + c = sin(5 ) + c
5 5 5 5
p p 1
(c). Let, 3. = =) 3.d = d =) d = p .d , then
Z Z Z 3
1 1 d 1 1
2
d = p =p d
1+3 (1 + 2 ) 3 3 1+ 2
1 1 Äp ä
= p t n 1 +c= p t n 1 3 +c
3 3
(d). ZLet, +9= d + 0 = d =) d = d
=) Z
sin( + 9)d = sin d = cos +c= cos( + 9) + c

1
(e). Let, ln = =) .d = d
Z Z
1 1
.d = .d = ln( ) + c = ln (ln | |) + c
. ln( )
(f). Let, sin = =) cos .d = d
Z Z
2 2
3 sin3
sin . cos d = .d = +c= +c
3 3

Exercise �.�
Evaluate the following integral.
Z p Z ∆ Z
e 4 3
e
(a). p d (b). t . 3 5t 5 dt (c). p d
1 e2

Th e De�nite Integrals
De�nition �.�
If a function f is continuous on an interval [ , b], then ƒ is integrable on [ , b], and the net
signed area A between the graph of ƒ and the interval [ , b] is
Zb
ƒ ( )d = F(b) F( )

Example �.�
Evaluate the following integral.
Z2 Z2 Z9 Z9
p 2
p
(a). 2d (b). d (c). d (d). d
0 1 1 4

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CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS �.�. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

Solution

Z2
(a). 2d = 2 [ ] 20 = 2(2 0) = 4
0

Z2 ñ ô
2 2 (2)2 (1)2 4 1 3
(b). d = = = =
2 1 2 2 2 2 2
1
2 39 2 39
Z9 Z9 1 3
p 1 ( ) 2
+1
( ) 2 2h 3 3
i
(c). d = ( ) d =42
1
5 =4
3
5 = (9) 2 (1) 2
+1 3
1 1 2 2
1 1

2î p 3 p ó 2 2 52
= ( 9) ( 1)3 = . (27 1) = . (26) =
3 3 3 3
2 39
Z9 Z9 Z9 5
+1
p 1 5 ( ) 2
(d). 2
d = 2
.( ) 2 d = ( )2 = 4 5
5
2
+1
4 4 4 4
2 39
7
( ) 2 2h 7 7
i
=4 7
5 = (9) 2 (4) 2
7
2
4

2 ïÄp ä7 Äp ä7 ò 2 ⇥ ⇤
= 9 4 = (3)7 (2)7
7 7
4374 256 4118
= =
7 7 7

Properties of De�nite Integral

Theorem �.�
Suppose that ƒ and g are integrable on [ , b] and k is a constant, then
c.ƒ , ƒ + g, and ƒ g are integrable on [ , b], then
Zb Zb
(a). k.ƒ ( )d = k. ƒ ( )d

Zb Zb Zb
(b). [ ƒ ( ) + g( )] d = ƒ ( )d + g( )d

Zb Zb Zb
(c). [ƒ ( ) g( )] d = ƒ ( )d g( )d

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�.�. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS

Property �.�
(a). If is in the domain of ƒ , then
Z
ƒ ( )d = 0

(b). If ƒ is integrable on [ , b], then

Z Zb
ƒ ( )d = ƒ ( )d
b
(c). if ƒ is integrable on a closed interval containing the three point , b and c,
then
Zb Zc Zb
ƒ ( )d = ƒ( ) + ƒ ( )d d
c

Example �.�
Evaluate the following integral.
Z1 Z3 Z4
2 3 2
(a). d (b). d (c). 3 +2 d
1 0 0
Z2 Z2
(d). ( + 2)d (e). 4 cos d
1 0

Solution

Z1 ñ ô
3 1
2
13 13
(a). d = = =0
3 1
3 3
1

Z3 Ç 4
å3
3
34 04 81
(b). d = = =
4 0
4 4 4
0
Z0 Ç 4
å0
3
04 34 81
d = = =
4 3
4 4 4
3
Z3 Z0
3 3
Thus, d = d
0 3

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CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS �.�. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

Z4 ñ 3
ô
2 4
2
(c). 3 +2 d = 3. + 2. = 43 + 42 03 + 02 = 64 +
3 2 0
0
16 0 = 80
Using de�nite integral property, we rewrite
Z4 Z2 Z4
2 2 2
3 +2 d = 3 +2 d + 3 +2 d
0 0 2
Z2 ñ 3
ô
2 2
2
3 +2 d = 3. + 2. = 23 + 22 03 + 02 = (8 +
3 2 0
0
4) (0) = 12
Z4 ñ 3
ô
2 4
2
3 +2 d = 3. + 2. = 43 + 42 23 + 22 = (64 +
3 2 2
2
16) (8 + 4) = 80 12 = 64
Z4 Z2
2 2
Thus, 3 +2 d = 80 = 12 + 64 = 3 +2 d +
0 0
Z4
2
3 +2 d
2

Z2 ñ 2
ô2 ñ ô ñ ô
(2)2 ( 1)2
(d). ( + 2)d = + 2. = + 2(2) + 2( 1)
2 1
2 2
1 ✓ ◆
1 3 15
= (2 + 4) 2 =6+ =
2 2 2
Z2 Å ã
(e). 4 cos d = [ 4. sin ] 0 = 4 sin 2
sin 0 = 4(1 0) = 4
2
0

Exercise �.�
Evaluate the following integral.

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�.�. INTEGRATION BY PART CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS

Z2 Z3 Z1
2
(a). ( 1) d (b). 9 d (c). ( 1) d
1 0 0

Example �.6
ï ò
Find the area under the graph of y = cos over the interval 0, .
2

Solution

Z2 Å ã
2
A= cos d = [ sin ] 0 = sin sin 0 = 1 0=1
2
0

Example �.�
2
Find the area under the graph of y = 2 + 1 over the interval [ 1, 4].

Solution

Z4 ñ 3 2
ô4
2
A= ( 2 + 1)d = 2 +
3 2 1
1 ñ ô ñ ô
(4)3 (1) 3
64 1
= (4)2 + 4 (1)2 + 1 = 16+ 4 +1 1 =
3 3 3 3
9

�.� Integration by Part

De�nition �.�
If ƒ ( ) and g( ) are two functions, then
Z Z Z  Z
d
ƒ ( ).g( )d = ƒ ( ). g( )d ƒ ( ). g( )d d
d

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CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS �.�. INTEGRATION BY PART

+ Remark 8
>
> ( n erse Tr gonometr c ƒ nct on)
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> L(Log r thm c ƒ nct on)
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
LATE = A(A gebr c ƒ nct on)
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> T(Tr gonometr c ƒ nct on)
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
: E(E ponent ƒ nct on)

In Integration by Part method, select �rst function according to the rule of ILATE,
which come �rst is the �rst function and next one is second function.

Example �.8
Evaluate the following integral by using integration by part.
Z Z Z
(a). . sin d (b). ln( )d (c). t 2 .et dt
Z Z1
1
(d). e . sin d (e). t n d
0

Solution

(a). By using ILATE rule �rst function is and second function is sin .
Z Z Z  Z
d
. sin d = . sin d ( ) sin d d
d
Z
= .( cos ) 1.( cos )d = . cos + sin +c

(b). By using ILATE rule �rst function is ln and second function is 1.

Z Z Z  Z
d
ln d = ln . 1.d (ln ) 1.d d
d
Z Z
1
= ln( ). . d = ln( ). 1.d = . ln + + c

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�.�. INTEGRATION BY PART CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS

(c). By using ILATE rule �rst function is t 2 and second function is e .

Z Z Z  Z Z
d
t 2 .et dt = t 2 . et dt (t 2 ) et dt dt = t 2 .et 2t.et dt
dt
 Z Z ✓ Z ◆
d
= t 2 .et 2 t. et dt (t) et dt dt
dt
Z
= t 2 .et 2t.et + 2 et dt = t 2 .et 2t.et + 2et + c

(d). By Z
using ILATE rule �rst function
Z is sin and
Z  second function
Z is e .
d
Let, = e . sin d = sin . e d (sin ) e d d =
Z d
sin .e (cos ).e d
Again using ILATE rule �rst function is cos and second function is e , we get
Z Z  Z
d
= e . sin cos . e d + (cos ) e d d
d
Z
= e . sin e . cos + ( sin ).e d = e . sin e . cos

e . sin e . cos
+ = e . sin e . cos =) =
2 2
1
(e). By using ILATE rule �rst function is t n and second function is 1.
Z Z Z  Z
1 1
d 1
t n .1d = t n 1.d (t n ) 1d d
d
Z
1
1
=t n .( ) 2
.( )d
1+
2
Put 1 +
= t =) 2 d = dt
1
=) d = dt
Z2 Z
1 1
1 1
Therefore, t n .1d = t n .( ) .dt
2 t
1 1 2
=t n .( ) ln(t) = t n .( ) ln(1 + )+c

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CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS �.�. INTEGRATION BY PART

Z1  1
1 1
1 2
Thus, t n d = t n .( ) ln(1 + )
2 0
0
 
1
1 2 1
1
= 1. t n (1) ln(1 + 1 ) 0. t n (0) ln(1 + 02 )
2 2
1 1
= ln(2) (Since, t n (1) = , ln(1) = 0)
4 2 4

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�.�. INTEGRATION BY PART CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS

Homework Chapter �

Q �. Evaluate the following integral.

Z 3 p Z Z ✓ ◆
2 1
(a). d (b). (1 t) . 2 + t 2 dt (c). 2
+1+ 2 +1
Z Z Z
sin2 2 Äp
3
p
3
ä
(d). csc2 t 2et dt (e). .d (f). 3 + 2 d
sin
Z Z
p
3 p
4
y + 5y 7
(g). . + d (h). .dy
y3
Q �. Evaluate the following integral.
Z4 Z2 Z2
p 3
(a). d (b). 3 +3 d (c). ( 2 sin ) d
1 0

Z3 Z2 Z1
4
(d). (3 2 )d (e). (1 + 2y)2 dy (f). dt
1 + t2
1 1 0
p
3 8
Z2 Z >
< sin ,
6 ƒ 0 
(g). p dt (h). ƒ ( )d , where ƒ ( ) = 2
1 t2 >
: cos , ƒ  
1
2
0 2

Q �. Evaluate the following integral by using substitution method.

Z Z Z
2 3 8
(a). p d (b). . +5 d (c). cos3 . sin d
1 4 2
Z Z Z
(d). [ csc(sin )] 2 . cos d (e). sec2 (4 +1)d (f). (1 + sin t)9
Z Z Z
(g). esin . cos d (h). e 5
d (i). 2
d
2 +1
Z Z Z 1
sin
(j). sec 2 . t n 2 d (k). et n
. sec2 d (l). p d
1 2

Q �. Evaluate the following integral by using integration by part.

Z Z Z
(a). . cos d (b). . ln( )d (c). t.et d

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CHAPTER �. INTEGRALS �.�. INTEGRATION BY PART

Z Z1 Z
1
(d). e . cos d (e). cot d (f). ln .e d
0

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