Basic Vehicle Dynamics

March 2023
 Basic Vehicle Dynamics
March 2023

Objective:
This class will provide a broad overview of Vehicle
Dynamics with in-depth coverage of some important
aspects. Emphasis is on practical aspects, with some
theoretical background.

Topics to be covered include:

• Functional Objectives
• Tires
• Alignment
• Kinematics & Compliance
• Weight & Weight Transfer
• Subjective and Objective Evaluations
• Dampers
• Ride
• Steering
• Handling

Target Audience:
This class is intended for Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis and
Vehicle Development engineers involved with steering
and suspension system or component design and
development. A basic familiarity with steering,
suspension and other chassis components is assumed.
 Basic Vehicle Dynamics
March 2023

Objectives:
1. Understand how customer wants are translated into
Vehicle Dynamics functional objectives and how vehicles
are developed to meet them.
2. Understand the advantages and disadvantages of
subjective and objective evaluations.
3. Understand the basic construction of tires and basic tire
performance, what affects it, and what it affects in the
vehicle.
4. Identify basic alignment parameters.
5. Familiarization with Kinematics & Compliance tests and
results.
6. Learn the effects of vehicle weight on vehicle dynamics.
7. Identify basic functions and operation of dampers.
8. Define and basic ride parameters and the formulas behind
them.
9. Define basic steering functions and part / system
influences.
10. Understand basic handling characteristics.
 Vehicle Dynamics Training
Background & Acknowledgements
The Vehicle Dynamics Training course was originally created to provide formal
training to less experienced Vehicle Dynamics Engineers. Initially, the course was
limited to 8--10 students, and taught over 4 full days, including in-vehicle exercises.
Since the first offering in 2004, the course has been revised to make it suited to a
wider audience that has less background in Vehicle Dynamics. With the broader
audience comes increased attendance, which makes the in-car exercises
impractical.
This class barely scratches the surface of vehicle dynamics and would be better
called “Vehicle Dynamics Awareness” or “Vehicle Dynamics Appreciation” rather than
“training.”
Credit for creating this course goes to Bill Cornish, former Senior Manager of Core
Vehicle Dynamics, who saw the need for substantive training and took responsibility
for making it happen.
The basic content for the class was created by Bill Bastow, a Vehicle Dynamics
retiree with many years of experience at Chrysler and other automakers. Brian
Warner also contributed to the initial version of the course.
Numerous others have contributed to later versions of the course, including Peter
Schmitt, Jeremy Archer, Trevor Tanner, Dave Sobolak, Jim Dwornick, Matt Hayes,
and John Heimbecher. Numerous suppliers have allowed their materials to be used
in this class, tire suppliers Goodyear, Michelin and Bridgestone in particular deserve
recognition.
Special thanks go to Jack Cooper, former Vehicle Dynamics SR for supporting
continued development of the course and for making numerous suggestions for
enhancing the content.
The more than 1200 people that have taken the class since 2004 have also helped
develop the class by providing feedback on course surveys.
Darrell Hancock

“The industry and skill set required is changing faster than it can be taught, so blending a
strong understanding of fundamental concepts with a dynamic ability to react quickly and
problem solve is the only way to keep up.”
John Wilkinson, Corvette Lead Performance Engineer, GM
https://www.ansiblemotion.com/ansible-motion-automotive-driver-in-the-loop-simulation-news/gm-
shares-more-about-the-simulator-technology-used-to-develop-the-2020-corvette-stingray
 Basic Vehicle Dynamics
March 2023

Contents
Part 1 What is Vehicle Dynamics?
Monday
Part 2 Tires
Tuesday
Part 3 Alignment
Part 4 Kinematics & Compliance Wednesday
Part 5 Weight and Weight Transfer Thursday
Part 6 Subjective Evaluation
Homework Assignment
Part 7 Dampers Monday
Part 8 Basic Ride Tuesday
Part 9 Steering Wednesday
Part 10 Basic Handling
Thursday
Part 11 Summary
Basic Vehicle Dynamics

1-1
 Basic Vehicle Dynamics

• What is Vehicle Dynamics?

• Vehicle Dynamics Development Process
• What do Vehicle Dynamics Engineers Do
and How Do They Do It?

1-2
 What is Vehicle Dynamics?
• A combination of Science, Engineering, Art and
Hands on Development
• Goals:
– To deliver a vehicle which satisfies and pleases
the customer in the driving and riding
experience (i.e. meets functional objectives)
– To develop vehicle performance attributes that
deliver:
Customer’s Priority
●Safety ●Stability ●Security ●Comfort ●Pleasure
Stellantis Priority

Under a variety of conditions (environmental,

loading, driver inputs) over the life of the vehicle.
1-3
 What is Vehicle Dynamics?

All of this must be done while also meeting program

goals such as timing, cost, weight, investment, durability,
packaging, manufacturability, serviceability, warranty
cost, etc.
In addition, there are regulatory requirements that also
impact the vehicle dynamics development process, such
as braking requirements, CAFÉ, impact regulations, tire
standards, etc.
The goal of the development process is to find the best
compromise of these often-conflicting requirements.
1-4
What is Vehicle Dynamics?

Steering 25%

NVH 20% Handling 10%

Quality 15%

Ride 25% Other

5%

Typical Vehicle Dynamics Development

Time / Effort Distribution

1-5
 Vehicle Development Process

“Development takes inanimate objects and

makes them pleasing to humans.”
--F.J. Ruggero

How do we define “pleasing to humans”?

1-6
 Customer Requirements

• Preliminary competitive analysis, trends and

competitive position
• Market segment and trends
• Target customers & customer trends
• Prioritized list of preferred customer
features, requirements and attributes
• Description of intended vehicle use

1-7
 Tools used to get from Customer
Requirements to Engineering Objectives

• Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

• Benchmarking
• Design For Six Sigma

1-8
 QFD

“Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a systematic, team-

based method for identifying the wants & needs of the consumer,
prioritizing these requirements & translating them into
appropriate technical requirements.”

From TEDS DQIQFD100 course description

1-9
 Benchmarking
• Customer survey
• Product clinics
• Personal interviews
• Trade and enthusiast publications
• Customer complaints
• Warranty Issues
• Surrogate groups
• Competitive vehicle subjective & objective test
• Vehicle Teardown & analysis
Benchmarking is important to avoid the tendency
to “cherry pick” targets & objectives!
1-10
Example:’95 PL Customer Requirements

• Reliability
• Fuel efficient
• Good value
• Fun to drive

1-11
 ’95 PL “Fun To Drive”

• Feeling of control
• Good ride
• Responsive powertrain
• Good outward visibility
• Controls/display easy to see & use
• Audio system sounds good

1-12
 Customer Descriptors
Feeling Of Control
• Like a go-kart
• Precise and responsive
• Easy to maneuver
• Nimble
• Agile
• Sense of control

1-13
 Engineering Descriptors
Feeling Of Control
• Transient responsiveness
• Transient stability
• Roll comfort
• Steering effort & response

1-14
 Vehicle Level Engineering Objectives
Feeling Of Control
• Peak yaw response time (sec)
• Control sensitivity (G/100 Steering wheel angle)
• On-center vs. off-center control sensitivity
• Steering feel--steering effort gradient (N-m/degree)
• Roll angle gradient (degrees/G)
• Understeer gradient (degrees/G)
• Body torsional stiffness (degrees/N-m)

1-15
 System Level Engineering Objectives
Steering Feel Contributors:
•Front and Rear Suspension Geometry •Steering System
– Toe pattern – Friction
– Scrub radius – Torque sensor stiffness
– Steering axis inclination – Assist curve
– Caster •Tires
– Mechanical trail – Cornering coefficient
– Ackermann – Aligning moment
coefficient
•Front and Rear Suspension Compliance
– Camber compliance
– Lateral force compliance steer
– Aligning moment compliance steer
1-16
 Customer Level
“Fun to Drive”
Vehicle Level
Customer Requirements “Feeling of Control”
Functional Level
Customer Requirements “Precise & Responsive”
Customer Descriptors

Engineering Level
Engineering Descriptors
Transient responsiveness Vehicle Level
Transient stability Engineering Objectives
Roll comfort Peak yaw response time
Steering effort & response Control sensitivity System Level Objectives
•
• Understeer gradient Suspension
• •
• Steering
•
Tires
•
•
•
1-17
Dynamics Target Setting Process
CHRYSLER GROUP LLC

Alfa Compact Premium Sedan Initial Strategic Targets - UT vs. PA

Global Program Requirements CHRYSLER GROUP LLC
CHRYSLER GROUP LLC

6 Execute See VTS

1 Define
Technical target relief from UT / to be rationalized
Primary Competitor: Audi A4 , Volvo S60
Secondary Competitors: BMW 3 Series, Mercedes C Class Technical targets to be established

A4 3 Series S60 A4 S60 Reiz Passat

Compact Sedan Alfa Romeo Initial PA Strategic Targets
Leader Best Level Above Average Average Below Average
NAFTA X 9/5/2012
EMEA X Under discussionEXTERNAL UT

Dynamics to Benchmark target

ERGONOMICS
LAM TBD INTERNAL UT
APAC X NAFTA EMEA APAC
OVERALL SPACE UT

Brand / Product Planning

ROOMINESS
CARGO AREA / STORAGE / SUITABLE SPACE UT
CLIMATIC COMFORT AIR DISTRIBUTION (COMFORT AND QUALITY) UT

Exterior Dimensions: Powertrain Requirements: DRIVABILITY UT

vehicle collecting Handling / K&C data
releases Product Definition No – Propose
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
• Overall Length: 4672 - 4700mm

FIAT (EU)
V6 V4
• Engines: Petrol: 1.8L Turbo GDI 170 AT FWD; 230PERFORMANCES
/ 300 AT AWD/ ACCELERATION (0-60)
• Overall Width: (1846mm - UT) FUEL CONSUMPTION
Diesel: 2.0L FAM B TD 170 HP; 140 HP MT/AT FWD
• Overall Height: 1440 - 1455 mm
• Wheel Base: 2704mm (PF)
2.2L AT AWD High Power (TBD)
Note: 2.0L TD AWD to be studied for NAFTA market
FUEL CONSUMPTION (C02)

FUEL Economy (EPA) UT and proposes VTS targets

Book and Strategic Targets • Fr / Rr Track: 1582 / 1586 (UF)
Interior Dimensions:
• Fr / Rr Shoulder Room (W3-1 / W3-2): 1410 / 1386 mm (Competitive to A4)
• Transmissions: 6 Spd MTX and 9 Spd ATX
• Drivelines: NAFTA - AWD with Torque Vectoring Capability
EMEA - FWD/AWD with Torque Vectoring Capability
EASY TO DRIVE PLEASANT / EASY IN DRIVE

RIDE AND HANDLING

ACOUSTIC COMFORT
UT

UT
New VTS
• Drive Side: LHD and RHD

targets
VIBRATIONAL COMFORT (NVH) UT
• Cargo Capacity (V210-2 / SAE): min 480 L EU / 12.4 ft3 US DYNAMIC COMFORT
Performance Requirements: SEATS AND CONTACT POINTS UT
• Fr / Rr Legroom (L51-1/L51-2): Competitive as Audi A4
• Competitive to Audi A4 minimum. Evaluate closer to BMW Driving Dynamics
QUIETCAR UT
• Rr Headroom (H61-2): 944 -950mm (like 3-series, S60)
FE and C02 Targets: EASY / PLEASANT COMMANDS
• Rr Head Clearance / Diagonal Headroom : Volvo S60 / Audi A4
• Competitive and meet NAFTA CAFÉ /EU C02 requirements VISIBILITY UT
Safety Targets: Other Requirements:

7 Execute
SAFETY (ACTIVE) BRAKES / EMERGENCY HANDLING UT
• 5 Star USNCAP (New Standard) , IIHS Top Safety Pick
• Tire size (Total OD): 668-671mm (Competitive within the segment)
3RD PARTY SAFETY TARGET
• 5 Star Euro NCAP (Assumes Active System)
• Alfa DNA control available
EXTERNAL UT
PERCEIVED QUALITY
72
INTERNAL UT
1

Architecture Capability - CUSW Does arch

2 Define Bandwidth vs. Audi A4 / Audi S4
Discussion Areas Highlighted Curb Weight 3203
CHRYSLER GROUP LLC

3516 3607
A4 PA

4109
Assess architecture against support
4701 4717

proposed VTS targets and Brand

A4 S4 PA
5.36 6.9 7.9
4624 4886
Vehicle Length 4500
4734
5000
• P o w e r to W e ig h t
S4

6.1
PA A4

7.5
10.1
1427 5 11

enablers to
A4 PA 55 57.5
1682
Vehicle Height 1465
1477
• Weight Dist. Front
A4 PA

. 61.7
1300 1800
1829 50 75
P AA 4
1868 42.5
V e h ic le W id th @ S G R P 1828 A4

• Weight Dist. Rear

PA
45

related requirements and

38.3 .
1700 1830 1900

Architecture VLE proposes

2704 2809 35 43.6 60
PA A4

W h e e lb a s e 2701 A4

meet VTS
2600 2743 3100 • Cg 511 549 685
1010 500 700
A4 PA
18 20
FOH 869 975 1039
F u e l E c o n o m y /E P A -C it y S4 A4

26
700 1200
19 30

determine enablers
1010 1029 5
PA A 4
28 30

architecture to support
ROH S4 A4

700 926 1104 1200 F u e l E c o n o m y /E P A -H W 27 37

15 40

targets?
1586
S4 A4
PA 0.3 0.31
Track - (Front) 1552 1565 • Cd 0.291
S4 A4

0.361
1500 1575 1582 1625
6.5 0.2 0.45
A4 PA 23.6 25.3 25.9
V is io n A n g le -F o r w a r d D o w n 5.5 7.1
• Frontal Area
A4 PA S4

24.7 . 27.9
4 5.7 9

Program Vision
833 23 28
A4 PA
876 211 333
C o u p le (1 -2 ) 804 A4 S4

H o rs e p o w e r R a n g e 150 280
700 820 950
100 350
PA A4
5.5 7.2
F rt H e a d ro o m 980 1016 S4 A4

950 999 1075 A c c e le r a tio n T im e 0 -6 0 10.4

4
125 6.2 14
150
A4 PA

1049 1071
F rt L e g ro o m PA A4

1000 1045 1125 B ra k in g D r y 135 140

1477 125 150
A4 PA

F r t S h o u ld e r r o o m 1410 1461 1484 A4

T u rn C irc le 37.7 39
1400 1525
35 38.1 40
PA A4

R e a r H e a d ro o m 940 978
900 953 1025 W h e e l S iz e
919 15 20

Yes
PA
16 19
A4

R e a r L e g ro o m 894 896 1023 PA A4

875 1075 F u e l T a n k S iz e 61
58 60 63
A4 PA
1440
R e a r S h o u ld e r ro o m 1379
1350
A4
1399
562
PA
1475

Takeaway:
NO. 6.1.2 - ROUTINE HANDLING
549 693
H-Point to Ground 490

3 Define
450 700

CUSW H-pt results in a high CG and larger frontal area compared to

DRIVING
PA

PA ArchitectureCapabilityRange
S4

AudiS4
A4

AudiA4 A4, resulting in a challenge to vehicleTRL 6 and fuel economy.

dynamics PLEASURE/EASE CRITERIA Alfa Romeo excellence

CONCERNED SYSTEMS 19 REFERENCE Iso 159 and rolling A4: 9.2

Recommendation:
Alfa 159 is reference for movement linearity and line holding, prompt cornering, with
direct steering. Audi A4 reference for low leaning when cornering.
Brand / Product Planning (Re) Assess architecture proposal
identifies Dynamic CUSTOMER RANKING
Excellent stability, no
GOOD BAD for predicted CR scores and
Alfa Giulia

requirements via CCP Cards 1st

A4
9.2
swerving when cornering,
stuck to the ground, firm

Good hold, stable, stuck Lack of feeling of safety

proposed to Quality
2nd 8.9 because the steering is light
159

3rd Good, stable, holds the line Suspensions are too soft, too
8.8 much rolling
PASSAT

No 4th
INSIGNIA
7.9 Behaves adequately
providing you do not expect
Wobbly, too soft, steering is
too light

High Level Strategic Target Review

CR: Routine handling
CHRYSLER GROUP LLC
too much

47 Method: same
No
Initial PA Strategic Targets 9/18/12 Above Equal to Below

4 Confirm
Enablers Risks
Base Car 1.8L Assessment A4 A4 A4
EXTERNAL Competitive evaluation to be conducted
ERGONOMICS
INTERNAL Competitive evaluation to be conducted

OVERALL SPACE Based on interior hardpoint comparison Competitive evaluation to be conducted

ROOMINESS
CARGO AREA / STORAGE / SUITABLE SPACE Based on interior hardpoint comparison Competitive evaluation to be conducted

CLIMATIC COMFORT AIR DISTRIBUTION (COMFORT AND QUALITY)

UT competitive assessments / CUSW
system tests
Competitive evaluation to be conducted

Yes Does No
Does VI DRIVABILITY
948TE offers multiple gear ratios to
manipulate
2.0L torque curve is more aggressive, less turbo lag for
better driveability

MRQ
PTI is reviewing PA torque curve overall
ENGINE PERFORMANCE Engine hardware / engine calibration, adaptation
PERFORMANCES / compared to A4
FUEL CONSUMPTION PA = 7.1s vs A4 = 7.2s. CAE vs. real world correlation.
ACCELERATION (0-60)

Agree with
A4 results from magazine, not benchmarking

FUEL Economy (EPA) Compared to current Audi A4 May not meet corporate CAFÉ requirements

RIDE AND HANDLING Cornering stiffness and peak grip tires weight, CG, weight distribution, faster steering ratio

Agree?
balanced
ACOUSTIC COMFORT Complete UT C/O NVH package

VIBRATIONAL COMFORT (NVH) Body stiffness, testing Audi A4 Suspension attachment stiffness under review

SEATS AND CONTACT POINTS

DYNAMIC COMFORT

vehicle req’s
Windnoise

QUIETCAR Road Noise

N-S architecture vs. E-W. Mount system plus structural
Powertrain Noise under investigation
risk Benchmark VW CC

EASY / PLEASANT COMMANDS

? SAFETY (ACTIVE)
VISIBILITY

BRAKES / EMERGENCY HANDLING

3RD PARTY SAFETY TARGET

Based on interior hardpoint comparison

Cornering stiffness and peak grip tires

Active hood
weight, CG, weight distribution, faster steering ratio

CR
Sheet metal cleanness, no visible welds,
EXTERNAL under review - A4, BMW, Cadillac ATS
gap and flushness execution
PERCEIVED QUALITY
INTERNAL Panel gap and flushness and IP softness under review - A4, BMW, Cadillac ATS

2 Identify CR gaps to target vehicle

Dynamics Proposed Checklist
Enablers
& propose enablers at
CHRYSLER GROUP LLC

Yes
Vehicle Target Format suggestions
Approved
5
Handling
VIT/Umbrella
Confirm I want handling performance equal to:_________________________________________
- Key specifications of target vehicle required (MY, tires, p/t, etc)
- Are there specific 3rd party scores associated with the goal?
?
I want best in class handling
- Definition of the class needed

Vehicle Integration processes - Are there specific 3rd party scores associated with the goal?

I want handling beyond the performance of the current competition

target vehicle specifying

- Definition of the class needed
- is there an appropriate target vehicle from a different segment? Yes
I want to be best in class for a specific handling trait (off-road, trailer tow, cargo)
- Definition of the class needed

attributes and submits Dynamic - is there an appropriate target vehicle from a different segment?
- determine specific conditions for performance measurement (location, loading, etc)

I want competitive handling

8 Demonstrate
checklist - Definition of the class needed
- Are there specific 3rd party scores associated with the goal?
- Does this imply that no attribute should be worse than the worst in class?

Ride Comfort

I want ride comfort performance equal to:______________________________________

- Key specifications of target vehicle required (MY, tires, p/t, etc)
- Are there specific 3rd party scores associated with the goal?
In Vehicle Dynamics Package Demonstration
4
I want best in class ride comfort
- Definition of the class needed
- Are there specific 3rd party scores associated with the goal?
Vehicle Dynamics Target Checklist
Vehicle Target Format suggestions
Handling
I want handling performance equal to:_________________________________________
- Key specifications of target vehicle required (MY, tires, p/t, etc)
- Are there specific 3rd party scores associated with the goal?
- Are there any deviations desired from the reference vehicle? Need to be documented
I want best in class handling
- Definition of the class needed
- Are there specific 3rd party scores associated with the goal?
I want handling beyond the performance of the current competition in the segment
- Definition of the class needed
- is there an appropriate target vehicle from a different segment?
I want to be best in class for a specific handling trait (off-road, trailer tow, cargo)
- Definition of the class needed
- is there an appropriate target vehicle from a different segment?
- determine specific conditions for performance measurement (location, loading, etc)
I want competitive handling
- Definition of the class needed
- Are there specific 3rd party scores associated with the goal?
- Does this imply that no attribute should be worse than the worst in class? Mid pack?
Ride Comfort
I want ride comfort performance equal to:______________________________________
- Key specifications of target vehicle required (MY, tires, p/t, etc)
- Are there specific 3rd party scores associated with the goal?
- Are there any deviations desired from the reference vehicle? Need to be documented
I want best in class ride comfort
- Definition of the class needed
- Are there specific 3rd party scores associated with the goal?
I want ride comfort beyond the performance of the current competition
- Definition of the class needed
- is there an appropriate target vehicle from a different segment?
I want to be best in class for a specific ride comfort trait (full load, trailer tow, freeway hop)
- Definition of the class needed
- is there an appropriate target vehicle from a different segment?
- determine specific conditions for performance measurement (location, loading, etc)
Additional
I want all configurations to meet the targets
- Definition of what complexity is needed to achieve the goal - Chassis 1-19
Vehicle Dynamics Process & Tools

1-20
Basic Tools
• Typically spreadsheets
• Good for “ballpark”
analysis
• Simple inputs
• Simple outputs
• Some assumptions
“baked in”

Vehicle Dynamics Database (fcagroup.com)

1-21
Vehicle Dynamics Scorecard

Vehicle Dynamics Database - Performance Engineer's

Handbook and Dynamics... (fcagroup.com)
1-22
 Performance Engineer’s Handbook
“User guide” to Vehicle Dynamics Scorecard

1-23
 Vehicle Dynamics
Design Verification Plan

Vehicle Dynamics
DVP&R

1-24
 PASSENGER CAR, JEEP & TRUCK PLATFORM

Component/Assembly: Total Vehicle Reporting Engineer:

MY: ANY Applications: Sr. Manager Approval:
VEHICLE DYNAMICS DEVELOPMENT Assumptions: New vehicle w/ one susp. sales code & one c/o pwrtrn
Vehicle Requirements (Vehicle Weeks) Shared or Dedicated

SOURCE
SYSTEM /

N/A

CARRY
Mule S0 S1 S2 V1

MAJOR
ACTIVITY TEST DESCRIPTION ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA TARGET REQUIREMENTS TEST RESPONSIBILITY

MINOR
OVER
ATTRIBUTE

RE-
SV DV SV DV SV DV SV DV SV DV
Vehicle Dynamics, Program Mgmt,
Understand intented vehicle market and Be sure vehicle objectives are Clear understanding of vehicle
X X X N/A Planning, Chassis, Chassis Controls,
functional objectives understood objectives
NVH
Subjectively & objectively evaluate
Vehicle Dynamics, Core Vehicle
Benchmark current production reference ride, handling, steering, NVH Obtain data to establish & support
X X N/A Dynamics, Chassis Engineering,
vehicle(s) attributes of current production functional objectives
NVH, Chassis Controls
vehicle
Subjective ride, handling, and NVH, Platform Veh. Dyn., Veh. Dev &
Benchmark competitive vehicles X X
objective measures (various) Syn., NVH lab, and Veh. Dyn. CoC
Vehicle Dynamics Vehicle Dynamics, Core Vehicle
Subjectively & objectively evaluate
/ Concept Dev. Benchmark competitive vehicles Obtain data to establish & support
X X ride, handling, steering, NVH N/A Dynamics, Chassis Engineering,
functional objectives
attributes of competitive vehicles NVH, Chassis Controls
Targets for K&C, bushing rates
Set targets to meet functional objectives, Compare to corporate standards and Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
X X (nom, max, min), body stiffness N/A
includes simulator work if necessary best practice Engineering, NVH, Core Dynamics
(local, regional, global), confirm
Establish tire objectives based on Obtain data to establish & support
Tire Benchmarking X X N/A Vehicle Dynamics, NVH
evaluations of production tires. tire performance objectives
General agreement that planned Vehicle Dynamics, Program Mgmt,
Match general hardware requirements to Meets or Exceeds Functional
X X X hardware can meet functional Targets Met Planning, Chassis, Chassis Controls,
functional objectives Objectives
objectives Core Dynamics
Targets for K&C, bushing rates
Set targets to meet functional objectives, Compare to corporate standards and Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
X X (nom, max, min), body stiffness N/A
includes simulator work if necessary best practice Engineering, NVH, Core Dynamics
(local, regional, global), confirm

Determine basic Mule vehicle configuration

and build methods. Consider limited no. of
Vehicle Dynamics Timely mule delivery with sufficient
mules w/ proper local, regional and global X Targets Met AVE, Chassis, Vehicle Dynamics
/ Mule Stage accuracy for initial tuing work
structural characteristics to better support
NVH development.

Basic Calculations - ride Timely delivery to support mule

Determine mule vehicle initial tuning Clear specifications for ordering mule Vehicle Dynamics, Core Vehicle
X rates/springs, roll rate/antisway bars, schedule with sufficient accuracy for
component specifications parts and initial tuning kits Dynamics, Chassis Engineering
dampers, steering initial tuing work
Mule vehicle - validate and document proper
build. Body Structure (by CAE and physical 1. Ride evaluation - basic shakeout
test), K&C, R&R, weight distribution, wheel trial Vehicle Dynamics, Core Vehicle
Meet desired objectives within
alignment range capability, etc. (only for X 2. SPMM - K&C, R&R
workable range
Meet or reworkable to objectives Dynamics, Chassis Engineering, 6
"new" parts / systems) 3. NVH modal, bend, torque AVE, NVH
measurements, etc.

first round tuning; basic ride, handling,

Damper / Jounce Bumper / Tire / All new systems tuned in harmony to Component specs in time to order Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
steering, powertrain, NVH sort out. (only for X
Steering / structure tuning afford next level refinement tuning next level mule parts Engineering, NVH
15
"new" parts / systems)
Second round tuning; further refine ride,
Damper / Jounce Bumper / Tire / All new systems tuned in harmony to Component specs in time to order S0 Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
handling, steering, powertrain, NVH. (only for X
Steering / Bushing tuning afford next level refinement tuning parts Engineering, NVH
11
"new" parts / systems)
Perform common test venue tests:
Mule Tuning - Handling performance Meet desired objectives within
Validation Tests
X Slalom, Steady State Cornering,
workable range
Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics 2
NHTSA Rollover Fishhook Power-
Mule Tuning - Ride performance Validation Consumers Union Route & CPG Meet desired objectives within
Tests
X
Harshness route peer review. workable range
Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics, Core Dynamics 2
Verify ground clearance, Approach
Mule Tuning - Offroad performance Meet desired objectives within
Validation Tests
X /departure /breakover angles. Mud
workable range
Targets Met, where applicable Vehicle Development 4
test. Low speed (rock crawl) and
Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to
Sensitity Study for wheel alignment,
Mule Tuning - Lead / Pull Sensitivity Studies X
tire concity, road crown.
be acceptable with typical production Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics 2
variation.
Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to
Mule Tuning - Shimmy Sensitivity Studies Sensitivity study for shimmy. be acceptable with typical production Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics, NVH 1
variation.
Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to
Mule Tuning - Brake Judder Sensitivity Core Brakes, NVH, Brakes, Vehicle
Studies
X Sensitivity study for Brake Judder be acceptable with typical production Targets Met
Dynamics
2
variation.
Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to
Mule Tuning - Powertrain Mounting Sensitivity Sensitivity study for take off shudder, Powertrain integration, NVH,
Studies
X
shift quality
be acceptable with typical production Targets Met
Vehicle Dynamics
8
variation.
Prior to S0 material specification
date: Chassis Controls systems and
Meet desired objectives within
Mule Tuning - Chassis Controls X ESP, AWD/4WD, ABS system tuning
workable range
Vehicle Dynamics packages must be Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis Controls 4
combined and acceptable for S0
order level.
 PASSENGER CAR, JEEP & TRUCK PLATFORM

Component/Assembly: Total Vehicle Reporting Engineer:

MY: ANY Applications: Sr. Manager Approval:
VEHICLE DYNAMICS DEVELOPMENT Assumptions: New vehicle w/ one susp. sales code & one c/o pwrtrn
Vehicle Requirements (Vehicle Weeks) Shared or Dedicated

SOURCE
SYSTEM /

N/A

CARRY
Mule S0 S1 S2 V1

MAJOR
ACTIVITY TEST DESCRIPTION ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA TARGET REQUIREMENTS TEST RESPONSIBILITY

MINOR
OVER
ATTRIBUTE

RE-
SV DV SV DV SV DV SV DV SV DV
Washout Test X Per washout procedure Pass per platform requirements Targets Met Chassis, Vehicle Dynamics 2
Curb Push-off X Per curb push off procedure Pass per platform requirements Targets Met Chassis, Vehicle Dynamics 1
Curb Impact X Per curb impact procedure Pass per platform requirements Targets Met Chassis, Vehicle Dynamics 1
Prior to S0 material specification
date: NVH, Powertrain Mounting and
Coordinate development activities Meet desired objectives within Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
Mule Tuning - general NVH X
with NVH group. workable range
Vehicle Dynamics packages must be
Engineering, NVH
4
combined and acceptable for S0
order level.
Evaluate and refine steering for;
All systems tuned in harmony to Component specs in time to order Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
Steering Tuning X kickback, hammer, rattle, shutter,
afford next level refinement tuning next level mule parts Engineering
2
catch-up
Evaluate and
and valve
curve
tune for cold
Component specs in time to order
Steering--Low Temp Evaluation X X temperature performance and NVH Meet objectives.
next level mule parts
Vehicle Dynamics, NVH 1
characteristics
Acceptable performance capabilites
As defined by vehicle product
Trailer Tow Capability X Trailer tow evaluation tests with max. rated trailer and with
description
Vehicle Dynamics 2
released spare tire configuration.
Wet handling / Snow traction / NVH /
Clear specifications for ordering S0 Component specs in time to order Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
Tire testing X Responsiveness / RSAT / Limit
level tires next level mule parts Engineering, NVH
8
handling characteristics / Rolling
Vehicle loaned to Tire Manufacturer Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
Tire Manufacturer testing (wear) X
for high mileage wear tests
Results and direction in time for S1 Targets Met
Engineering
10
Evaluate on Consumers Report
Early identification of componenet,
route, harshness peer review, winter Performance of tuned mule remains Vehicle Dynamics, NVH, Chassis
Update Mule with S0 parts X
test, other public venues where S0 in S0 configuration.
system, assembly or performance
Engineering
3
issues with S0 parts.
not acceptable for security reasons
Mule vehicle updated to S0 - validate and
document proper build. Body Structure (by 1. Ride evaluation - basic shakeout
CAE and physical test), K&C, R&R, weight Vehicle Dynamics, Core Vehicle
trial Performance of tuned mule stays the
distribution, wheel alignment range capability, X
2. SPMM - K&C, R&R same in S0 vehicle configuration.
Meet or reworkable to objectives Dynamics, Chassis Engineering, 4
etc. (only for "new" parts / systems) NVH, Chassis Controls
3. NVH modal measurements, etc.

Mule Vehicle Total Weeks 34 61

 PASSENGER CAR, JEEP & TRUCK PLATFORM

Component/Assembly: Total Vehicle Reporting Engineer:

MY: ANY Applications: Sr. Manager Approval:
VEHICLE DYNAMICS DEVELOPMENT Assumptions: New vehicle w/ one susp. sales code & one c/o pwrtrn
Vehicle Requirements (Vehicle Weeks) Shared or Dedicated

SOURCE
SYSTEM /

N/A

CARRY
Mule S0 S1 S2 V1

MAJOR
ACTIVITY TEST DESCRIPTION ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA TARGET REQUIREMENTS TEST RESPONSIBILITY

MINOR
OVER
ATTRIBUTE

RE-
SV DV SV DV SV DV SV DV SV DV
Basic Calculations - ride Timely delivery to support S0
Vehicle Dynamics Determine S0 vehicle initial tuning component Clear specifications for ordering S0 Vehicle Dynamics, Core Vehicle
X rates/springs, roll rate/antisway bars, schedule with sufficient accuracy for
/ S0 Stage specifications parts and initial tuning kits Dynamics, Chassis Engineering
dampers, steering initial tuing work
S0 vehicle - validate and document proper
build. Body Structure (by CAE and physical 1. Ride evaluation - basic shakeout
test), K&C, R&R, weight distribution, wheel Vehicle Dynamics, Core Vehicle
trial Meet desired objectives within
alignment range capability, etc. (only for X
2. SPMM - K&C, R&R workable range
Meet or reworkable to objectives Dynamics, Chassis Engineering, 5
"new" parts / systems) AVE, NVH
3. NVH modal measurements, etc.

first round tuning; basic ride, handling,

Damper / Jounce Bumper / Tire / All new systems tuned in harmony to Component specs in time to order Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
steering, powertrain, NVH sort out. (only for X
Steering / structure tuning afford next level refinement tuning next level S0 parts Engineering, NVH
13
"new" parts / systems)
Second round tuning; further refine ride,
Damper / Jounce Bumper / Tire / All new systems tuned in harmony to Component specs in time to order S1 Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
handling, steering, powertrain, NVH. (only for X
Steering / Bushing tuning afford next level refinement tuning parts Engineering, NVH
10
"new" parts / systems)
Perform common test venue tests:
S0 Tuning - Handling performance Validation Meet desired objectives within
Tests
X Slalom, Steady State Cornering,
workable range
Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics 1
NHTSA Rollover Fishhook Power-
S0 Tuning - Ride performance Validation Consumers Union Route & CPG Meet desired objectives within
Tests
X
Harshness route peer review. workable range
Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics, Core Dynamics 2
Verify ground clearance, Approach
S0 Tuning - Offroad performance Validation Meet desired objectives within
Tests
X /departure /breakover angles. Mud
workable range
Targets Met, where applicable Vehicle Development 4
test Low speed (rock crawl) and
Sensitity Study for wheel alignment, Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to
S0 Tuning - Lead / Pull Sensitivity Studies X
tire concity, road crown. be acceptable with typical production
Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics 2
Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to
S0 Tuning - Shimmy Sensitivity Studies Sensitivity study for shimmy. be acceptable with typical production Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics, NVH 1
variation.

Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to

Core Brakes, NVH, Brakes, Vehicle
S0 Tuning - Brake Judder Sensitivity Studies X Sensitivity study for Brake Judder be acceptable with typical production Targets Met
Dynamics
1
variation.

Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to

S0 Tuning - Powertrain Mounting Sensitivity Sensitivity study for take off shudder, Powertrain integration, NVH,
Studies
X
shift quality
be acceptable with typical production Targets Met
Vehicle Dynamics
6
variation.
Prior to S1 material specification
date: Chassis Controls systems and
Meet desired objectives within
S0 Tuning - Chassis Controls X ESP, AWD/4WD, ABS system tuning
workable range
Vehicle Dynamics packages must be Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis Controls 15
combined and acceptable for S1
order level.
Washout Test X Per washout procedure Pass per platform requirements Targets Met Chassis, Vehicle Dynamics 2
Curb Push-off X Per curb push off procedure Pass per platform requirements Targets Met Chassis, Vehicle Dynamics 1
Curb Impact X Per curb impact procedure Pass per platform requirements Targets Met Chassis, Vehicle Dynamics 1
Prior to S1 material specification
date: NVH, Powertrain Mounting and
Coordinate development activities Meet desired objectives within Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
S0 Tuning - general NVH X
with NVH group. workable range
Vehicle Dynamics packages must be
Engineering, NVH
6
combined and acceptable for S1
order level.
Evaluate and refine steering for;
All systems tuned in harmony to Component specs in time to order Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
Steering Tuning X kickback, hammer, rattle, shutter,
afford next level refinement tuning next level S1 parts Engineering
6
catch-up and
Evaluate and valve curve
tune for cold
Component specs in time to order
Steering--Low Temp Evaluation X X temperature performance and NVH Meet objectives.
next level S1 parts
Vehicle Dynamics, NVH 4
characteristics
Wet handling / Snow traction / NVH /
Clear specifications for ordering S1 Component specs in time to order Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
Tire testing X Responsiveness / RSAT / Limit
level tires next level S1 parts Engineering, NVH
10
handling characteristics / Rolling
Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis,
Prep vehicles - Mgmt Ride/Drive #1 X X Vehicles represent dynamics status Meet or reworkable to objectives
Development
10
Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis,
Prep vehicles - Mgmt Ride/Drive #2 X X Vehicles represent dynamics status Meet or reworkable to objectives
Development
10
S0 vehicle updated to S1 - validate and
document proper build. Body Structure (by 1. Ride evaluation - basic shakeout
CAE and physical test), K&C, R&R, weight Performance of tuned S0 remains Vehicle Dynamics, Core Vehicle
trial
distribution, wheel alignment range capability, X
2. SPMM - K&C, R&R
the same with S1 parts installed Meet or reworkable to objectives Dynamics, Chassis Engineering, 4
etc. (only for "new" parts / systems) configuration. NVH, Chassis Controls
3. NVH modal measurements, etc.

SO Vehicle Total Weeks 51 63

 PASSENGER CAR, JEEP & TRUCK PLATFORM

Component/Assembly: Total Vehicle Reporting Engineer:

MY: ANY Applications: Sr. Manager Approval:
VEHICLE DYNAMICS DEVELOPMENT Assumptions: New vehicle w/ one susp. sales code & one c/o pwrtrn
Vehicle Requirements (Vehicle Weeks) Shared or Dedicated

SOURCE
SYSTEM /

N/A

CARRY
Mule S0 S1 S2 V1

MAJOR
ACTIVITY TEST DESCRIPTION ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA TARGET REQUIREMENTS TEST RESPONSIBILITY

MINOR
OVER
ATTRIBUTE

RE-
SV DV SV DV SV DV SV DV SV DV
S1 vehicle - validate and document proper
build. Body Structure (by CAE and physical 1. Ride evaluation - basic shakeout
Vehicle Dynamics, Core Vehicle
Vehicle Dynamics test), K&C, R&R, weight distribution, wheel trial Meet desired objectives within
/ S1 Stage alignment range capability, etc. (only for X
2. SPMM - K&C, R&R workable range
Meet or reworkable to objectives Dynamics, Chassis Engineering, 4
"new" parts / systems) AVE, NVH
3. NVH modal measurements, etc.

first round tuning; basic ride, handling,

Damper / Jounce Bumper / Tire / All new systems tuned in harmony to Component specs in time to order Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
steering, powertrain, NVH sort out. (only for X
Steering / structure tuning afford next level refinement tuning next level S1 parts Engineering, NVH
8
"new" parts / systems)
Final tuning; further refine ride, handling,
Damper / Jounce Bumper / Tire / Meet desired objectives within Component specs in time to order S2 Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
steering, powertrain, NVH. (only for "new" X
Steering / Bushing tuning workable range parts Engineering, NVH
8
parts / systems)
Perform common test venue tests:
S1 Tuning - Handling performance Validation
Tests
X Slalom, Steady State Cornering, Meet desired objectives Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics 1
NHTSA Rollover Fishhook Power-
S1 Tuning - Ride performance Validation Consumers Union Route & CPG
Tests
X
Harshness route peer review.
Meet desired objectives Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics, Core Dynamics 2
Verify ground clearance, Approach
S1 Tuning - Offroad performance Validation
Tests
X /departure /breakover angles. Mud Meet desired objectives Targets Met, where applicable Vehicle Development 2
test Low speed (rock crawl) and
Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to
Sensitity Study for wheel alignment,
S1 Tuning - Lead / Pull Sensitivity Studies X
tire concity, road crown.
be acceptable with typical production Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics 2
variation.
Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to
S1 Tuning - Shimmy Sensitivity Studies Sensitivity study for shimmy. be acceptable with typical production Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics, NVH 2
variation.
Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to
Core Brakes, NVH, Brakes, Vehicle
S1 Tuning - Brake Judder Sensitivity Studies X Sensitivity study for Brake Judder be acceptable with typical production Targets Met
Dynamics
1
variation.
Vehicle sensitivity level low enough to
S1 Tuning - Powertrain Mounting Sensitivity Sensitivity study for take off shudder, Powertrain integration, NVH,
Studies
X
shift quality
be acceptable with typical production Targets Met
Vehicle Dynamics
2
variation.

Prior to S2 material specification

date: Chassis Controls systems and
S1 Tuning - Chassis Controls X ESP, AWD/4WD, ABS system tuning Meet desired objectives
Vehicle Dynamics packages must be
Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis Controls 2
combined and acceptable for S2.

Prior to S2 material specification

Coordinate development activities date: NVH, Powertrain Mounting and Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
S1 Tuning - general NVH X
with NVH group.
Meet desired objectives
Vehicle Dynamics packages must be Engineering, NVH
4
combined and acceptable for S2.

Sensitivity study for steering build Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis

Steering Sensitivity X
variation
Meet requirements at build limits Steering conforms to objectives
Engineering
3
Wet handling / Snow traction / NVH /
Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
Tire Validation X Responsiveness / RSAT / Limit Meet objectives. Validate conforms to objectives
Engineering, NVH
5
handling characteristics / Rolling
Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis,
Prep vehicles - Mgmt Ride/Drive #1 X X Vehicles represent dynamics status Meet or reworkable to objectives
Development
10
Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis,
Prep vehicles - Mgmt Ride/Drive #2 X X Vehicles represent dynamics status Meet or reworkable to objectives
Development
10
S1 vehicle updated to S2 - validate and
document proper build. Body Structure (by 1. Ride evaluation - basic shakeout
CAE and physical test), K&C, R&R, weight Vehicle Dynamics, Core Vehicle
trial Performance of S1 stays the same
distribution, wheel alignment range capability, X
2. SPMM - K&C, R&R with S2 parts configuration.
Meet objectives Dynamics, Chassis Engineering, 2
etc. (only for "new" parts / systems) NVH, Chassis Controls
3. NVH modal measurements, etc.

S1 Vehicle Total Weeks 28 40

 PASSENGER CAR, JEEP & TRUCK PLATFORM

Component/Assembly: Total Vehicle Reporting Engineer:

MY: ANY Applications: Sr. Manager Approval:
VEHICLE DYNAMICS DEVELOPMENT Assumptions: New vehicle w/ one susp. sales code & one c/o pwrtrn
Vehicle Requirements (Vehicle Weeks) Shared or Dedicated

SOURCE
SYSTEM /

N/A

CARRY
Mule S0 S1 S2 V1

MAJOR
ACTIVITY TEST DESCRIPTION ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA TARGET REQUIREMENTS TEST RESPONSIBILITY

MINOR
OVER
ATTRIBUTE

RE-
SV DV SV DV SV DV SV DV SV DV
S2 vehicle - validate and document proper
build. Body Structure (by physical test), 1. Ride evaluation - basic shakeout
Vehicle Dynamics, Core Vehicle
Vehicle Dynamics K&C, R&R, weight distribution, wheel trial
/ S2 Stage alignment range capability, etc. (only for X
2. SPMM - K&C, R&R
Meet desired objectives Meet objectives Dynamics, Chassis Engineering, 4
"new" parts / systems) AVE, NVH
3. NVH modal measurements, etc.

Perform common test venue tests:

S2 - Handling performance Validation Tests X Slalom, Steady State Cornering, Meet desired objectives Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics 1
NHTSA Rollover Fishhook Power-
Consumers Union Route & CPG
S2 - Ride performance Validation Tests X
Harshness route peer review.
Meet desired objectives Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics, Core Dynamics 2
Verify ground clearance, Approach
S2 - Offroad performance Validation Tests X /departure /breakover angles. Mud Meet desired objectives Targets Met, where applicable Vehicle Development 2
test Low speed (rock crawl) and
Validate chassis controls system
S2 - Chassis Controls X
function
Meet desired objectives Targets Met Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis Controls 2
Meet desired objectives, all systems
Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
Steering Tuning X Validate steering tuned in harmony to afford next level Targets Met
Engineering
1
refinement tuning
Confirm overall vehicle meets NVH, Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis
S2 - general NVH X
objective
Meet desired objectives Targets Met
Engineering, NVH
2
Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis,
Prep vehicles - Mgmt Ride/Drive #1 X X Vehicles represent dynamics status Meet or reworkable to objectives
Development
10

Validate Press Show Vehicles (tire balance, Vehicle Dynamics, Chassis,

Wheel Alignment, Ride Characteristics)
X X Meet desired objectives Targets Met
Development
5

S2 Vehicle Total Weeks 29 0

Total SV 142
Total DV 164
Grand Total 306
What Do Vehicle Dynamics Engineers Do?

Develop the “ride & handling” of vehicles to meet requirements:

• Regulatory requirements
• Stellantis internal requirements
• Customer requirements

1-25
Five Characteristics of Vehicle Performance
1. Directional Control/Stability
2. Ride
3. Noise, Vibration, and Harshness
4. Acceleration
100
5. Deceleration
Percent Responsibility

75
Vehicle NVH
Dynamics

50

25

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Frequency (Hz)
1-26
 Five Characteristics of Vehicle Performance
Directional Control / Stability Ride NVH Accel. Perf.
Tire Brake in turn static Basic ride Impact noise Ride freq.
Size Brake in turn dynamic Shake Road noise Pitch control
Cornering stiffness Stability Harshness Tire SVSA
Align. mom stiffness Fixed control static stab. Tire Ride freq. Damper tuning
Ride frequency Free control static stab. Ride freq. Roll stiffness Frt. susp. K&C
Roll angle control Fixed control dynamic stab. Roll control Frt. susp. K&C Rr. susp. K&C
Max. roll angle Free control dynamic stab. Pitch control Rr. susp. K&C Tire traction
Max. roll angle grad. Steering Roll stiffness Isolators Aero properties
Pitch angle Response Damper tuning Damper tuning
Max. pitch angle Torque to initiate turn Frt. susp. K&C Aero properties
Max pitch angle grad. Effort parking Rr. susp. K&C Decel. Perf.
Side slip angle Effort & effort gradient Ride freq.
Max. side slip angle Front & rear alignment Pitch control
Max. side slip angle grad. Roll center control SVSA
Aero properties Front suspension K&C Damper tuning
Steering sensitivity Rear suspension K&C Frt. susp. K&C
Understeer Ackermann Rr. susp. K&C
Stability index Lateral load transfer Tire traction
Roll stiffness Damper tuning Aero properties
Limit behavior Drift & pull
Steady state Torque steer
Emergency Tire wear
1-27
How are vehicles assessed against their
targets/objectives?

1-28
 Vehicle Evaluation
Objective & Subjective
There are two primary means of evaluating, measuring or assessing
vehicle performance; subjective and objective.
Both methods have advantages and disadvantages.
Both methods are used extensively throughout the vehicle
development process to assess vehicle status vs. functional
objectives and targets.
To get the best results from either type of evaluation, it is necessary
to use good techniques in both evaluation and analysis of the
results.

1-29
 Vehicle Assessment
Customer Wants / Needs Regulatory Requirements
(Nearly all Subjective) (Nearly all Objective)

Functional Objectives
(Mostly Objective, Some Subjective)

Evaluation
vs Objectives

Objective Evaluation Subjective Evaluation

1-30
 Vehicle Evaluation
Plan
Why (objective), What (vehicles, references, events), When (program timing, climate), Where
(location, road, route, rotations), Who (expert evaluators, jury, customers), How (multiple
vehicles, parts changes, sensors, data acquisition)
Prepare
Prepare and document the vehicle(s)
Plan and document the routes, events, or maneuvers to be used
Plan the vehicle rotations, driver changes, parts changes, etc.
Evaluate / Measure
Get comfortable in the car
Familiarize yourself with the controls
Eliminate distractions
Drive consistently and focus on the vehicle’s responses
Minimize environmental effects
Record Data / Ratings & Comments
Record data
Record ratings and comments
Document & rate based on observations, don’t hypothesize about causes or solutions
Analyze Results
Determine how best to analyze the results, whether subjective or objective

6-31
 Evaluation Preparation
• Set tire pressure to placard (or desired) pressure
• Set tire pressure at outside ambient temperature
(“cold pressure”)

Vertical Stiffness Aligning Torque Stiffness

225 150

Aligning Torque Stiffness (N-m/deg)

220 125
Vertical Stiffness (N/mm)

215 100

210 32psi 75 32psi

34psi 34psi
205 50
36psi 36psi

200
25

195
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
190 Normal Load (N)
32psi 34psi 36psi
1-32
 Evaluation Preparation
• Think about temperature effects
– Rubber glass transition temperature (bushings, mounts,
isolators)
– Oil viscosity (dampers, hydro bushings, power steering
& trans fluid)

1-33
 Objective Evaluation
Objective measurements are used in many aspects of Vehicle
Dynamics, especially at the component or system level.
Examples include:
•Shock Curves
•Steering Effort
•Kinematics & Compliance
•Instrumented Handling
Objective measurement at the vehicle level becomes more
difficult because vehicle level objectives represent customer
expectations, which are not always quantifiable. For example,
vehicle ride is subjective, difficult to define, and nearly
impossible to quantify.

1-34
 Objective Evaluation
Objective measurement at the vehicle level typically does not
produce results that directly represent customer wants, which
are not easily quantified. Often the results from whole vehicle
measurements can be combined, analyzed, or reduced to give
an indication of how well the vehicle meets customer
expectations.
For example, Instrumented Handling Test results can be used
to predict Consumer Reports ratings for Routine and
Emergency Handling.

1-35
 Objective Evaluation
Objective measurement produces data. To get useable
information, the data typically has to be reduced, analyzed or
otherwise manipulated. To gain understanding or knowledge
from the resulting information, comparisons to other results or
standards typically need to be made.
010011010
010011010
010011010 Verification, analysis,
Data
010011010 Information
Data
010011010 reduction
Data
010011010
Data
Data
Data

Comprehension, Knowledge &

understanding, Ability to Make
comparison Decisions
1-36
 Objective Evaluation
Pros
•Absolute results are possible
•Quantitative data
•Easier to control, more repeatable
•Can isolate specific events / responses
•Incremental changes can be measured

Cons
•Equipment required, installation time needed
•Does not measure “whole vehicle”
•Extensive analysis often required
•Often difficult to measure desired characteristics directly
•Need to establish correlation with “good” and “bad” values

1-37
 Objective Evaluation
Actual Data—Is this a good car or a bad car?

300 20
15
200
10
100 5

0
0
-5
1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5
-100 -10
-15
-200
-20
-300 -25

1-38
 Objective Evaluation
Understand the accuracy and precision of measurements.
Accuracy is an indication of how close measurements are to the
true value of the quantity being measured.
Precision is a measure of how much scatter there is in the measured
data.
Value
True

Accuracy
Measurements
Frequency of

Measurement
Precision
1-39
 Objective Evaluation
Understand the accuracy and precision requirements.
Absolute accuracy is often not that important, since the data will be
used to compare “good” and “bad” vehicles or changes on a relative
basis.
Precision is typically more important to ensure that the scatter in the
data is much smaller than the differences being measured.
Consider measuring “good” and “bad” vehicles or parts multiple
times initially to make sure the measurement system can resolve the
differences between them.

1-40
 Objective Evaluation
Even if the accuracy of a measurement is off, the results can be
useful as long as the precision is able to discern the differences of
interest.
No matter how accurate a measurement is, if it’s precision is less
than the differences being measured, the results will not be good.
Vehicle

Vehicle
Vehicle

#3

#2
#1

Ideal measurement;
good accuracy and precision
Measurements
Frequency of

Unable to differentiate between

Vehicle 1 and Vehicle 3
Real measurement;
some inaccuracy, less precision

Measurement
1-41
 Subjective Evaluation
Subjective evaluations are used extensively in Vehicle
Dynamics, almost exclusively at the vehicle level. Examples
include:
•Ride
•Handling
•Steering
•NVH
Subjective evaluations take into account all “channels” of data
in the vehicle and human perception of them. This is
representative of how customers feel and perceive their
vehicles. Subjective evaluation allows qualitative evaluation
of vehicle characteristics and summarizes them into a single or
small number of ratings.
1-42
 Subjective Evaluation

“Without data, you’re just another with an opinion”

Or a customer!

There are not always means of quantifying, measuring and

analyzing customer wants, yet pleasing customers is absolutely
critical.

Conversely, being able to acquire and analyze data does not

guarantee that customers will be satisfied.

1-43
 Why Is Subjective Evaluation So Important?
Sources of information with the
greatest impact on vehicle
purchasing decisions

Test drives have the

biggest impact on
vehicle purchases.
Test drives are subjective
evaluations!

Enprecis poll of 1500 car buyers regarding the top three sources of information that have
the greatest impact on their vehicle purchasing decisions. 1-44
 Why Is Subjective Evaluation So Important?
% of FCA customers
NAFTA Customer Influencers who were influenced
by this source
Vehicle test drive 40.7%
Previous experience with the vehicle/brand 30.4%
Consumer Reports ratings 27.8%
Dealership information 22.6%
Test drives have the biggest
Manufacturer’s website 20.9% impact on vehicle purchases.
Kelley Blue Book 18.3% Test drives are subjective
On-Line blogs or forums 16.5%
Edmunds 15.2%
evaluations!
Recommendations from friends or family 14.3%
Other 13.9%
Automotive magazines 8.4%
J D Power reports 6.2%
NHTSA or IIHS safety ratings 4.6%
Poll of 83,000 FCA vehicle owners regarding the greatest impact(s)
on their vehicle purchase decision.

1-45
 Summary
• Vehicle Dynamics involves developing the “ride & handling”
characteristics of a vehicle to meet all the program
requirements, many of which are not directly related to vehicle
dynamics.
• Customer requirements are translated into functional objectives,
some of which are objective, and some of which are subjective.
• Both objective and subjective methods are used to evaluate
vehicle performance. Each method has strengths and
weaknesses.
• When evaluating a vehicle either objectively or subjectively, it
is important to do it right—plan, prepare, execute and analyze.

1-46
 References
• Vehicle Dynamics Sharepoint Site:
https://teamsites.nafta.fcagroup.com/sites/vehdyn/SitePages/Home.aspx
• Vehicle Dynamics Target Setting process:
https://teamsites.nafta.fcagroup.com/sites/vehdyn/Lists/Vehicle%20Dynamic
s%20Database/DispForm.aspx?ID=2624

• Vehicle Dynamics Scorecard:

https://teamsites.nafta.fcagroup.com/sites/vehdyn/Lists/Vehicle%20Dynamic
s%20Database/DispForm.aspx?ID=2667

1-47
Basic Vehicle Dynamics

Part 2--Tires
 Basic Vehicle Dynamics-Tires

What is a Tire?
How are tires made?
How does a tire work?
How are tires specified?
How are tires developed?
How are tires evaluated?

2-2
“Automobiles and trucks are machines for using
tires.”
Maurice Olley

“Tires, tires, tires. Tires alone can make it

impossible for your vehicle to meet its objectives
for steering and handling.”
Jack Cooper

“…tire mechanics is the bedrock on which vehicle

dynamics is built…”
Prof L. Daniel Metz Univ. of Illinois

2-3
 What is a Tire?

•A High Performance Composite Structure

•Complex Material Makeup
8 to 10 Different Rubber Compounds
2 to 3 Types of Steel
3 to 4 types of Fabric

2-4
 What Does a Tire Do?
Every load on a vehicle is transmitted through its tires.
Tires affect all aspects of vehicle performance—noise, ride, handling,
braking, steering, wet handling, snow traction, off-road, etc.
Wear Snow Handling

Wet
GAS
Braking
Wet Handling Groove Wander
Braking
Shake
Ride Mud
Road Noise
Rock
Harshness

Gravel

Steering Off-Road

Fuel Highway Braking

Economy High Speeds 2-5
Adapted From Bridgestone
 What Does a Tire Do?

Tire Functions
Carry Load
Transmit Drive/Braking torque
Provide Steering response
Produce Cornering Force
Cushion Road Inputs
Dimensional Stability
Consume Minimum Power
Low Noise / Vibration
Tolerate Poor Maintenance
Durable and Safe Performance
Long Wear Life
Wide Range of Environmental Conditions

2-6
 What Does a Tire Do?

Relative Influence on Vehicle Performance

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
Ride Noise Steering Driving Aquaplaning Wet Winter Tire Fuel Pass-by
Precision Stability Handling Driving Wear Consumption Noise

Based on Vieweg Handubch Kraftfahrzeugtechnik,

Road Tires Vehicle S. Pischinger, U. Seiffert, Springer Fachmedien
Wiesbaden 2013

2-7
Terminology

Tire cross section illustrates

terms used in discussing
tires.

2-8
 Terminology
Aspect Ratio: Section height ÷ Section width x 100
Deflection: Free radius minus loaded radius
Free Radius: Radius of the tire/wheel assembly that is not deflected under the load
Loaded Radius: Distance from axis of rotation to supporting surface at a given load and stated inflation
pressure
Loaded Section Height: The loaded radius minus half of the nominal rim diameter. Distance from rim
seat to outer tread surface of a loaded tire.
Nominal Rim Diameter: Diameter of rim seat supporting the tire bead. (Ex: 13˝, 15˝ and 16.5˝)
Overall Diameter: The diameter of the inflated tire without any load.
Overall Width: Maximum width in cross-section of unloaded tire including protruding side ribs and
decorations.
Revolutions Per Mile: Measured number of revolutions for a tire traveling one mile. This can vary with
load and inflation.
Rim Width: Linear distance between rim flanges in contact with the tire.
Rolling Circumference: The linear distance traveled by a tire in one revolution. This can vary with load
and inflation. Rolling circumference can be calculated as:
63,360 ÷ RPM = Rolling Circumference in inches
Section Height: Distance from rim seat to outer tread surface of unloaded tire.
Section Width: Linear distance between the outside sidewalls of an inflated tire without any load
(exclusive of protruding side ribs and decorations).
Tread Width: The portion of the tread design which comes in contact with the road. 2-9
 Terminology
P-Metric sizing is the sizing system used for most passenger car tires today.
• Standardizes tire sizing worldwide
• Based on the metric system

Aspect Ratio Radial

Note: “European” Section Construction
Rim Diameter
metric tires do not Width (mm)
have an initial letter (in)

Passenger Load Index

Car Tire

Speed Rating

2-10
 Tire Speed Ratings

Speed Maximum Size

Rating speed Speed Example Comments
Symbol (MPH) Symbol
Q 99
R 106 Speed ratings
increase with letters
S 112 later in the
T 118 P205/60R16 97T alphabet, but “H” is
U 124 an exception. It
originally indicated
H 130 “High Speed.”
V 149
Above 149 ZR P255/45ZR17
W 168 P255/45ZR17 98W W, Y and (Y) are
Y 186 ZR P285/35ZR19 99Y subsets of the ZR
(Y) Above 186 P285/35ZR19 (99Y) rating.

11
Terminology
LT-Metric sizing is the sizing system used for most light truck tires today.
• Mirrors the P-Metric system used for passenger tires

Section
Width (mm)
Aspect Ratio Radial
Construction
Light Truck Rim Diameter
Tire (in)

2-12
Terminology
LT-High Flotation is the sizing system used for light truck tires with lower aspect
ratios and high flotation.
• Tires yield better traction on sand and soft soil found in off-road situations

Radial
Section Construction Rim Diameter
Width (in) (in)
Overall Tire Light Truck
Diameter (in) Tire
Load
Range

2-13
Terminology
The DOT number is composed of identifiers required by the Department of
Transportation.

Optional
Code number Tire Size Code for
Identifying Code Manufacturer’s Week of
Tire meets manufacturing manufacture
use
or exceeds Dept. plant (35 = 35th Week,
of Transportation 01 = Year 2001)
safety standards

2-14
Terminology
The DOT number is composed of identifiers required by the Department of
Transportation.

Optional
Code number Tire Size Code for
Identifying Code Manufacturer’s Week of
Tire meets manufacturing manufacture
use
or exceeds Dept. plant (35 = 35th Week,
of Transportation 01 = Year 2001)
safety standards

2-15
Terminology
In April 2015, NHTSA issued a new 13 digit DOT marking scheme. The current DOT
marking can continue to be used for up to 10 years.
The plant code becomes 3 characters, and the Manufacturer’s code becomes a
mandatory 6 character field.

Current: DOT XXXX XXXX ####

Meets DOT
Standards Year of
Plant Code manufacture
Optional Code
Tire Size Code for tire Week of
manufacturer’s manufacture
use

New: DOT XXX XXXXXX ####

Meets DOT
Standards Year of
Plant Code manufacture
Manufacturer’s
code Week of
(mandatory) manufacture

2-16
 Uniform Tire Quality Grading System

To assist consumers purchasing new vehicles or replacement

tires, NHTSA has rated more than 2,400 lines of tires, including
most used on passenger cars, minivans, SUVs and light pickup
trucks.
This grading system, known as the Uniform Tire Quality
Grading System (UTQGS), allows consumers to compare tire
treadwear, traction performance, and temperature resistance.
The federal government requires tire manufacturers to grade
their tires in these three areas and place the information on the
sidewall of the tire.

17
https://www.safercar.gov/Vehicle-Shoppers/Tires-Rating
 Uniform Tire Quality Grading System
TREADWEAR: The treadwear grade is a comparative rating based on the wear rate of the tire
when tested under controlled conditions on a specified government test course.
For example, a tire graded 150 would wear one and a half (1.5) times as well on the
government course as a tire graded 100. The relative performance of tires depends upon the
actual conditions of their use, however, and may depart significantly from the norm due to
variations in driving habits, service practices and differences in road characteristics and
climate.

UTQG Treadwear Ratings

(2013 Tire Ratings)
35%

30%

25%
Frequency

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 More
Treadwear Rating (% of reference tire) www.SaferCar.gov 2-18
 Uniform Tire Quality Grading System
TRACTION: The traction grades from highest to lowest are AA, A, B and C and they represent
the tire's ability to stop on wet pavement as measured under controlled conditions on specified
government test surfaces of asphalt and concrete. A tire marked C may have poor traction
performance.

UTQG Traction Grading

80%
(2013 Tire Ratings)
74.6%

70%

60%

50%
Frequency

40%

30%

20% 17.0%

8.3%
10%
0.1%
0%
AA A B C
Traction Grade
www.SaferCar.gov 2-19
 Uniform Tire Quality Grading System
TEMPERATURE: The temperature grades are A (the highest), B and C, representing the
tire's resistance to the generation of heat and its ability to dissipate heat when tested under
controlled conditions on a specified indoor laboratory test wheel.
Sustained high temperature can cause the material of the tire to degenerate and reduce tire
life, and excessive temperature can lead to sudden tire failure. The grade C corresponds to a
minimum level of performance which all passenger car tires must meet under the Federal
Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 109. Grades A and B represent higher levels of
performance on the laboratory test wheel than the minimum required by law.

UTQG Temperature Grading

60% 56.9% (2013 Tire Ratings)

50%

38.7%
40%
Frequency

30%

20%

10%
4.5%

0%
A B C
Temperature Grade www.SaferCar.gov 2-20
What’s In a Tire?

2-21
Less than 50% of a tire is Rubber!

34% Natural Rubber

9% Synthetic Rubber

2-22
 Natural Rubber
The largest single constituent of a tire is natural rubber. Natural rubber is harvested
from rubber trees (and other plants), and is subject to variations due to weather,
climate, plant variations, plant maturity, etc. It is not a precisely controlled, highly
engineered material.

Latex being harvested from a Latex from Guayule

rubber tree Tire Technology International
November 2013 2-23
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber
What Makes Tires Different Other Than Size?

2-24
 What Makes Tires Different?
Aspect Ratio and Section Height

Section
Width

Section Height
Aspect Ratio (%) = X 100
Section Width

35 Aspect Ratio 70 Aspect Ratio

2-25
 What Makes Tires Different?
Aspect Ratio and Section Height

A tire with a higher

aspect ratio generally
rides better and can be
Range of made stiffer to improve
Ride Tuning handling by construction
and compound changes.
A tire with a lower aspect
Ride

Range of ratio generally handles

Handling Tuning
better. Making a low
aspect ratio tire less stiff
Range of
Ride Tuning
to improve ride is limited
by geometry and
Range of material durability.
Handling Tuning

Handling 2-26
 What Makes Tires Different?
Aspect Ratio and Section Height

Increasing the sidewall

height makes a tire with
a higher aspect ratio
generally ride better but
reduces the effects of
construction and
compound changes on
improving handling.
Ride

Increased sidewall
height on a tire with a
lower aspect ratio
improves ride while still
maintaining tuning
options to improve
handling.
Handling 2-27
 What Makes Tires Different?
Aspect Ratio and Section Height
The base tire on the DR, a P245/70R17 tire which produced a good ride had a
sidewall height of 172mm.
The optional P275/60R20 tire was considered high risk for ride degradation due
to the 60 aspect ratio. However, once tires were evaluated for ride
characteristics, only a minor change was noted.
While the 20” tire had a smaller aspect ratio of 60, its sidewall was nearly as tall
as the 17” tire at 165mm. This allowed the tire to flex and absorb road inputs
nearly as well as the 70 aspect ratio 17” tire.

P245/70R17 P275/60R20

172mm 165mm

2-28
 What Makes Tires Different?
Aspect Ratio and Section Height
The lowest aspect ratio standardized by the Tire & Rim Association (T&RA) is an
aspect ratio of 25. T&RA has standardized 6 tire sizes with a 25 aspect ratio.
The lowest aspect ratio standardized by the European Tyre and Rim Technical
Organisation (ETRTO) is a single size with a 20 aspect ratio.
"With pneumatic tires, ultimately the air is what carries the load of the vehicle. So all other attributes
being equal, when you decrease the height of a sidewall, you are limiting the amount of air the tire can
hold, thus limiting the load a tire can carry.”—Robert Saul, Bridgestone Americas Tire Operations in
Modern Tire Dealer Magazine

“Show Tires” have

been displayed with as
low as a 15 aspect
ratio! (“How Low can a Tire
Profile Go?”, Modern Tire
Dealer Magazine. July 2019)
https://www.moderntiredealer.com/article/
734698/how-low-can-a-tire-profile-go?utm

2-29
Tire Section Height Guide
Summary / Enablers
TIRE SECTION HEIGHT GUIDELINES WHEEL ENABLERS
o Deviation required with tire section height below 100mm. Required when Tire Section height below 115mm:
Aluminum Wheel Enablers could include:
o Must use “XL” type tire section height below 110mm. Euro-Style Inner Flange
• Additional DV/PV testing: (CPG Pothole LP.7T012) Flow-Formed
Forged
IMPACT OF LOW PROFILE SIZING
• Tire Spring Rate: Higher / Stiffer IMPACT
• Tire Mass: ( 5-8%) Heavier Dependent on Enabler the trade-offs could include
• Fuel Economy: ( 5-10%) Higher / Worse Wheel Mass: Equal to Worse
• NVH: Equal to Worse Piece Price: Equal to Worse
• Vehicle Durability: Equal to Worse Design-Style: Reduced / Limited
• Lead/Drift/Pull: Equal to Worse Balancing (MFG): Equal to Worse
• Flat spotting: Equal to Worse
• Mounting (MFG): Equal to Worse
BEARINGS ENABLERS
When application corner rate increased, the bearing required
o “Runflat” technology NOT recommended as solution to low to have increased robustness.
profile tire sizing.
IMPACT
Packaging: Equal to Worse
. Bearing Mass: Equal to Worse
Piece Price: Equal to Worse

SUSPENSION ENABLERS
When application corner rate increased, the surrounding
suspension components are required to have increased
robustness pending road load data.

IMPACT
Packaging: Equal to Worse
Component Mass: Equal to Worse
Piece Price: Equal to Worse

4-14-15 30
 Tire Section Height
Summary / Enablers

Tire Section Height Guide

250
Off RoadSECTION
SideWIDTH
Wall Height
155 165 175 185 195 205 215 225 235 245 255 265 275 285 295 305 315 325
20 31 33 35 225 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65
25 39 41 44 46 49 51 54 56 59 61 64 66 69 71 74 76 79 81
Sidewall Height (mm)

30 47 50 53 56 59 62 65 68 71 74 77 80 83 86 89 92 95 98
200
35 54 58 61 65 68 72 75 79 82 86 89 93 96 100 103 107 110 114
40 62 66 70 74 78 82 86 90 94 98 102 106 110 114 118 122 126 130
45
ASPECT RATIO

70 74 79 175 83 88 92 97 101 106 110 115 119 124 128 133 137 142 146
50 78 83 88 93 98 103 108 113 118 123 128 133 138 143 148 153 158 163
55 85 91 96 102 107 113 118 124 129 135 140 146 151 157 162 168 173 179
60 93 99 105150 111 117 123 129 135 141 147 153 159 165 171 177 183 189 195
65 101 107 114 120 127 133 140 146 153 159 166 172 179 185 192 198 205 211
70 109 116 123 130 137 144 151 158 165 172 179 186 193 200 207 214 221 228
75 116 124 131125 139 146 154 161 169 176 184 191 199 206 214 221 229 236 244
80 124 132 140 148 156 164 172 180 188 196 204 212 220 228 236 244 252 260
Recommended > 110 mm "XL" Type Required 100 110 mm Deviation Required < 100 mm
100
*Unloaded tire ** Cell values
205= Section Width x Aspect
215 225 Ratio235
/ 100 => Tire
245Section 255
Height 265 275 285 295
Nominal Section Width (mm)

Washout Test Video

Tire Standardization Updates 4-14-15 31

 Effect of Inflation Pressure on Tires
Matching Tire Performance to Weight and Weight Distribution

Fiat 500 IC Engine vs Battery Electric weight comparison

Fiat 500 IC (ATX) Weight (N)

LF 4181 3906 RF 62% Front

LR 2562 2389 RR 38% Rear
13038 Total

Fiat 500 BEV Weight (N)

LF 4364 4124 RF 56% Front

LR 3367 3341 RR 44% Rear (35% increase)
15195 Total (17% Increase) 2-32
 Effect of Inflation Pressure on Tires

Results from Bridgestone on Fiat 500 tire pressure effects.

Increasing the inflation pressure from 30psi to 45psi results in a
reduction of about 7% of cornering stiffness. 2-33
 Effect of Wheel Width on Tires
Fiat 500 185/55R15 Bridgestone Tire
1250
Wheel Width
(in)
6.5
6
1200
5.5
Cornering Stiffness (N/Deg)

1150

1100

1050

1000
25 30 35 40 45 50
Inflation Pressure (psi)

Results from Bridgestone on possible Fiat 500 Tire/Wheel options. To

use the same tires on the Fiat 500 BEV with a different weight
distribution than the gas version, wider rear wheels and narrower
front wheels were used. 2-34
 Tire Performance & Components
Mold Shape

Tread
Overlays

Belts

Carcass
Plies

Liner

Apex

2-35
 Tire Tread Pattern Features
1. Tread Block—individual solid or nearly solid 7. Void Ratio—The amount of open space
block of rubber incorporated in the tread in the tread relative to the size of the
design. contact patch.
2. Tread block pitching—tread blocks vary in 8. Shoulder—portion of tread that wraps
size around the tire to reduce noise by 9 around onto the sidewall of the tire.
varying the frequency of contact as the tire The shoulder provides contact with the
rolls. road during cornering.
3. Ribs—circumferential
3 4
rows of tread blocks
separated by grooves. 1
Tires typically have 1 to 5 8
ribs.
5
4. Lateral grooves—lateral
grooves are used to 2
7
channel water from the
center of the tread to the
grooves or to the outside
of the tire.
6
5. Sipes—small slits or grooves in the tread
blocks that enhance traction on wet, snowy or 9. “See-Through”—looking at a cross
icy surfaces by providing more edges to each section of the tread, the amount of open
tread block. area compared to the amount of rubber.
6. Grooves—deep channels in the tread that Similar to void ratio, more see-through
move water through the contact patch to indicates better water clearing and
allow the tread to remain in contact with the improved wet handling.
2-36
road in wet conditions.
 Tire Tread Pattern Designs
The combination of tread blocks, ribs, groves and sipes makes up a tread design. The tread design has
a large effect on the steering, handling, noise, ride, wet handling, snow traction and wear of a tire.
There are several different categories of tread designs, depending on the desired performance
characteristics of the tire.
The rubber compound the tread is made of is also critical to a tire’s performance. While the tread
compound is theoretically independent of the tread design, they are typically matched to achieve the
desired tire performance (i.e. a strong, durable, cut-resistant compound from an off-road tire wouldn’t be
used with a high performance handling oriented tread design).
Symmetrical Tread Patterns
This is the most common tread pattern. Symmetric tread patterns have the
same arrangement of tread blocks, ribs, grooves and sipes on both sides of the
tire. This allows the tire to be rotated to either side of the car, as well as front to
back (assuming the same size tire is used in the front & rear).

Asymmetric Tread Patterns

Asymmetric patterns are typically used in higher performance tires to combine
higher levels of dry and wet/snow handling characteristics into a single tire. The

Outside Shoulder
Inside Shoulder
outside of the tire features large solid tread blocks to improve dry handling
performance, while the inside ribs & shoulder have more and larger grooves,
smaller tread blocks and more sipes to improve traction and handling in wet and
snowy conditions. Tires with asymmetric tread patterns can be rotated to either
side of the vehicle, as well as front to rear (assuming the same tire size is used).

2-37
 Tire Tread Pattern Designs
Directional Tread Patterns
Directional or “unidirectional” tread patterns are designed to rotate in one
direction only. The intended direction of rotation is marked on the sidewall of the
tire. These tread designs typically include angled or curved groves that give the
tread a “V” shaped appearance. Directional tread patterns are typically used on
high performance tires that are also intended to have good wet traction. The
angled grooves improve evacuation of water from the contact patch to resist
hydroplaning. Directional tires cannot be rotated from side to side of the vehicle
without dismounting the tire from the wheel and re-mounting it in the opposite
direction. They can only be rotated front to rear (assuming the same size tires
are used).

Asymmetric and Directional Tread Patterns

Tread patterns that are both asymmetric and directional are designed to rotate in
one direction. The direction of rotation will be marked on the sidewalls of the
tire. They usually have large tread blocks on the outer shoulder to provide dry
handling performance and angled grooves on the inside half of the tire for wet
handling. As with directional tread patterns, tires with asymmetric and
directional tread patterns cannot be rotated from side to side on the vehicle
without dismounting the tire from the wheel and re-mounting it in the opposite
direction. They can only be rotated front to rear, and only if the same size tires
are used front and rear.

http://www.tirerack.com/tires/tiretech/techpage.jsp?techid=180
http://www.pepboys.com/tires/treadsmart/tread_type/ 2-38
 Tire Molds
Tire molds are used to vulcanize the rubber
in the tire through heat, and to create the
final shape and details of the tire, including
the tread pattern and the sidewall markings.
There are two basic types of molds, with the
segmented mold being the most common.

Segmented Mold Clamshell Mold 2-39

 Tire Molds
A newer type of tire mold is the puzzle mold.
Many small individual pieces make up the
mold, allowing more flexibility in changing
tread patterns and simplifying maintenance.
The pieces can be machined, cast, or even
3D printed.

Puzzle Mold Pieces Puzzle Mold

2-40
 Tread Arc
Width

Shoulder
Radius

Tread
Radius

Section
Width

2-41
Tire Footprints

Pressure distribution in a typical tire footprint

2-42
 Tire Market Trends – Plus 5 Application

• Footprint shape of the tires changes greatly

How different are these tires?

17” Direction of Travel 20”

2-43
Contains Confidential and/or Proprietary Information. May Not be Copied or Disseminated Without the Express Written Consent of The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company and TRW
 Tire Footprint Shape

FOOTPRINT SHAPE
• The shape of the mold can be used MORE ROUND MORE SQUARE
to adjust the tire footprint, which is
the only connection between the
vehicle and the road surface.
• More ROUND footprint:
• Improved ride harshness
• Improved pattern noise
• Improved wet traction
• More SQUARE footprint:
• Improves handling
• Provides uniform wear
• Improves fuel economy
• Improves dry traction
 Footprint Size & Shape

Continental LT275/70R18 tire footprint BFGoodrich LT265/70R17 tire footprint

33.43” Nominal Diameter 31.89” Nominal Diameter
2-45
 Footprint Shape Factor

The ratio of the length of the tire contact patch at centerline to the length of the
contact patch at the shoulder is one indicator of tire wear characteristics.

Tread CL Length
Width
(TW)
FSF =
(Shldr 1 + Shldr 2)
80%TW
2

For good wear

performance, FSF
should be in the 1 to
1.4 range.

2-46
 Hydroplaning
If a tire encounters a surface "flooded" by enough water, it cannot pass the water from
in front of the tire through the grooves in the tread pattern, and it pushes a higher
"water pad" in front of it which generates pressure on the tire.
If this pressure becomes higher than the average pressure of the tire on the ground,
the tire can no longer reject the water and “floats” above the road surface and loses
its grip; this is the phenomenon of hydroplaning or aquaplaning.

2-47
 Hydroplaning

20 mph 40 mph 60 mph

Tire footprint at different speeds in standing water (Bridgestone)

Hydroplaning is a function of:
•Water Depth (deeper is worse)
•Speed (faster is worse)
•Tread Design (more grooves are better)
•Contact Pressure (higher is better)
•Vehicle Weight (more is better)
•Tire Size (narrower is better)
•Road Surface (grooved / coarser is better)
2-48
Tread Block Deflection Under Braking

2-49
Tread Block Deflection Under Braking

2-50
 Tread Block Deflection Under Braking
Different Tread Patterns

From SAE 2006-01-1479

"Geometric and Normal Contact Stress Analysis of a Rolling Tire Footprint" 2-51
 Tread Block Deflection Under Braking

Good Braking Performance

Good Snow Traction

Tread block Tread block

design Contact Patch deflection Contact Patch
with no braking under braking under braking
From SAE 2006-01-1479 2-52
"Geometric and Normal Contact Stress Analysis of a Rolling Tire Footprint"
 Snow Traction and Tread Pattern
Smaller tread blocks and tread blocks with more sipes in them increase snow
traction significantly.

2015-12-11-2-workshop-mold-technology-pdf-data.pdf
2-53
https://blobs.continental-tires.com/www8/servlet/blob/676126/7b4d41d0931a510e60365bc5c975c737/2015-12-
11-2-workshop-mold-technology-pdf-data.pdf
 Types of Tires

DaimlerChrysler Truck Platform Tire Type Descriptions and Expected Performance

Tire Type Performance Tires Touring Tires All Season Tires On / Off Road Tires All Terrain Tires
Description Designed for high Comfort improved from Designed for year round use Designed for primary use on Designed with off-road
performance, particularly in the Performance tires; handling on improved roads. improved roads while providing performance in mind while still
areas of handling and steering. and steering better than All adequate off-road capability. providing good on-road
Season tires. Good all Mud and Snow (M&S) capability.
weather performance. certified. Mud and Snow (M&S)
Expected Customer Usage %
Paved Road 98 97 95 88 70
Dirt/Gravel Road 2 3 5 10 20
Off-Road 0 0 0 2 10
Performance Expectations
Projected Tread Wear
20-25 K mi 25-30 K mi 30-35 K mi 30-35 K mi 25-30 K mi
(U91 Test, FWG)
Subjective Irregular
7 7 7 7 6
Wear Rating
Traction 20 mph 40 mph 60 mph 20 mph 40 mph 60 mph 20 mph 40 mph 60 mph 20 mph 40 mph 60 mph 20 mph 40 mph 60 mph
Peak/Slide, %SRTT Wet 125/125 110/110 120/120 115/115 115/115 115/115 105/105 105/105 100/100 100/100
Peak/Slide, %SRTT Dry 125/125 120/120 115/115 110/110 100/95
Rolling Resistance Coeff 0.102 (non-speed rated) 0.102 0.082 0.092
Handling 10 9 8 7.5 7
Wet Handling 9.5 9 8.5 8.5 8
Wet Traction 9 8.5 8.5 8 7.5
Snow 5 6 7.5 7 6.5
Steering 10 9 8 7 7
Ride 6.5 7.5 8 7.5 7
Noise / Feel 7 7.5 8 7.5 6.5
Off Road 5 5 7 8 9
Subj. Irregular Wear 7 7 7 7 6
Typical Tires Used by Truck Platform
Goodyear Eagle RSA Eagle LS Eagle GT II Wrangler HP Wrangler SR-A Wrangler RT/S Wrangler GS-A Wrangler A T/S Wrangler MT
BF Goodrich Rugged Trail T/A A ll Terrain T/A M ud Terrain T/A
Michelin LTX A/S LTX M/S LTX A/T

2-54
Tire Tread Type by Region of the World

Vehicle Segments
MARKETS Car (A-E Class) Mini-van CUV SUV Jeep Wrangler SRT / VIPER Truck / Van

USA / CANADA

MEXICO

LATAM

EUROPEAN
REGION

AFRICA REGION
EMEA
MIDDLE EAST
REGION

RUSSIA

ASEAN

CHINA

APAC S.KOREA

INDIA

JAPAN

*Voice of Customer - Replacement Type by Vehicle Segment and Market (Rev. 2014)

Both Summer & All Season All Season Summer

4-14-15 55
 Types of Tires

Summer Tires
•Large tread blocks
•Outside shoulder has largest tread blocks
•Large circumferential grooves
•High grip, high temperature tread compounds
•Low aspect ratio

Goodyear Eagle F1 SuperCar EMT

Michelin Pilot Sport PS2 2-56

 Types of Tires

Performance Tires
•Large tread blocks, but more lateral grooves and sipes
•Outside shoulder has largest tread blocks
•Large circumferential grooves
•High grip, tread compounds with wider temperature capability
•Low aspect ratios

Goodyear Eagle RS-A

Michelin Pilot Sport A/S 2-57
 Types of Tires

Touring Tires
•“Softer” construction for improved ride
•Smaller tread blocks
•More lateral grooves and sipes
•Circumferential grooves less prominent
•All season tread compounds with higher grip

Goodyear Eagle LS
Michelin Primacy MXV4 2-58
 Types of Tires

All Season Tires

•Improved ride and wear
•Smaller tread blocks
•More angled grooves and sipes
•Circumferential grooves less prominent
•All season tread compounds with lower temperature capability

Goodyear Assurance
ComforTred
Michelin Destiny 2-59
 Types of Tires

Winter Tires
•Many grooves and sipes
•Small tread blocks
•Narrower sizes
•Circumferential grooves minimized
•Low temperature tread compounds

Goodyear Ultra Grip Ice Bridgestone Blizzak

WS-50
Michelin X-Ice 2-60
 Types of Tires

On-Off Road Tires

•Wider grooves and sipes
•Larger tread blocks
•Deeper tread depth
•Circumferential grooves interrupted
•All season tread compounds

Goodyear Wrangler SR-A

BFGoodrich
Rugged Trail T/A 2-61
 Types of Tires
All Terrain Tires
•Used infrequently on OE vehicles (special packages only)
•Large grooves—open tread pattern
•Usually no circumferential grooves
•Large loosely interlocking tread blocks
•Deep tread depth
•Tread pattern extends onto sidewall
•Rim Guard to protect wheel flange from damage
•Cut & tear resistant tread compounds

Goodyear Wrangler AT/S BFGoodrich All-Terrain T/A

2-62
 Types of Tires

Off-Road Tires
•Wider grooves
•Larger interlocking tread blocks
•Circumferential grooves interrupted or non-existent
•Deeper tread depth
•Tread pattern extends onto sidewall
•Cut & tear resistant tread compounds
•Added features such as sidewall protection
and rim protection

BFGoodrich Mud-Terrain T/A

Goodyear Wrangler MT/R 2-63
How Are Tires Made?

2-64
 How Are Tires Manufactured?
Michelin Tire Manufacturing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Li-MKobBg5w

History Channel Video

Notes://sctcda07.wk.dcx.com/85256D36005DD601/3F22A26ED2787C57852562C7000A1624/4C04356A56E4491E8525770700491452

2-65
 How Does A Tire Work?
“You steer a tire, you camber a tire, you load a tire.”
Jack Cooper

The Tire as a “Black Box”

Inputs Outputs
• Inflation Pressure • Slip Angle
• Lateral Force
• Load
• Aligning Torque
• Camber Angle
• Longitudinal Slip
• Steer Angle • Longitudinal Force
• Drive/Brake Torque • Rolling Resistance
• Speed • Noise
• Road Surface • Wear
• Heat
• Ambient Temperature
• Road Surface Temp. 2-66
 How Does A Tire Work?

Tires produce forces several ways:

1. In response to driving or braking slip
2. In response to steering inputs (slip angle)
3. Due to camber angle
4. Due to inherent tire properties
• Residual cornering force
• Residual Self Aligning Torque
• Conicity
• Rolling Resistance
These forces are also dependent on the weight (load)
on the tire.
2-67
 How Does A Tire Work?

Tires generate friction between the tread and the road

surface three ways:
1. Adhesion between the tread rubber and the
pavement
2. Tread Rubber Hysteresis
3. Mechanical interlocking between the tread rubber
and the surface of the pavement
The friction generated depends on the tread rubber
properties, the road surface and the speed the tire is
traveling.

2-68
 How Does A Tire Work?

Adhesion between the tread and the road is dependent on

the surface material, roughness and the presence of other
materials like oil, water or dust.
Rubber hysteresis is frequency dependent, and therefore
related to the speed at which the tread contacts and
separates from the pavement as the tire rolls. Friction
decreases as speed (frequency) increases.
Mechanical interlocking between the tread rubber and the
road surface depends on the road surface material and its
micro and macro texture.

2-69
 How Does A Tire Work?

Tire moving to
the right, under
braking
Tread Rubber
Aggregate

Binder

Adhesion between Hysteresis forces in Shearing of rubber

rubber and aggregate rubber
2-70
Based on Guide for Pavement Friction, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, 2009
 How Does A Tire Work?
Tires produce “grip” primarily by three mechanisms:
Adhesion—the molecular attraction between the surface of the tread
rubber and the contacting surface. Adhesion is greatly reduced by the
presence of oil, water, dust, etc. that separates the rubber from the road
surface.

Hysteresis—When rubber is compressed, it

does not fully “spring back” and return all of

Load
the energy used to compress it (unlike a
steel spring for example). This results in
unbalanced forces between the tread rubber
and the road surface, and a net force
applied to the tire. The difference between
the energy to compress the rubber and the
energy released is converted to heat. Deflection
Hysteresis is frequency sensitive and the
grip produced decreases with speed.

Shearing—the tread rubber “interlocks” with the texture of the road, and
as forces increase beyond what adhesion and hysteresis produce, the
rubber will shear or tear. This is what leaves visible skid marks on the
road—sheared rubber.
2-71
 How Does A Tire Work?
Typical Longitudinal (Braking / Acceleration) Force-Slip Curve
(Dry Pavement)

Longitudinal Force vs. Wheel Slip

6000
Acceleration
𝝎𝑹
𝐒𝐥𝐢𝐩 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨 % 𝐒𝐥𝐢𝐩 = − 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒗 4000
𝜔 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒

Increasing Load
R = effective Radius of tire
𝑣 = linear velocity 2000
Longitudinal Force (N)

0
Increasing Load

-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

Normal Load
-2000 20%
40%
60%
-4000 80%
Nominal
Braking
120%
-6000 140%
160%
Longitudinal Slip (%)
180%

2-72
 How Does A Tire Work?
Typical Longitudinal -Slip Curve
(Dry Pavement)
1.2

peak
1.0 Mechanical interlocking
(rubber left on pavement)
Coefficient ()

0.8

0.6 Adhesion and 

Hysteresis sliding
0.4

0.2

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Slip (%)
2-73
 How Does A Tire Work?

Low Speed Cornering

Low Speed Turn

(no slip angle)

δo

δi

δo=Outer Wheel Steer Angle

δi=Inner Wheel Steer Angle

Center of
Turn
2-74
 How Does A Tire Work?
“High Speed” Cornering

Lateral force
distribution
in footprint
i R Self Aligning
Torque
i

δi=Steer Angle Path

(inside front tire)
Net
αi=Slip Angle αi lateral
(inside front tire) Force
Slip Angle
αR=Rear Slip Angle
(rear axle) Pneumatic
Trail

Left Front Tire

2-75
 Tire Slip Angle Mechanism

Vehicle Sideslip Angle

LEFT FRONT SLIP ANGLE

(Rear Tires’ Slip Angle)

Slip Angle Video

2-76
 How Does A Tire Work?

P235/65R17 Wrangler HP 7.00 in Rim Width

Cornering Force 0 deg Camber
33 psi Inflation Press Load (lbs)
749
2500 Increasing
1125
Load
1500
2000
Cornering Force (lbs)

1875
2250
1500

1000

500

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Slip Angle (deg)

2-77
 How Does A Tire Work?

P235/65R17 Wrangler HP 7.00 in Rim Width

Cornering Coefficient 0 deg Camber
33 psi Inflation Load (lbs)
749
1.20
1125
Cornering Coefficient (lbs/lb)

1.00 1500
1875
0.80 2250

0.60
Increasing
0.40
Load
0.20

0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Slip Angle (deg)

2-78
 Cornering Force vs Load
2500
Goodyear
P235/65R17
Wrangler HP
33 psi inflation
2000 7.00" rim
(lbs)
(lbs/lb)

1500
Force

Slip Angle
CorneringCoeff

(deg)
1
Cornering

3
1000
5
7
9
500
11
13
15
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Load (lbs)

2-79
 Cornering Coefficient vs Load
1.20
Goodyear
P235/65R17
Wrangler HP
1.00 33 psi inflation
7.00" rim
Cornering Coeff (lbs/lb)

0.80

Slip Angle
0.60 (deg)
1
3
5
0.40
7
9

0.20 11
13
15
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Load (lbs)

2-80
 How Does A Tire Work?
Example Problem—Weight Transfer

An SUV with a 3000lb front axle load (1500 lbs / wheel) uses
P235/65R17 Goodyear Wrangler HP tires.
When cornering at 0.66 G lateral acceleration, the weight
transfer results in a load decrease of 750 lbs at the inner tire
and a load increase of 750 lbs at the outer tire.
Using the tire data on the previous slides, how much does
the maximum cornering force of the axle change due to
weight transfer?

2-81
 How Does A Tire Work?
Example Problem Solution
Without weight transfer With weight transfer
Tire load = 1500 lbs per tire Inner tire load = 750 lbs
From the graph, maximum cornering From the graph, maximum cornering
force per tire is ~1500 lbs (1) force is ~775 lbs (2)
Total cornering force is 1500 + 1500 = Outer tire load = 2250 lbs
3000 lbs From the graph, maximum cornering
P235/65R17 Wrangler HP 7.00 in Rim Width force is ~2000 lbs (3)
Cornering Force 0 deg Camber
33 psi Inflation Press Load (lbs)

2500
749 Total cornering force is 775 + 2000 =
3 1125
1500 2775 lbs
2000
Cornering Force (lbs)

1875
2250 Due to weight transfer 225 lbs of
1500
1 cornering force is lost.
1000

500
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Slip Angle (deg)

Transferring load across a pair of tires results in a

net loss of cornering capacity! 2-82
 Force & Moment Properties
Tire performance characteristics are typically quantified by their “Force &
Moment” properties—the forces and moments created by the tire under various
test inputs.
Testing is typically done on a “flat-trac”
machine that simulates operating the
tire on a flat road. Inputs are load,
speed, steer (slip) angle, camber
angle and braking/driving torque.
Typical results are cornering force,
aligning torque, and camber force at
various vertical loads on the tire.

MTS Flat-Trac® Tire Test Systems Brochure 2-83

http://www.mts.com/ucm/groups/public/documents/library/dev_002227.pdf
 Force & Moment Properties
Cornering Stiffness (C)—amount of cornering force
Cornering Stiffness
generated per degree of slip angle at 0 slip angle at a
Cornering Force (Fy)

specified load. An indication of tire performance in the

linear range of response (low slip angles). Cornering
stiffness varies with the vertical load on the tire, it is
C = Slope of typically higher (steeper) at higher loads. Typical units are
cornering force vs N/deg.
slip angle at 0

Slip Angle ()

Cornering Coefficient at 1 slip (CC(1) or F(1))—Amount of

Cornering Coefficient
cornering force generated per unit of vertical load on the
Cornering Force (Fy)

tire at 1 slip angle. Analogous to the “coefficient of

friction” of the tire at 1 slip and the specified load.
Cornering Coefficient will vary with load, it typically
decreases with increasing load. Unitless (i.e. N/N).
Fy
CC(1) or F(1) =
Fy / Fz

Fz
Vertical Load (Fz) 2-84
 Force & Moment Properties
Aligning Torque Stiffness (AT)—amount of aligning torque
Aligning Torque (AT)
Aligning Torque Stiffness
generated per degree of slip angle at 0 slip angle at a
specified load. Aligning Torque stiffness varies with the
vertical load on the tire, it is typically higher at higher
loads. Typical units are N-m/deg.

AT = Slope of
aligning torque vs
slip angle at 0

Slip Angle ()

Aligning Torque Coefficient (AT(1))—Amount of aligning

Aligning Torque (AT)

Aligning Torque Coefficient

torque generated per unit of vertical load on the tire at 1
slip angle. Aligning Torque Coefficient will vary with load, it
typically increases with increasing load. It is highly non-
linear at higher slip angles. Units are meters or millimeters.

AT AT(1) = AT / Fz

Fz
Vertical Load (Fz) 2-85
 Force & Moment Properties
Load Sensitivity (H(1))—Amount of cornering force
Load Sensitivity
Cornering Force (Fy)

generated per unit of vertical load on the tire at 1 slip

angle. Unitless (i.e. N/N).

Fy
ΔFy
H(1) =
Fz − 0.8Fz

0.8Fz Fz
Vertical Load (Fz)

Load Transfer Sensitivity G(4)—Tire cornering force loss

Load Transfer Sensitivity
Cornering Force (Fy)

due to load transfer at 4 slip angle. This is a rough

representation of the effect of weight transfer due to
Fy vehicle cornering on tire performance. Because the tire’s
ΔFy * Fz cornering force is not linear with vertical load, total tire
G(4) = cornering force is always reduced when weight is
ΔFz2 transferred from the inside tire to the outside tire as the
vehicle corners. Unitless (i.e. N2/N2).

Fz Fz

0.4Fz Fz 1.6Fz
Vertical Load 2-86
 Force & Moment Properties
Camber Stiffness (C)—amount of cornering force
Camber Stiffness
generated per degree of camber angle. Camber stiffness
Cornering Force (Fy)

varies with the vertical load on the tire, it is typically higher

(steeper) at higher loads. Camber stiffness is fairly linear
C = Slope of with respect to camber angle. Units are N/deg.
cornering force vs
camber angle Note: although typically referred to as Camber Stiffness,
this should be referred to as Inclination Angle Stiffness.
Camber is the tire’s angle with respect to vertical, while
inclination is the tires angle with respect to the road
surface. For lab tests, the camber and inclination tests are
equal, but on real road surfaces they may differ.

Camber Angle ()

2-87
 Force & Moment Properties
Variable
Parameter Units Precision Note
Name
Reference load (Test Load),
Reference Load Fz N xxxx. typically 80% of rated load, but
vehicle specific loads may be used.
Evaluate at α=0°
Cornering Stiffness Cα N/degree xxxx. 𝑑𝐹𝑦
𝑑α
F(α°) or N/N Load normalized cornering force at
Cornering Coefficient 0.xxx
CC(α°) (dimensionless) a slip angle α° (typically 1 and 4).
Evaluate at α=0°
Aligning Torque
ATα N-m/degree x.x 𝑑𝑀𝑧
Stiffness
𝑑α
Aligning Torque Load normalized aligning moment
ATC(1°) mm x.x
Coefficient at α=1°.
Evaluate at α=1°
Load Sensitivity N/N 𝑑𝐹𝑦
H(1°) 0.xxx
Coefficient (dimensionless)
𝑑𝐹𝑍
Evaluate at α=4°
Load Transfer N2/N2
G(4°) 0.xx 𝑑 2 𝐹𝑦
Sensitivity Coefficient (dimensionless)
𝑑𝐹𝑧2
Evaluate at α=0°
Camber Stiffness C N/degree xxx. 𝑑𝐹𝑦
𝑑
Note: “Stiffness” typically indicates “per degree,” while “Coefficient” typically indicates “per N of vertical load.”
2-88
 Lateral Force Generation
Small Magnitude

Fy=α*Cα + *C + RCF + Conicity

Fy = Lateral (cornering) Force
α = Slip Angle
Cα = Cornering Stiffness (function of load, slip angle)
γ = Inclination (Camber) Angle
C = Inclination (Camber) stiffness (function of load,
camber angle)

2-89
 Lateral Force Generation
Fy=α*Cα + *C + RCF + Conicity
Lateral Force vs. Slip Angle
6000
Normal Load
20%
40%
4000 60%
Increasing Load

80%
Nominal
120%
2000 140%
160%
Lateral Force (N)

180%

0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Increasing Load
-2000

-4000

-6000
Slip Angle (deg)
2-90
 Lateral Force Generation
At the same time a tire generates cornering force, it also generates a moment
about the steering axis. This moment is key to driver feedback, as it provides
the force or effort that the driver feels at the steering wheel.
Aligning Torque vs. Slip Angle Normal Load
100 20%
40%
80 60%

Increasing Load
80%
60
Nominal
120%
40
140%
Aligning Torque (N-m)

160%
20
180%
0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
-20
Increasing Load

-40

-60

-80

-100

Slip Angle (deg) 2-91

 Lateral Force Generation
Fy=α*Cα + *C+ RCF + Conicity
Inclination (Camber)
Angle

An inclined tire tries to turn about
the intersection of its centerline Example of Camber Thrust
and the ground. This generates Cat 104M3 Road Grader
a lateral force at the ground.

Inclination
(Camber) Force

2-92
 Lateral Force Generation
Fy=α*Cα + *C+ RCF + Conicity
Camber Thrust vs. Camber Angle

400

350

300 Normal Load

Camber Thrust (N)

180%
250
160%

Increasing Load
200 140%
120%
150 Nominal
80%
100
60%
40%
50
20%

0
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Inclination (Camber) Angle (deg.)
2-93
 Lateral Force Generation

Fy=α*Cα + *C + RCF + Conicity

RCF = Residual Cornering Force (related to RSAT)
Conicity = force due to “conical” shape of tire

RCF (RSAT) and Conicity forces are small in magnitude

and primarily of concern in straight ahead driving, as they
can contribute to or oppose leads, drifts, and pulls.

2-94
 Lateral Force Generation
Fy=α*Cα + *C + RCF + Conicity
Because RCF and Conicity forces are small in magnitude, they are only
significant when other tire forces are low, at very small slip angles.
Area of interest for
RCF and Conicity

Lateral Force vs. Slip Angle Aligning Torque vs. Slip Angle
6000 100 20%
40%
20%
80 60%
40%
4000 60% 80%
80% 60
Nominal
Nominal
120% 120%
40
2000 140% 140%
160%

Aligning Torque (N-m)

Lateral Force (N)

160%
180% 20
180%
0
0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
-20
-2000
-40

-4000 -60

-80

-6000
-100
Slip Angle (deg)
Slip Angle (deg)

2-95
 RCF, RAT and Conicity

At zero slip angle, tire

produces a small
amount of cornering
force.
At some non-zero slip
Cornering Force angle, tire produces
no cornering force.

Aligning Torque
Slip
0 Angle

Residual Aligning Torque

(Residual Self Aligning Torque)

The aligning torque

when cornering force
is zero is defined as
Residual Aligning
Torque (RAT) or
Residual Self
Aligning Torque
(RSAT)

2-96
 RCF, RAT and Conicity

At some non-zero slip

Cornering Force angle, tire produces
no aligning torque.

Aligning Torque
Slip
0 Angle

Residual Cornering Force

The cornering force

when aligning torque
is zero is defined as
Residual Cornering
Force (RCF)

2-97
 RCF, RAT and Conicity
Residual Residual
Aligning Cornering
Zero
Torque Force
Slip Angle (0 Cornering Force) (0 Aligning Torque)

Cornering Force

Aligning Torque
Slip
0 Angle

2-98
2-99
 RCF, RAT and Conicity
RCF and RAT (RSAT) change direction with the rotation direction of the
tire. When a tire is moved from one side of the vehicle to the other, the
direction of rotation relative to the tire reverses. Because of this, RCF
and RAT reverse and remain in the same direction as the tire on the
opposite side of the vehicle.
Because of this, RAT can be used to oppose road crown. In countries
with left hand drive, tires are designed with RAT to left to oppose the
typical crown to the right. Tires are typically specified with a RAT
between -1 and -5 N-m (i.e. to the left).

2-100
 RCF, RAT and Conicity
Due to manufacturing variation, tires are not perfectly cylindrical.
Because of the resulting slightly conical shape the tire tries to rotate
about the apex of the cone, rather than rolling straight. This results in a
tire force called “conicity” and a moment that tries to turn the tire about
the apex. Regardless of which direction the tire is rotated in, the
conicity force and corresponding moment are always in the same
direction.
Clockwise
Rotation

Conicity Force Apex

Counterclockwise
Rotation
5-101
 RCF, RAT and Conicity
Conicity force does not change direction with the rotation direction of the
tire, it always is towards the apex of the conical section. When a tire is
moved from one side of the vehicle to the other, the direction of the
conicity force reverses.
Because of this, switching tires can result in a change in the direction a
vehicle pulls or drifts. This is often used to diagnose the cause of a pull
problem. If the direction changes when the tires are swapped, it is likely
due to tire conicity. If not, alignment or other issues are probably the
cause of the pull.

2-102
 Residual Self Aligning Torque and Conicity

Right Conicity Axle Pair Left Conicity Axle Pair

Zero Conicity Axle Pairs

2-103
 RCF, RAT and Conicity

CF cw + CF ccw
CFcw CF cw − CF ccw
CF = Conicity =
2 2
CFccw

Right Cornering Force Left→

Aligning Torque
Slip
0 Angle

2-104
 Rolling Resistance

 Tire rolling resistance contributes to fuel consumption, especially at lower

speeds.
 Rolling resistance varies with tire size, type, construction and
compounding.
 Rolling resistance increases with load and speed.
 Rolling resistance decreases with inflation pressure.
 Rolling resistance is typically specified in one of three ways:
1. Fixed rolling resistance value at standard test conditions (SAE J1269)
1a. Rolling resistance coefficient (SAE J1269 RR value divided by
test load)
2. Fixed rolling resistance value at standard test conditions ISO 28580
2a. Rolling resistance coefficient (ISO 28580 RR value divided by
test load)
3. SAE J2452 rolling resistance equation, MERF or SMERF
2-105
 Rolling Resistance Measurement

MTS RoadWheel 860 at Chelsea Proving Grounds

• Two independent measurement stations (simultaneous)
• Force method – measured in both velocity directions and averaged to eliminate crosstalk
• P80 sandpaper applied to drum surface, per SAE J2452 6.1.3
• 2 meter drum diameter
• Cell temperature controlled at 75°F
• Controlled air pressure for SAE J2452 (capped for ISO 28580)
2-106
2-107
 SAE J2452 Rolling Resistance Equation

RR = Pα * Lβ (A + BV + CV2)
RR = Rolling Resistance
P = Inflation pressure
α = Pressure exponent (from test)
L = Load
β = Load exponent (from test)
A = RR Constant (from test)
B = Velocity Coefficient (from test)
C = Velocity Squared Coefficient (from test)
V = Velocity

2-108
 Standard MERF Calculated at
Standard Load and Inflation Pressure

2-109
 Rolling Resistance
SAE J1269 vs SAE J2452
SAE J1269 reports rolling resistance at “standard test conditions:”
P-metric tires LT-metric tires
•80% of design load @ 26 psi •1301 lb load (regardless of size)
•38 psi inflation •55 psi inflation
•50 mph •50 mph

SAE J2452 reports an equation that allows rolling resistance to be

calculated at any combination of load, speed, and inflation
Results can be summarized in terms of EPA city & highway driving cycles
at the vehicle’s inflation pressure and load integrated over the EPA cycles’
speed profile. This is the Mean Effective Driving Force (MERF). When
calculated using standard test conditions it is called Standard MERF or
SMERF.
SMERF allows comparison of tires, regardless vehicle application.
An equivalent SAE J1269 rolling resistance value can also be calculated
from the SAE J2452 equation. 2-110
MERF (SAE J2452)
CHRYSLER GROUP LLC

MERF (Mean Equivalent Rolling Force) – Average rolling resistance of a tire, at

a given load / inflation condition
Chrysler MERF – 1000 lbs load, 38 psi (not a vehicle condition or a necessarily
appropriate criteria to compare the RR of tires of different load carrying capacities)

2-111
Chrysler Confidential
 Rolling Resistance Trend
Bridgestone Best-In-Class Rolling Resistance
(SAE SMERF RRC)
Bridgestone Best-In-Class Rolling Resistance
20 (SAE SMERF RRC)
20
Rolling Resistance Coefficient (N/kN)

Rolling Resistance Coefficient (N/kN)

15 15

10
10
Bridgestone
Theoretical Best Tire
5 Projected Trend
Bridgestone
5 Theoretical Best Tire
Steel Railroad Wheel
on Steel Rail
0
1980 1985
1985
1990 1995
1990 2000
1995
2005 2010
2000 2015
2005
2020 2025
2010 2030
2015
2035 2040
2020
0 Model Year
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Model Year
2-112
 1000 lb Merf / Tire Break-in CHRYSLER GROUP LLC

Tire suppliers quote rolling resistance on new (zero mile) tires. EPA fuel economy
ratings are based on rolling resistance after 4000 miles of break-in.

Rolling Resistance % Break-in at 4000 miles

lbs
18% 16%
4% Break-in assumed
16% 14%
14%
Percent Break-in

12%
4% is recommended
10%
8%
8% 6% 7%
6% 6%
6%
4% 4% 4% 4% 4%
4% 3% 3% 3%
2%

0%

Chrysler Confidential
Traction Test Procedure

2-114
 Traction Test Procedure

 Wet Braking Traction

 Normal test speeds are 20 and 60 MPH.
 20 mph is indicative of tread compound properties
 60 mph is indicative of tread pattern properties
(resistance to hydroplaning)
 Normal test surface is macadam (asphaltic concrete), with
a water depth of 0.050 inches.
 Dry Braking Traction
 Normal test speed is 40 mph.
 Normal test surface is dry macadam.

2-115
 Braking Traction Properties

Because of variations in test surfaces and environmental conditions, absolute

traction numbers are difficult to produce. Instead, traction is expressed as a
percentage of a control tire tested at the same time and location.
The industry standard control tire (“SRTT” Standard Reference Test Tire) is a
P195/75R14 Uniroyal Tiger Paw, tested at 1031 lbs load and 35 psi inflation.
For wet traction tests, control tires are tested before and after every two test
tires.
(i.e. Control—Test 1—Test 2—Control—Test 3—Test 4—Control)
For dry traction tests, control tires are tested before and after up to ten
test tires, however, no more than 2 hours or a 6 deg C temperature
change are allowed between control tire runs.
(i.e. Control—Test 1—Test 2—Test 3—Test 4—Test 5—Test 6—Test 7—
Test 8—Test 9—Test 10—Control)

2-116
 Traction Test Procedure

 Test tire is mounted to the instrumented skid trailer,

pulled behind a specially instrumented truck.
 Standard tire test conditions are 35 psi inflation pressure
and 85% of Tire & Rim Association rated load at 26 psi.
 Tire is conditioned by running 10 break-in “chirps” across
the dry macadam test surface at 20 mph.
 Wet braking is run before dry braking.
 Test rig is driven at the specified speed (20 or 60 mph
wet, 40 mph dry), and the test tire is braked by a
computer controlled brake to full skid (sliding). Time from
brake application to brake release is 2.5 sec.
 8 to 10 tests are run, half in each direction.

2-117
 Tire Wear Testing

U91 Treadwear Test

SITE: Texas Test Fleet (TTF), Devine, TX
DURATION: 16,000 Miles or until first tire reaches 50% worn to bottom of
groove
CIRCUIT: 51% Interstate, 10% flat highway, 26% hill country, 10% city
blocks, 3% highway / streets
ALIGNMENT: OEM specified, or 50% of tolerance from nominal toward worst wear
condition
VEHICLE: Application vehicle
LOAD: Customer specified, (typically driver + 150# passenger)
INFLATION: Customer specified, (typically vehicle placard)
EVALUATION: Criteria for approval-- Projected Mileage to tire wearout of Fastest
Wearing Groove (FWG) of Fastest Wearing Tire (FWT) greater than
or equal to target (typically 20K –35K miles) with satisfactory
irregular wear appearance and satisfactory Noise After Wear (NAW)

2-118
Tire Wear Testing

2-119
LATERAL ACCELERATION PROFILE
Percentage distribution of Ay levels vs Serravalle Test

2-120
18-11-2011
LONGITUDINAL ACCELERATION PROFILE
Percentage distribution of Ax BRAKING levels vs Serravalle Test

2-121
18-11-2011
LONGITUDINAL ACCELERATION PROFILE
Percentage distribution of Ax DRIVING levels vs Serravalle Test

2-122
18-11-2011
 How Are Tires Specified?

Tire design, durability, and performance are subject to numerous standards and
regulations:
•Tire & Rim Association (T&RA)
•European Tire & Rim Technical Organization (ETRTO)
•Rubber Manufacturers’ Association (RMA)
•SAE
•ASTM
•ISO
•DOT
•FMVSS

2-123
 How Are Tires Specified?

Standard tire sizes, types and load capacities are specified by the Tire & Rim
Association Yearbook.
The tire size(s) specified for a vehicle must be capable of supporting the loaded
weight of the vehicle (front & rear GAWR).

2-124
Tire & Rim Association Standards

2-125
 Ride & Handling Goals

Ride & handling goals are specified by Vehicle Dynamics and

NVH groups.
The goals are specified relative to a control tire, which is
typically a production tire on the current production vehicle. In
some cases a different tire may be used as a control.
The goal setting process should be begin with a submission
style evaluation of the control tire and possibly other
“reference” tires to understand the strengths and weaknesses
of the current tire/vehicle combination.
Based on this evaluation, realistic goals should be set for ride
& handling targets in the pre-source package.

2-126
 How Are Tires Developed?

 Tire development is an iterative process.

 Tires affect many aspects of vehicle performance

(comfort, fuel economy, braking, durability, etc.).

 Seek the best compromise of conflicting requirements

(i.e. cost, rolling resistance, handling, ride, steering,
noise, wet traction, wear, etc.).

 Tire development is not an exact science, even with the

best modeling and analysis tools.

2-127
Tire Approval Process

2-128
 Tires—Submission Process

The typical submission from a tire supplier is 3 to 4 different

variations of a tire. Construction and/or tread compound may
be changed.
Once tire size, type, weight, rolling resistance, cost, etc. is
defined by the pre-source package, the tire performance
envelope is limited to a relatively small range.
Most tire programs go through 2—4 submissions (of 3 to 4
tires per submission)

2-129
 Tires—Submission Process
Tire size and type constraints on the “envelope” of tire performance
Various tire types and sizes of Tuning variation for a
approximately same load capacity given tire type and size

“Zero” submission 1st submission

2-130
 Tires—Submission Process

Tuning variation for a Tuning variation for a given tire type and size,
given tire type and size meeting other pre-source requirements

1st submission 2nd—4th submission

2-131
 How Are Tires Evaluated?

To effectively evaluate differences in tires submitted by

suppliers, consistent methodology and procedures are used.
Tire evaluations are done in comparison to a control tire to
reduce the effects of environment, vehicle and driver.
Evaluation procedures and emphasis may vary between
platforms and/or programs. For example, Jeep vehicles place
more emphasis on off-road performance than minivans. Jeep
Rubicon package tires place more emphasis on off-road
performance than other Jeep vehicles.
The primary method of evaluating tires is subjective; some
objective measures are used.

2-132
 Subjective Evaluations

Rating
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(SAE J1060)
Acceptability Unacceptable Borderline Acceptable
Some Not
Observed by All Observers Most Observers Critical Observers Trained Observers
Observers Observed
Barely
Description Intolerable Severe Very Poor Poor Marginal Acceptable Fair Good Very Good Excellent

Due to the limitations of size, type, weight, rolling resistance,

cost, etc. imposed by the pre-source package, the tire
performance envelope is limited to a relatively small range.
In addition to this limited tire envelope, the tire is only one of
many components that determine vehicle performance in ride,
steering, noise, handling, etc. Because of this, the range of
vehicle performance ratings expected during a tire submission
is relatively small, typically 1 to 2 points (out of 10).
2-133
 Tire Evaluations

To ensure consistency, a spreadsheet that documents the tire

evaluation criteria and the results is used. The tire evaluation
spreadsheet covers many areas, and not all of them may be
necessary for each program, tire, or submission.

2-134
DaimlerChrysler Tire Evaluation Summary DATE: 12/1 to 12/3/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: GY
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R16
EVALUATORS: MTH / JP / SP TIRE TYPE: WSRA
VEH. NUMBER: 5ND-1413 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: 4x2 WHEEL: 16x7
WHEELBASE: 131"
ENGINE: 4.7 HO LOCATION: SAPG
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 60 F

Control Control Control

Manufacturer GY GY GY GY GY GY GY
Tire Type WSRA
WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA
WSRA WSRA
Size P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35
Construction # 3413C 290G 290H 3413C 290L 290M 3413C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Wet Handling 0 - 0 - 0 0
Wet Lap Time (sec) 59.62 60.04 60.26 60.02 0.00 0.00
Steering 0 - + 0 + 0 0
Handling 0 -0.25 + 0 0.25 + 0
Ride 0 -0.5 -0.25 0 - -0.5 0
Noise 0 0- + 0 + -0.25 0
Off-Road 0 0 0 + 0 0
Mud N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Snow N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Snow Accel (ft/sec2) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
2
Snow Braking (ft/sec ) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Treadwear (FWG Worst Tire) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Irregular Wear (Worst Tire) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
The purpose of this trip was the final submission evaluation of the P245/70 R16 Wrangler SR-A for the ND program.

The 2X7290L construction was preferred overall, providing ride and noise performance similar to the control tire. Steering performance was
noted slightly better, along with an improvement in handling character compared to the control tire. Very similar wet handling performance
was noted when compared to the control.

The "H" construction showed a slight degradation in ride performance. Overall damping quality was down compared to the control tire with
more impact shake noted. Impact harshness was slightly down form control as well.

The "M" construction displayed a greater amount of roughness and lacked damping overall compared to the other constructions. Handling
was similar to the control.

The construction 2X7290G was used as a reference from the last submission. It displayed a large degradation in ride and handling
compared to the other submission tires. Based on this we did not continue any further evaluations of this construction.

Preferred VS Target Spider Chart Data

Preferred Construction VS Target
Target Preferred
Wet Handling 0 0
Wet Handling
Steering 1 0 0
From the Spider Chart to the right, the preferred construction Irregular Wear 0.5 Steering
0 0.25
Handling
(2X7290L) displays equal performance to the control with a 0
0Handling 0
Ride Treadwear -0.5
slight improvement in handling character. Based on this Vehicle 0 0
Noise -1
Dynamics recommends proceeding with the 2X7290L 0Ride 0
Off-Road Snow
Construction. 0 0
Mud
Mud Noise
Snow 0 Target0
Off-Road Preferred
Treadwear 0 0
Irregular Wear 0 0

Tire Evaluation Example 1

DaimlerChrysler Tire Evaluation Summary DATE: 12/1 to 12/3/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: GY
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R16
EVALUATORS: MTH / JP / SP TIRE TYPE: WSRA
VEH. NUMBER: 5ND-1413 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: 4x2 WHEEL: 16x7
WHEELBASE: 131"
ENGINE: 4.7 HO LOCATION: SAPG
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 60 F

Control
Manufacturer GY GY GY GY GY
Tire Type WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA
Size P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35
Construction # 3413C 290G 290H 290L 290M
1 2 3 5 6
Rating Comments Rating Comments Rating Comments Rating Comments Rating Comments
Good traction Similar to control, Very similar to
Wet Handling 0 transition 0 - slightly more U/S - control 0
Avg. Wet Lap Time (sec) 59.62 0.00 60.04 60.02 0.00
Good response & Increased driving Slightly more Similar to Control Faster OC response
Steering 0 linearity - efforts noted + response OC + 0
Good traction Faster traction Similar to control Inc. capability at limit More Overshoot than
Handling 0 transition -0.25 transition + 0.25 + "H" or "L"
Damping good, Lacks damping Rounded quality to Good Damping Shakey, lacks
Ride 0 somewhat shakey -0.5 -0.25 impacts - -0.5 damping
Awesome for slap Slap worse Improved rolling feel Similar to Control Rolling feel down,
Noise 0 0- + + -0.25 shakey
Good Controllability Improved
Off-Road 0 0 0 + controllability 0

Mud

Snow
Snow Accel (ft/sec2)
Snow Braking (ft/sec2)
Recommendations for Less shake Improve damping and Better impact harshness. Very similar to control. Lacked damping quality
next submission impact harshness (both This was better than "G" Needed to have slight at both low & high
low & high speed) but needed to be closer improvement to impact speeds
to control harshness at higher
speeds. Overall this
displayed good damping
and rolling feel.

Tire Evaluation Example 2

 Tire Subjective Rating Scale
Purpose:
To provide subjective ratings of tire/vehicle system performance in comparison to a control tire.
Background:
Tire performance goals are typically specified relative to a control tire, which is usually a production tire of a similar size and
type. Because original equipment tires are a compromise of many different aspects of performance (traction, rolling
resistance, ride, handling, cost, etc.) large variations are not expected when comparing tires of a similar type and size. The
constraints of meeting this variety of performance goals preclude OE tires from having wide variations in performance.

Tires are installed on a vehicle for evaluation and rated subjectively in various aspects of performance according to the 1 to
10 point rating scale described in SAE J1060 (below).

Rating
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(SAE J1060)
Acceptability Unacceptable Borderline Acceptable
Some Not
Observed by All Observers Most Observers Critical Observers Trained Observers
Observers Observed
Barely
Description Intolerable Severe Very Poor Poor Marginal Acceptable Fair Good Very Good Excellent

Because of the small range in tire performance resulting from compromises in meeting the various goals imposed on OE
tires, it is necessary to break the customary 1-10 point rating scale into finer increments to reflect differences between tires.

1 point Major difference Noticed by most customers

0.5 point Significant Difference Noticed by some customers
0.25 point Difference Noticed only by critical customers
+ or - Minor difference Used primarily to rank tires of similar performance.

Procedure:
Since tire goals are established relative to the control tire, each evaluation / submission typically starts out with an evaluation
of the control tire. This way, the performance of the control is established as a reference on the evaluation vehicle under the
local weather and road conditions.
The control tire is arbitrarily assigned the same rating in each performance category, typically a 0 rating (although 7 has been
used).
The submission tires are then evaluated and rated relative to the control tire's performance. Periodically during the
evaluation process, the control tire is re-evaluated (typically after every two submission tires are completed).

Tire Evaluation Example 3

 Tire RIDE Evaluation
Overall Ride Goal: Tires should produce a plush ride, with the vehicle feeling isolated from road
inputs. A minimal disturbance should be transmitted to the vehicle, and it
should decay rapidly.

Description Test Method Rating Criteria

Impact Harshness--Tactile inputs Drive vehicle at 25 and 45 mph over Tires that transmit lower levels of
felt through the seat, steering wheel,a series of sharp raised inputs. disturbance to the vehicle are
pedals, and vehicle structure over Evaluate the effect of the bumps on preferred.
abrupt events in the road surface. the vehicle as the vehicle passes
over each event.
Impact Boom / Noise--Audible Drive vehicle at 25 and 45 mph over Tires producing lower noise levels
inputs resulting from an abrupt event a series of sharp raised inputs. are preferred. A lower frequency
in the road. Includes suspension, Evaluate the quality and quantity of "solid" noise is preferred over sharper
chassis, and body noise. noise produced as the vehicle impact type noises.
passes over each event.
Damping--Rate at which vibrations Drive the vehicle at 25 and 45 mph Tires that damp out vibrations in the
induced by road inputs die out. over a series of irregular vehicle quickly are preferred.
depressions. Evaluate how quickly
the vehicle's response damps out
after each input.
Shake--Motion and vibration felt in Drive the vehicle at 25 and 45 mph Tires that induce lesser amounts of
the vehicle suspension, chassis, and over a series of irregular shake in the vehicle are preferred.
body while traversing a road input. depressions. Evaluate how the
vehicle responds as it passes over
the input.

Tire Evaluation Example 4

DaimlerChrysler Tire RIDE Evaluation DATE: 12/1 to 12/3/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: GY
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R16
EVALUATORS: MTH / JP / SP TIRE TYPE: WSRA
VEH. NUMBER: 5ND-1413 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: 4x2 WHEEL: 16x7
WHEELBASE: 131"
ENGINE: 4.7 HO LOCATION: SAPG
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 60 F

Control Control Control

Manufacturer GY GY GY GY GY GY GY
Tire Type WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA
Size P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35
Construction # 3413C 290G 290H 3413C 290L 290M 3413C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Impact 25 mph 0 -0.5 -0.25 0 + -0.25
Harshness 45 mph 0 -0.5 -0.25 0 -0.25 -0.25
Impact 25 mph 0 + - 0 + -0.25
Boom/Noise 45 mph 0 -0.25 -0.25 0 0 -0.25
Damping 25 mph 0 -0.5 -0.25 0 + -0.5
45 mph 0 -0.5 -0.25 0 0+ -0.5
Shake 25 mph 0 - - 0 + -0.25
45 mph 0 - - 0 0- -0.25
Overall Rating 0 -0.5 -0.25 0 - -0.5
COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS
TIRE 1: Good impact harshness at both low & high speeds. Too much impact noise at both speeds.
Moderate amount of damping at low speed, better at high speed. Vehicle displays a lot of
3413C
shake, smooth road shake never settles down, continuous.
TIRE 2: Much firmer feel to impacts. Noise better at low speed than high. Vehicle lacks envelopment
over events. Aftershake poor, damping not as good as controls.
290G
TIRE 3: Sm. improvement to impact harshness compared to "G", not as good as control. Displays more
of a rounded quality to inputs. Low speed boom worse. Similar shake performance to controls,
290H
vehicle never settles down.
TIRE 4: Baseline
3413C
TIRE 5: Better envelopment of larger events. Much better for shake, vibrations quickly decay. Impact
events feel sharp but at a reduced magnitude compared to control. Good boom/noise.
290L
TIRE 6: Lacks damping overall. Worse for shake than control. Very grainy, feel most road
imperfections. Impacts are sharp similar to "H's". Greater audible quality to impact boom.
290M
TIRE 7:
3413C

Tire Evaluation Example 5

 Tire NOISE/FEEL Evaluation
Overall Noise Goal: Tires should provide a good rolling feel, with isolation but not separation
from the road surface. Noises transmitted should give a feeling of
solidness. No tire induced vibration should be perceived.

Description Test Method Rating Criteria

Joint Slap--tire noise induced by Drive over test surface with Tires with lower noise levels are
expansion joints in the road. expansion joints at 50--60 mph. preferred. Sharp noise is not
Listen to quality and amount of noise desirable.
produced.
Coarse Road--noise induced by Drive over coarse road surface at 50-
traveling over a coarse road surface. 60 mph. Listen to quality and amount
of noise produced.
Tread Whine--high frequency noise Drive over test surface at 50--60 Tires producing lower noise levels
resulting from the tread pattern of the mph. Listen to quality and amount of are preferred. Lower frequency noise
tire when driven on a smooth asphalt noise produced. is generally preferred over high
surface. frequency.
Sizzle--Tire noise when driven over a Drive over test surface at 50-60 mph, Tires producing lower noise levels
polished concrete road surface. and listen to noise produced. are preferred.
Cornering Noise--Increase or Drive at a constant 45mph around Tires with little or no change in noise
change in noise when cornering at large radius left and right hand while cornering are preferred.
low lateral accelerations at moderate curves. Listen for increased or
speeds (this is not tire squeal from high changed tire noise while cornering.
lateral acceleration).
Coastdown Noise--Tire noise noted Accelerate to 60 mph, shift to neutral, Tires producing lower noise levels
when coasting down from high speed turn engine off, allow vehicle to coast over the entire speed range are
to a stop with the engine off. to a stop. Listen to tire noise preferred. Tires should not have
produced at various speed ranges. noise peaks throughout the speed
Note speeds at which noise is notably range.
different.
Rolling Feel--Feel of the vehicle Drive at a constant 50-60 mph over Tires that provide a feeling of
when traveling over moderately moderately smooth pavement. isolation from the road surface are
smooth pavement. A measure of Evaluate how much input is felt in the preferred. The vehicle should not
how well the tires absorb minor road seat, steering wheel, floorpan, feel nervous or busy.
inputs giving a feel of isolation from pedals, etc. over small inputs.
the road surface.
Roughness--Vibration such as Drive at varying speeds from 30 to 80 Tires that produce little or no
lateral or radial runout, imbalance, mph over smooth pavement. Look vibration are preferred.
etc. felt through the steering wheel, for particular speeds at which any
floorpan, seat and vehicle structure periodic vibration is felt in the vehicle.
when traveling on moderately smooth
pavement.
Low Speed Squeal--Tire squeal At speeds below 15 mph, make left Tires that produce little or no noise
resulting from low speed, high angle and right turns at high steer angles during "parking lot" manuevers are
"parking lot" maneuvers, and and listen for tire noise and/or squeal. preferred.
acceleration from a stop around a Accelerate from a stop around a
corner. corner and listen for tire squeal and
noise.

Tire Evaluation Example 6

DaimlerChrysler Tire NOISE/FEEL Evaluation DATE: 12/1 to 12/3/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: GY
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R16
EVALUATORS: MTH / JP / SP TIRE TYPE: WSRA
VEH. NUMBER: 5ND-1413 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: 4x2 WHEEL: 16x7
WHEELBASE: 131"
ENGINE: 4.7 HO LOCATION: SAPG
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 60 F

Control Control Control

Manufacturer GY GY GY GY GY GY GY
Tire Type WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA
Size P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35
Construction # 3413C 290G 290H 3413C 290L 290M 3413C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Joint Slap 0 - 0- 0 - -0.25
Coarse Road 0 - -0.25 0 + -0.25
Tread Whine 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sizzle 0 - 0- 0 + -
Cornerning Noise 0 0 0 0 0 0
Coastdown 30+ 0 0- 0- 0 0 0+
Noise 30-10 0 + + 0 + +
10-zero 0 + + 0 + +
Rolling Feel 0 0+ 0.25 0 0.25 -
Roughness 0 0+ + 0 0.25 -0.25
Low Speed Squeal 0 0 0 0 0 0
Overall Rating 0 0- + 0 + -0.25
COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS
TIRE 1: Excellent joint slap. Coarse road good, consistent magnitude & low tone quality. Some radial
component to shake, rolling feel lacks smoothness, very rough in nature. Good tread whine
3413C
and sizzle character.
TIRE 2: Greater audible quality to slap than control. Coarse road slightly greater in magnitude than
control. Similar tread whine and sizzle to control. Rolling feel better but still seems shaky
290G
through corners.
TIRE 3: Much smoother rolling feel along with roughness. Coarse road seems louder than control.
Slight improvement to sizzle. Similar slap character to "G" not as good as control.
290H
TIRE 4: Baseline: Better for rolling feel and roughness than original evaluation
3413C
TIRE 5: Rolling feel and roughness good. Very small audible component to slap, slightly down from
control. Overall very close to control.
290L
TIRE 6: Very restrained feel over smooth road events, lacks glide quality. Jerky, very nervous through
corners. Louder than control for coarse road noise. Sizzle slightly worse than control. Slight
290M
improvement to coast down 30-0 mph over control.
TIRE 7:
3413C

Tire Evaluation Example 7

 Tire STEERING Evaluation
Overall Steering Goal: The tire should provide consistent, precise, linear steering response. Little steering
correction should be required, with minimal deadband on center. Efforts should be light.

Description Test Method Rating Criteria

Gain—For a given steady state steering Test speed is 40--50 mph. 1) Slowly turn More response for a given input equates to
wheel input, the level of response (lateral the steering wheel. Evaluate the amount of higher gain. Higher gain is not always
acceleration, turn radius) exhibited in the lateral acceleration and the turn radius better; the tire should suit the vehicle's
vehicle. generated. Ignore the small on-center character and intended performance.
dead band. 2) In a fixed radius turn at a
constant speed, evaluate the steering
wheel angle required to negotiate the turn.

Linearity—A measure of how consistent Test speed is 40-50 mph. While slowly
the gain remains over a range of steering turning the steering wheel, evaluate the
inputs. consistency of the vehicle's response over
a range of increasing steering wheel
angles.
Returnability—A measure of how well the Returnability is evaluated at two conditions: How fast, how smoothly, and how close to
steering returns to center after giving an at highway speed (65mph) with center the wheel returns are all evaluated.
input and releasing the wheel. approximately 10 deg steering wheel input, The wheel should smoothly return to center
and at parking lot speed (15 mph) with a 90 in one motion, with minimal overshoot
deg steering wheel input. Turn the steering beyond center.
wheel as specified, allow the vehicle to
reach equilibrium, then release the wheel.
Observe how the wheel returns to the
straight ahead position.

Directional Stability—A measure of how 1) perform a "normal" (non-evasive) lane Tires requiring minimal steering input to
well the vehicle can be put on the desired change at 45 mph. Evaluate how much establish and maintain the desired path are
path, and how well it remains on the steering input is required to return the better.
desired path. vehicle to a straight ahead path in the final
lane. 2) at 65 mph, evaluate how much
steering correction is required to maintain
the vehicle in a straight path. 3) When
negotiating a corner, how much steering
correction is required to maintain a
constant path around the corner.

On-Center Response—A measure of how Evaluated at 65 mph. Slowly turn the Better tires have quick (but not darty)
steering wheel left and right up to 10
quickly the vehicle responds just outside of response, with little time lag from steering
the on-center deadband, for steering wheeldegrees. Evaluate how the vehicle input to build up of lateral acceleration.
angles of 5-10 degrees. responds once any lash in the steering
system is overcome.
Off-Center Response—A measure of how Evaluated at 45 mph. With an initial steady Tires that respond progressively with
quickly the vehicle responds to an state steering input of 45--90 degrees, an minimal time lag are preferred.
incremental steering input in a corner. additional 5-10 degree input is made, and
the response is evaluated.
On-Center Effort—A measure of the Evaluated at 65 mph. Slowly turn the Effort should be progressive, but not heavy.
steering wheel effort at small steering steering wheel left and right up to 10
angles just outside the deadband. degrees. Evaluate the effort to turn the
wheel once any lash in the steering system
is overcome.
Off-Center Effort—A measure of the Evaluated at 45 mph. With an initial steady Steady state effort should be light. Effort
steering wheel effort in a corner and a state steering input of 45--90 degrees, for increased steer angle should be
medium to high speed typical of a freeway evaluate the effort required to maintain the progressive, but not heavy.
cloverleaf exit ramp. steer angle. Input an additional 5-10
degrees of steering wheel angle, and
evaluate the required effort.

Tire Evaluation Example 8

DaimlerChrysler Tire Steering Evaluation DATE: 12/1 to 12/3/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: GY
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R16
EVALUATORS: MTH / JP / SP TIRE TYPE: WSRA
VEH. NUMBER: 5ND-1413 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: 4x2 WHEEL: 16x7
WHEELBASE: 131"
ENGINE: 4.7 HO LOCATION: SAPG
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 60 F

Control Control Control

Manufacturer GY GY GY GY GY GY GY
Tire Type WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA
Size P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35
Construction # 3413C 290G 290H 3413C 290L 290M 3413C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Steering Gain 0 0 0 0 0 0
On-Center Response 0 0+ + 0 + 0-
Off-Center Response 0 - + 0 0+ 0
On-Center Effort 0 - + 0 0 0+
Off-Center Effort 0 - + 0 0 0+
Directional Stability 0 0- 0 0 0 0
Linearity 0 - + 0 + +
Returnability 0 - 0+ 0 0+ 0+
Overall Rating 0 - + 0 + 0
COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS
TIRE 1: Overall good steering gain, very consistent response. Resp. on-center good, off-center builds
predictably. Consistent effort build both on & off-center. Minimal off-center gradient. Good
3413C
linearity remains consistent thru range of steer angle.
TIRE 2: Similar gain and response character (both on & off-center). Overall driving efforts slightly higher
than control. Linearity not as connected as control with step inputs. Some steering
290G
hysteresis/waviness noted as wheel wound thru center.
TIRE 3: Slightly more responsive on-center than control. Small increase to both on & off-center efforts,
not as great as G const. A bit more road feel present. Slightly better linearity than control, w/
290H
no observable hysteresis.
TIRE 4: Baseline
3413C
TIRE 5: Very similar to control tire performance. Good on-center response, less bathtub feel than
control. Good linearity, efforts very close to control.
290L
TIRE 6: Again similar performance to control, although on-center response seems faster. Overall
linearity good, w/ consistent gain. Good balance for effort / road feel
290M
TIRE 7:
3413C

Tire Evaluation Example 9

 Tire HANDLING Evaluation
Overall Handling Goal: Tires should provide predictable, confidence inspiring handling. Minimal to moderate understeer is
desired, with good response. The vehicle should feel agile, but secure and comfortable to drive.

Description Test Method Rating Criteria

Slalom--100' slalom as shown on following page. Beginning at a low speed, (45mph is typical for The tire and vehicle's response character during
an unloaded vehicle), drive the vehicle through the slalom is equally important as the maximum
the slalom at a constant speed noting the speed through the slalom. Tires that are
performance in the following areas. Steering predictable and confidence inspiring are
inputs should be smooth and consistent preferred.
Gradually increase the speed in subsequent
passes until the vehicle can no longer complete
the slalom. Note the maximum speed achieved
and the characteristics below.
Balance—Tendency of vehicle to understeer
or oversteer.
Transient Response—How well does the The vehicle should respond to steering inputs
vehicle respond to steering inputs. Is it with minimal lag, and should quickly (but not
necessary to make steering inputs early to abruptly) change directions when steering input is
compensate for lag? applied.
Overshoot—Tendency for yaw angle to build The vehicle should have a minimum of yaw
up as the vehicle progresses through the increase throughout the slalom.
slalom.
Skidpad--300' skidpad
Squeal--Amount and quality of noise produced While cornering at a steady state, evaluate the Tires should have moderate squeal, not initiating
during hard cornering. volume and sound quality of squeal emitted by until relatively high cornering speeds.
the tires.
Balance—Tendency of vehicle to understeer While cornering at a steady state, evaluate the The vehicle should corner with a moderate
or oversteer. vehicle's overall attitude. amount of understeer.
Trailing Throttle--Vehicle response to an With the vehicle in a lower gear, while cornering The vehicle should not abruptly change attitude.
abrupt lift off of the throttle while cornering. at a steady state, abruptly lift off of the throttle The reduction in understeer should be smooth
and evaluate the vehicle's response. and easily corrected for with steering input.

Steady State--How easily the vehicle can be While cornering at a steady state, evaluate how The vehicle should be easy to place and maintain
driven at a constant speed on the skid pad. readily the vehicle is placed o the skid pad, and on the skid pad. Minor changes in throttle /
how many steering corrections are required to speed should be easily compensated for.
maintain the desired path around the skid pad.

Lane Change--Double lane change as shown on Beginning at a low speed (typically45mph for an The vehicle's response character during the lane
following page. unloaded vehicle), drive the vehicle through the change is equally important as the maximum
lane change at a constant speed noting the speed through the lane change.
performance in the following areas. Steering
inputs should be more abrupt, characteristic of an
evasive maneuver. Gradually increase the speed
in subsequent passes until the vehicle can no
longer complete the lane change.

Turn In--Initial response to a quick steering The vehicle should respond crisply to the initial
input to initiate a lane change. steering input.
Overshoot--Amount of oversteer increase at A minimal amount of overshoot is desired when
completion of lane change maneuver passing through the lane change.
Transient Response--response to steering When changing directions, a minimal amount of
input when changing directions during the lane steering input should be required. Quick (but not
change. darty) response is desired.
Braking
Braking--Ability to modulate brakes at Brake from 60mph in a straight line, attempting to Tires should have good modulation, making it
threshold of lockup, and overall deceleration minimize stopping distance. Evaluate the easy to maintain braking at the threshold of
capacity. deceleration level, and the ease of maintaining lockup. Tires should provide good traction for
the vehicle at maximum deceleration throughout high deceleration levels.
the stop.
Brake In Turn--Response of the vehicle when At a constant 65-70mph, initiate a moderate turn, The vehicle should exhibit a predictable
braking and cornering simultaneously. to simulate a freeway exit ramp. Hold the response. There should be no abrupt changes in
steering wheel at a constant angle and quickly cornering attitude.
and firmly apply the brakes short of ABS / RWAL
activation. Evaluate the vehicle's response.

Tire Evaluation Example 10

DaimlerChrysler Tire Handling Evaluation DATE: 12/1 to 12/3/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: GY
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R16
EVALUATORS: MTH / JP / SP TIRE TYPE: WSRA
VEH. NUMBER: 5ND-1413 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: 4x2 WHEEL: 16x7
WHEELBASE: 131"
ENGINE: 4.7 HO LOCATION: SAPG
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 60 F

Control Control Control

Manufacturer GY GY GY GY GY GY GY
Tire Type WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA
Size P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35
Construction # 3413C 290G 290H 3413C 290L 290M 3413C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Slalom Balance 0 - + 0 + +
Transient Response 0 0- + 0 0.25 +
Overshoot 0 -0.25 + 0 0.25 0
Skidpad Squeal 0 0 0 0 0 0
Balance 0 0 0 0 0 0
Trailing Throttle 0 0 0 0 0 0
Steady State 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lane Change Turn-In 0 - - 0 + +
Overshoot 0 - + 0 + 0
Transient Response 0 -0.25 + 0 + 0
Braking Braking 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brake In Turn 0 0 0 0 0 0
Overall Rating 0 -0.25 + 0 0.25 +
COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS
TIRE 1: Response thru slalom OK, some overshoot noted as limit is approached, traction transition very
predictable. Skidpad balance U/S, trailing throttle good. Lane change transient response
3413C
lagged behind, some overshoot. BIT good.
TIRE 2: Slightly more grip than control, reaches limit fairly quick. Not as forgiving as control, faster
traction transition as limit is approached. Lane change displays more rotation, similar lagging
290G
transient response. Turn in slightly quicker.
TIRE 3: Good balance thru slalom, much more capable than #'s 1 or 2. Less overshoot more grip noted.
Forgiving nature, slower traction transition as limit is approached. Similar skidpad balance &
290H trailing throttle. Turn in during lane change slightly faster than control, better balance & transient
response. Less overshoot.
TIRE 4: Baseline: Less overshoot than previous evaluation, better breakaway performance.
3413C
TIRE 5: Similar to re-run of control, more capable as the limit is approached. Good traction transition,
very progressive. Less overshoot noted. Turn in response to lane change not as fast as "H",
290L
good transient response. Skidpad performance equal to control.
TIRE 6: Again similar performance to control, slightly more overshoot than "H" or "L" in the lane change.
Good slalom balance and transient response. Similar skid pad performance
290M
TIRE 7:
3413C

Tire Evaluation Example 11

 Tire HANDLING Events

Double Lane Change

12

12 15 12
80 15 70

15 15

Slalom
100
TYP

15
TYP

Tire Evaluation Example 12

 Tire WET HANDLING Evaluation
Overall Wet Handling Goal: The tire should provide the driver with confidence when driving in wet
conditions. The tire should be easy to control, without sudden loss of
traction. Braking performance should be good, with easy modulation.

Description Test Method Rating Criteria

Balance—Tendency of vehicle to Evaluate on wet handling course Vehicle should exhibit predictable
understeer or oversteer in steady through a variety of turn radii and understeer.
state conditions. speeds.
Brake In Turn--Vehicle behavior Evaluate on wet handling course
when braking and cornering while braking through various turns.
simultaneously. Braking should be below ABS
threshold. Can also be evaluated on
a wet skid pad.
Directional Stability—A measure of Evaluate on wet handling course Vehicle should be easy to place on
how well the vehicle can be put on through a variety of turn radii and the intended path, and little steering
the desired path, and how well it speeds. input should be required to maintain
remains on the desired path. that path.
Transient Response—How well the Evaluate on wet handling course with Vehicle should change directions
vehicle responds to steering inputs. left-right and right-left transitions at smoothly and progressively, with
various speeds. minimal overshoot and little steering
correction required.
Breakaway--Transition from rolling to Evaluate on wet handling course or Breakaway should be progressive
sliding traction when cornering. wet skid pad. As cornering speed is and predictable. Abrupt transitions
increased, or turning radius is are not desirable. Driver should get
decreased, evaluate transition to feedback as tire breaks away. Tire
sliding. should provide confidence that it will
not suddenly breakaway.
Recovery--How well the vehicle Evaluate on wet handling course or Recovery should be smooth and
recovers from a slide. wet skid pad. When a sliding progressive. Abrupt transitions are
vehicle's speed is reduced or not desired.
cornering radius is increased,
evaluate the transition from sliding to
rolling motion of the tires.
Lateral Grip--How much cornering Evaluate on wet handling course or Tires with higher cornering speed
capacity the vehicle has. wet skid pad. Under steady state (more lateral grip) are preferred.
cornering evaluate the speed at
which a fixed radius turn can be
negotiated.
Acceleration--Ability to accelerate Evaluate ability to accelerate from Tires with less wheelspin and more
both from a standing stop and at the low speed turns and from a stop on acceleration are preferred. Ability to
exit of a corner. wet handling course. Evaluate modulate wheelspin is also
amount of wheelspin and important.
acceleration level produced.
Sensitivity to Water Depth--How Evaluate on wet handling course or Tires with less sensitivity to water
the tires respond to an increase or wet skid pad with varying water depth are preferred.
decrease in water depth while depth. Drive vehicle through areas
cornering, accelerating, or braking. of varying water depth while braking,
cornering, and accelerating and
evaluate the change in performance.

Braking--Ability to brake in a straight Decelerate in a straight line from ~50 Tires with higher deceleration are
line without locking up the wheels. mph on a wet surface. Evaluate the preferred. Tires that can are easier
amount of deceleration and the ability to modulate are preferred.
to modulate the brakes just shy of
lockup.

Lap Time--Measured lap time over Run a number of laps around wet Tires with consistently lower lap
wet handling course. handling course, until several laps (8- times are preferred. Inconsistent lap
10) with consistent times are times may be an indicator of tires
completed. Record all lap times. that are not as forgiving or
comfortable to drive. Compare tires
based on both the average lap time
and the consistency (standard
deviation).

Tire Evaluation Example 14

DaimlerChrysler Tire Wet Handling Evaluation DATE: 12/1 to 12/3/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: GY
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R16
EVALUATORS: MTH / JP / SP TIRE TYPE: WSRA
VEH. NUMBER: 5ND-1413 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: 4x2 WHEEL: 16x7
WHEELBASE: 131"
ENGINE: 4.7 HO LOCATION: SAPG
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 60 F

Control Control Control

Manufacturer GY GY GY GY GY GY GY
Tire Type WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA
Size P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35
Construction # 3413C 290G 290H 3413C 290L 290M 3413C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
EVENTS Balance 0 -0.25 0 0-
Brake In Turn 0 0/- 0 0-
Directional Stability 0 0 0 0
Transient Response 0 0 0 0
Breakaway 0 - 0 0-
Recovery 0 - 0 0
Lateral Grip 0 0 0 0
Acceleration 0 0 0 0
Sensitivity to Water Depth 0 0 0 0
Braking 0 0 0 0
Lap Time 59.62 60.04 60.26 60.02
Overall Rating 0 - 0 -
COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS
TIRE 1: Good balance, mild US during turn in. Great BIT performance. Breakaway is very progressive,
good controllability. Good lateral grip. Good braking performance.
3413C
TIRE 2:
290G
TIRE 3: More moderate US noted thru slalom than control. BIT similar to control. Slightly more
breakaway than control, still very progressive good recovery. Very similar lateral grip and
290H
braking performance
TIRE 4: Baseline, slightly more breakaway than original evaluation.
3413C
TIRE 5: Very similar to control for overall performance. Better balance thru slalom, w/ mild US. Slightly
better breakaway than "H". Good BIT & lateral grip.
290L
TIRE 6:
290M
TIRE 7:
3413C

Tire Evaluation Example 15

DaimlerChrysler Wet Lap Time DATE: 12/1 to 12/3/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: GY
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R16
EVALUATORS: MTH / JP / SP TIRE TYPE: WSRA
VEH. NUMBER: 5ND-1413 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: 4x2 WHEEL: 16x7
WHEELBASE: 131"
ENGINE: 4.7 HO LOCATION: SAPG
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 60 F

Control Control Control

Manufacturer GY GY GY GY GY GY GY
Tire Type WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA
Size P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35
Construction # 3413C 290G 290H 3413C 290L 290M 3413C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time 8:45 9:10 9:28 10:00
Track Temp 74 amb 75 amb 77 amb 79 amb
LAP TIMES 1 63.24 60.01 59.87 60.51
2 59.97 59.30 60.19 66.43
3 59.22 60.53 60.21 59.67
4 60.13 59.63 60.19 59.63
5 59.51 60.98 60.23 59.90
6 59.47 62.51 60.43 60.22
7 58.66 59.84 60.17 60.15
8 59.85 59.91 60.80 59.58
9 60.04 59.99
10
11
12
AVERAGE 59.54 60.03 60.26 59.96
STD. DEVIATION 0.50 0.52 0.27 0.33

Tire Evaluation Example 16

 Tire OFF-ROAD Evaluation
Overall Off-Road Goal: Tires should have good traction and lateral grip on a variety of surfaces.
Tires should inspire confidence by providing progressive breakaway and
recovery. There should be no sudden loss of traction.

Description Test Method Rating Criteria

Traction--Acceleration capacity on Evaluate acceleration capability on Tires that produce higher
loose surfaces, gravel, mud, etc. loose surfaces both from a standing acceleration levels are preferred.
stop and from low speeds in both Tires that are easier to modulate and
4wd and 2wd if applicable. Evaluate produce less wheelspin are
ease of inducing wheelspin. preferred.

Lateral Grip--Cornering capability in Use off-road handling type course to

off-road conditions. evaluate the speed at which corners
can be negotiated. Make separate
runs in 4wd and 2wd if applicable.

Steering--Ability to steer on off-road Use off-road handling type course to Tires that exhibit good steering
surfaces. evaluate the tire's ability to turn the response with minimal sliding are
vehicle. Evaluate oversteer / preferred. Minimal steering
understeer characteristics. Make correction should be required to keep
separate runs in 4wd and 2wd if the vehicle on the intended path.
applicable.
Transient Response--Ability to Use off-road handling course with left- Vehicle should change directions
change direction on off-road right and right-left transitions or an off smoothly and progressively, with
surfaces. road slalom at various speeds to minimal overshoot and little steering
evaluate how vehicle responds to correction required.
direction changes. Make separate
runs in 4wd and 2wd if applicable.

Braking--Ease of modulation of Use off-road handling course to Tires with higher deceleration are
brakes, and deceleration capability evaluate braking and brake in turn preferred. Tires which can be
on off-road surfaces. performance. Make separate runs modulated at the threshold of sliding
in 4wd and 2wd if applicable. are preferred. Tires with minimal
Brake in a straight line from ~50 mph loss of traction when locked are
on loose surfaces. Evaluate level of preferred.
deceleration (both rolling and locked)
and ease of modulating the brakes.

Powerhop--Hop response when Test on hill with loose surface. Using Tires that make powerhop more
applying torque to climb a grade with 4wd low or high, accelerate from a difficult to induce are preferred. Tires
a loose surface. stop up the hill. Evaluate amount, with less severity of powerhop are
severity and ease of inducing preferred. Tires able to climb further
powerhop. Use distance climbed up up hill are preferred.
the hill as a secondary evaluation.

Controllability--Breakaway and Use off-road handling course with a Tires should have smooth,
recovery characteristics at medium variety of turns and speeds to progressive breakaway. Driver
and high speeds on loose surfaces. evaluate how comfortably the vehicle should be able to feel the tire begin to
can be driven at mid and high breakaway. Recovery should be
speeds. Make separate runs in 4wd smooth, with no abrupt changes.
and 2wd if applicable. Tire should inspire confidence.

Tire Evaluation Example 18

DaimlerChrysler Tire OFF-ROAD Evaluation DATE: 12/1 to 12/3/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: GY
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R16
EVALUATORS: MTH / JP / SP TIRE TYPE: WSRA
VEH. NUMBER: 5ND-1349 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: 4x2 WHEEL: 16x7
WHEELBASE: 131"
ENGINE: 4.7 HO LOCATION: SAPG
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 60 F

Control Control Control

Manufacturer GY GY GY GY GY GY GY
Tire Type WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA WSRA
Size P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16 P245/70R16
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35
Construction # 3413C 290G 290H 3413C 290L 290M 3413C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Traction 2WD 0 0
4WD 0 0
Lateral Grip 2WD 0 +
4WD 0 +
Steering 2WD 0 0
4WD 0 0
Transient 2WD 0 +
4WD 0 +
Braking 2WD 0 +
4WD 0 +
Power Hop 4WD 0 -
Controlability 2WD 0 +
4WD 0 +
Overall Rating 0 +
COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS
TIRE 1: Light steering efforts, littler feedback initially. Sensitive BIT performance, brings about more
rotation. Good lateral grip, breakaway very progressive. Controlability good. Good power-hop,
3413C
with only a minor amount of shudder during initial hook-up.
TIRE 2:
290G
TIRE 3:
290H
TIRE 4:
3413C
TIRE 5: Very similar performance to control. Slight imporvements were noted to controlability. Small
improvement to transient response and BIT, displays less rotation than control. Power hop
290L
displayed slighty more magnitude to shudder compared to control.
TIRE 6:
290M
TIRE 7:
3413C

Tire Evaluation Example 19

 Tire MUD Evaluation
Overall Mud Traction Goal: Tires should provide the driver with confidence that he will not get stuck,
and give the driver feedback before traction is lost.

Description Test Method Rating Criteria

Traction-tractive effort generated in Accelerate from a standing start, Tires should provide traction for
mud. modulating the throttle for a "best acceleration from standing start.
effort" start. Note ease with which Driver should be able to modulate
wheels spin, rate of vehicle wheelspin to maintain acceleration.
acceleration, ability to modulate
wheelspin.
Lateral Grip-ability to "corner" or At a steady (low) speed that can be
maintain the desired curved path in maintained, steer in one direction for
mud. at least 45 degrees of vehicle
rotation. Note radius of turn that can
be achieved and maintained, ease of
maintaining constant path.

Steering--response of vehicle to Maintain a steady speed, and Tire should respond to steering
steering inputs. evaluate ability to make changes in inputs without overshoot. Driver
vehicle heading and ability to should be able to maintain desired
maintain a straight path. 'Note path with minimal corrections
response time and amount to required.
steering inputs, necessity of
corrections to maintain straight path.

Transient--response to alternating While maintaining a steady speed, Tire should respond to changes from
steering inputs while driving in mud. alternate left and right steering left to right and vice versa.
inputs. Evaluate response time, Response should be equal left and
response level and overshoot to right. Overshoot should be minimal.
steering inputs.
Braking--level of deceleration From a moderate speed apply brakes Tires should provide confidence in
generated in mud. and modulate pedal pressure for braking, Vehicle should stop straight,
"best effort" braking. Also make with little or no lateral displacement.
"panic" stop. Evaluate level of Driver should be able to modulate
deceleration, stopping distance, ease brakes without locking. If equipped
of modulating brakes short of lockup, with ABS / RWAL, driver should be
any change of direction during able to brake without ABS / RWAL
braking. If applicable, note amount cycling.
of ABS / RWAL activation and effects
on stopping distance.

Controllability--breakaway & Maintain a moderate speed while Tires should not abruptly loose
recovery characteristics and ability to accelerating, braking and steering. traction or grip. Onset of slip should
control vehicle while slipping in mud. Evaluate ease with which vehicle be communicated to driver. Driver
maintains desired speed & path. should be able to modulate brakes,
throttle, and steering to control
vehicle.

Tire Evaluation Example 20

DaimlerChrysler Tire MUD Evaluation DATE: 10/25/1999
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: Goodyear
TIRE SIZE: LT275/70R17
EVALUATORS: DBH TIRE TYPE: Wrangler AT/S
VEH. NUMBER: V0BR6-0136 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: DR6L61 WHEEL: 17x8
WHEELBASE: 120
ENGINE: 5.9V8 LOCATION: SAPG (Mud Course)
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 78

Control Reference Reference

Manufacturer GDYR GDYR GDYR GDYR
Tire Type AT/S AT/S GS-A RT/S
Size LT265 LT275 LT275 P265/70R17
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35 35/35 35/35
Construction # 8D0501A SO Off-Road Prod Ford Prod
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Traction 4WD 7.25 7.5 7 6.5
Lateral Grip 4WD 7 7 7 6.75
Steering 4WD 7 7.25 7 6.5
Transient 4WD 7 7 7 6.5
Braking 4WD 7 7 7 N/A
Controlability 4WD 7 7 7 6.5
Overall Rating 7 7.25 7 6.5
COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS
TIRE 1: Traction better than GS-A, not as good as 275 AT/S. Steering similar to GS-A--doesn't climb
out of ruts as well as 275 AT/S.
8D0501A
TIRE 2: Noticeably faster speed at constant RPM. Easier to steer out of and across ruts. Surprising
amount of acceleration from a standing start.
SO
TIRE 3:
0
TIRE 4: Good traction--confident not going to get stuck. Not much steering when mud packed on dry
ground. Braking OK. Considerable mud packing noted.
Off-Road Prod
TIRE 5:
0
TIRE 6:
0
TIRE 7: Less traction--slower speed at constant RPM. Not much steering--can't get out of ruts, when it
does, can't straighten back out--just bounces off sides of mud pit. Much less confidence in
Ford Prod
traction--lots of spin on standing start. Can't go fast enough for braking evaluation.

Tire Evaluation Example 21

 Tire SNOW Evaluation
Overall Snow Performance Goal: The tire should provide the driver with confidence when driving in snowy conditions. The
tire should be easy to control, without sudden loss of traction. Braking performance should
be good, with easy modulation, traction should be good and easy to modulate.

Description Test Method Rating Criteria

Subjective Evaluations
Hill Start--Ability to start from a standing On a slight grade, with uniformly packed or
start up a hill. fresh snow, accelerate from a stop, modulating
the throttle to minimize wheelspin.

Acceleration (objective)--Ability to On a level, smooth road with uniformly packed Tire should be easy to "launch," and
accelerate from a standing start on level or fresh snow, using a Vericom or other provide consistent acceleration through the
surface. instrumentation, measure and record time and entire speed range.
distance required to accelerate from a stop to
30 mph, modulating the throttle to minimize Tires with faster times and shorter
wheelspin and maximize acceleration. distances to reach 30mph are preferred.

Braking--Capacity to decelerate in a On a level, smooth road with uniformly packed Tire should resist locking and provide
straight line on level surfaces. or fresh snow, brake from 30mph to a stop, consistent braking over the entire speed
using a Vericom or other instrumentation, range. On non-ABS vehicles, tire should
measure and record the initial speed, time and be easy to modulate at the threshold of
distance required. For non-ABS vehicles, lockup. Once locked up, tire should
modulate the brakes to minimize wheelslip and recover quickly when brakes are released.
maximize deceleration. On ABS equipped
vehicles, apply the brakes firmly and allow the Tires with faster times and shorter
ABS to cycle throughout the stop. distances to stop are preferred.

Brake in Turn--Ability to negotiate a turn On a flat, smooth road with a gentle turn, apply Vehicle should exhibit little or no tendency
while decelerating. the brakes in the turn at about 30mph. Note to oversteer. Any increase in yaw should
the tire's sensitivity to lock under combined be slow and correctable with steering input.
cornering and braking. Note vehicle yaw Tires should inspire confidence.
induced by brake application, particularly on
non-ABS vehicles.
Lateral Grip--Cornering capacity. On a flat, smooth road with a gentle turn, drive Breakaway and recovery should be slow
the vehicle through the turn at increasing and progressive, giving time for driver
speeds to judge lateral grip of the tires. Note correction.
breakaway and recovery characteristics.

Balance--Tendency of vehicle to oversteer On a flat, smooth road with a gentle turn, drive Tires should provide moderate understeer.
or understeer. the vehicle through the turn at increasing
speeds. Note the understeer / oversteer
balance of the vehicle.
Controllability--Breakaway & recovery Use a snow covered handling course with a Tires should have smooth, progressive
characteristics and ability to control vehicle. variety of turns and speeds to evaluate howbreakaway. Driver should be able to feel
comfortably the vehicle can be driven at beginning of breakaway. Recovery should
moderate speeds. be smooth, with no abrupt changes. Tire
should inspire confidence.
Steering Response--Amount of vehicle Use snow handling type course to evaluate the Tires should exhibit good steering response
response and response time to steering tire's ability to turn the vehicle. Evaluate with minimal sliding. Minimal steering
inputs. transient oversteer / understeer characteristics. correction should be required to keep the
vehicle on the intended path.
Objective Evaluations For objective measurements, equip vehicle with a Vericom 2000 or equivalent data
acquisition system capable of measuring longitudinal acceleration and/or speed with respect
to time.
Acceleration--Measured time and distance On a level, smooth road on uniformly packed Tires are rated by comparing the average
for 0--30mph acceleration. or fresh snow, make several "best effort" 0 to distance, time, and calculated acceleration
30 mph acceleration runs, recording time (sec) values. The standard deviations of these
and distance (ft) to reach 30 mph. These runs values can be used to compare the
should be made by modulating the throttle to "driveability" of the tires.
minimize wheelspin and maximize acceleration.

Braking--Measured time and distance for On a level, smooth road on uniformly packed Tires are rated by comparing the average
30--0mph braking. or fresh snow, make several "best effort" 30-- distance, time, and calculated deceleration
0mph deceleration runs, recording initial speed values. The standard deviations of these
(mph) time (sec) and distance (ft) to come to a values can be used to compare the
complete stop. On non-ABS equipped "driveability" of the tires.
vehicles, these runs should be made by
modulating the brakes to minimize wheelslip
and maximize deceleration.

Tire Evaluation Example 22

DaimlerChrysler Tire SNOW Evaluation DATE: 1/31/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: Goodyear
TIRE SIZE: Misc
EVALUATORS: DBH / MTH TIRE TYPE: Misc
VEH. NUMBER: V2AN5-0211 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: AN5L84 WHEEL: Misc
WHEELBASE: 131
ENGINE: 4.7V8 LOCATION: Smithers, Raco, MI
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 18

Control Control Control

Manufacturer Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Dunlop
Tire Type W SR-A E LS W RT/S W SR-A E RS-A W SR-A WS M2
Size P245/70R16 P255/60R16 P265/70R16 P245/70R16 P275/60R17 P265/65R17 P255/60R17
Pressure F/R 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35
Construction # 0D3413C 9X7603E 8D3173J 0D3413C 2X7281C 1X6281D 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hill Start 0 -0.25 -0.25 0
Acceleration 0 0 0.25 0
Braking 0 0.25 0.25 0
Brake in Turn 0 0 0 0
Lateral Grip 0 -0.25 -0.5 0
Balance 0 0.25 -0.25 -
Controllability 0 0.5 -0.25 0
Steering Response 0 0.25 -0.25 0
Overall Rating 0 0.25 -0.25 0
COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS
TIRE 1: Good acceleration / braking. Good accel even when spinning. Brake in turn good, ABS helps.
U/S, becomes severe shortly after breaking away. Hill start good, some spin, but drives thru it.
0D3413C
Good steering response until U/S starts.
TIRE 2: Good balance. Better controllability, breaks away & recovers progressively. Easier to modulate
throttle. Good BIT. Steering response linear & progressively. Less grip overall, but easier &
9X7603E
more predictable to drive.
TIRE 3: Less grip overall (similar to ELS), not as controllable or predictable. "Pendulum" effect in S-
turns is pronounced. Better braking / accel, but not as much lateral performance (steering,
8D3173J
grip). Easier to provoke O/S with throttle.
TIRE 4: Some change in track conditions / temperature. Slightly more initial U/S.
0D3413C
TIRE 5:
2X7281C
TIRE 6:
1X6281D
TIRE 7:
0

Tire Evaluation Example 23

DaimlerChrysler Tire SNOW Acceleration DATE: 1/31/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: Goodyear
TIRE SIZE: Misc
EVALUATORS: DBH / MTH TIRE TYPE: Misc
VEH. NUMBER: V2AN5-0211 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: AN5L84 WHEEL: Misc
WHEELBASE: 131
ENGINE: 4.7V8 LOCATION: Smithers, Raco, MI
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 18

Control Control Control

Manufacturer Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Dunlop
Tire Type W SR-A E LS W RT/S W SR-A E RS-A W SR-A WS M2
Size P245/70R16 P255/60R16 P265/70R16 P245/70R16 P275/60R17 P265/65R17 P255/60R17
Pressure F/R 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35
Construction # 0D3413C 9X7603E 8D3173J 0D3413C 2X7281C 1X6281D 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Accel 0-30 mph sec. ft. sec. ft. sec. ft. sec. ft. sec. ft. sec. ft. sec. ft.
1 11.40 248 12.08 262 11.40 265 9.07 205
2 11.64 253 10.75 236 10.60 235 10.81 242
4x2 3 10.02 223 10.33 227 10.32 230 11.29 251
4 10.87 243 10.84 236 10.49 229 10.25 235
5 10.19 227 10.70 237 10.00 228 10.65 245
1 4.97 107 5.26 118 5.24 116 5.63 121
2 5.20 114 5.14 114 5.33 115 4.85 103
4x4 3 4.40 95 5.40 121 5.34 122 5.26 102
4 4.85 101 5.31 125 5.31 115 5.00 104
5 4.44 94 4.96 111 5.33 118 4.70 103
Average 7.80 171 7.63 169 7.94 177 7.75 171 #### #### #### #### #### ####
Std. Deviation 3.23 72.7 2.87 61.4 2.79 64.2 2.87 69.3 #### #### #### #### #### ####
Avg. Accel (ft/sec 2 ) 5.642 5.765 5.544 5.677 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!

Tire Evaluation Example 24

DaimlerChrysler Tire SNOW Braking DATE: 1/31/03
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: Goodyear
TIRE SIZE: Misc
EVALUATORS: DBH / MTH TIRE TYPE: Misc
VEH. NUMBER: V2AN5-0211 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: AN5L84 WHEEL: Misc
WHEELBASE: 131
ENGINE: 4.7V8 LOCATION: Smithers, Raco, MI
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 18

Control Control Control

Manufacturer Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Gdyr Dunlop
Tire Type W SR-A E LS W RT/S W SR-A E RS-A W SR-A WS M2
Size P245/70R16 P255/60R16 P265/70R16 P245/70R16 P275/60R17 P265/65R17 P255/60R17
Pressure F/R 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35 35 / 35
Construction # 0D3413C 9X7603E 8D3173J 0D3413C 2X7281C 1X6281D 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Braking 30-0 mph mph sec. ft. mph sec. ft. mph sec. ft. mph sec. ft. mph sec. ft. mph sec. ft. mph sec. ft.
1 28 4.2 87 32 5.1 128 31 5.2 122 30 4.5 96
2 33 4.6 110 30 5 111 30 4.3 97 32 4.6 103
3 33 4.7 116 32 5.1 122 33 4.6 111 30 4.5 99
4 29 4.3 93 32 5.3 121 32 5.4 125 32 4.3 105
5 32 4.6 108 31 5.3 126 28 4.7 96 32 5.1 112
6
7
8
9
10
Average 31 4.5 103 31 5.2 122 30 4.8 110 31 4.6 103 ### ### ### ### ### ### ### ### ###
Std. Deviation 2.3 0.2 12 0.9 0.1 6.6 1.9 0.5 14 1.3 0.3 6.1 ### ### ### ### ### ### ### ### ###
Avg. Decel (ft/sec 2 ) 10.236 8.835 9.263 9.962 #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!

Tire Evaluation Example 25

 Tire IRREGULAR WEAR Evaluation
Purpose: To provide a rating system for tire irregular wear based on customer perception.
Background:
This rating scale is not intended to rate the different types of irregular wear, but to indicate overall irregular wear of
a tire based on a typical customer’s impression. Irregular wear on any area of a tire may be considered
unacceptable by customers, and this scale should be used to rate the worst part of the tire, not the overall level of
irregular wear. For example, cupping of the outside shoulder will be highly visible to the customer, and would
determine the overall rating of the tire, even if the remainder of the tread shows very good wear.

Procedure:
After tires have completed a wear test (typically the U91 wear test conducted at Texas Test Fleet), tires should be
mounted and inflated to recommended pressure and reviewed in a well lit area. Evaluate the extent of the
irregular wear by observing and feeling the condition of the tread surface. Damage due to road debris is ignored
for irregular wear.

Rating Description
10 Unworn Tire
9 Even wear, close inspection required to discern any irregular wear. Customer would not notice any
8 Slight irregular wear. Most customers would not notice.
7 Some irregular wear, customer would notice on inspection of tires. Most customers would not be
dissatisfied.
6 Customer notices uneven or irregular wear, feels need to rotate and/or balance tires. Customer
dissatisfied, but not to complaint level.
5 Customer Complaint Level. Customer visibly notices irregular wear on tire. Customer suspects
problem with either vehicle or tires, complains to dealer.
4 Customer very dissatisfied. Irregular wear is visually apparent on tire. Most customers request
3 Customer convinced of problem with tires and/or vehicle, requests that dealer replace tires and repair
vehicle.
2 Customer may feel tires are not safe to drive on, insists on replacement. Irregular wear over most of
tire, worn down to wear bars in some areas.
1 Extreme irregular wear. Worn beyond wear bars in some areas, while others have significant tread
left. Customer demands replacement of tires and repair of vehicle.

Tire Evaluation Example 26

DaimlerChrysler Tire Irregular Wear DATE: 12/03/2003
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: Goodyear
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R16
EVALUATORS: DBH/DJC TIRE TYPE: Wrangler SR-A
VEH. NUMBER: 5ND-9496 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: ND5L84 WHEEL: 16 x 7
WHEELBASE: 131.5
ENGINE: 4.7V8 TTF Test No.
TRANS: Auto Supplier Test No. 2X729OU91A

Manufacturer Goodyear Test Mileage 15,000

Tire Type Wrangler SR-A
Size P245/70R16
Pressure F/R 35 / 35
Construction # 2X7290H

Left Front Right Front

FWG Mileage Projection 38,770 30,289 FWG Mileage Projection
Comments Rating Rating Comments
Raised edges on outside shoulder Edges on OSS sipes a little more raised.
sipes. Slightly more heel/toe wear on outside
Very minor heel/toe wear on outside rib. rib.
Minor heel/toe wear on center rib. 8 7.75 Center rib has less heel/toe.
Good visual appearance overall. Slight raised edges on sipes on second
from outside rib.

Left Rear Outer Right Rear Outer

FWG Mileage Projection 78,714 54,487 FWG Mileage Projection
Comments Rating Rating Comments
Very slight raised edges on outside rib Slight raised edges on outside rib sipes.
sipes. Slight concave wear.
Overall very good appearance.
9 8.75

Left Rear Inner Right Rear Inner

FWG Mileage Projection FWG Mileage Projection
Comments Rating Rating Comments

COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS

Tire Evaluation Example 27

 Tire NOISE AFTER WEAR Evaluation
Overall Noise After Wear Goal: Tires should not exhibit any undesireable levels of noise or vibration on a
smooth road after completing a wear test (typically U91 treadwear test).
Degradation from noise and vibration levels of unworn tires should be
minimal.

Description Test Method Rating Criteria

Coarse Road--noise induced by Drive over coarse road surface at 50- Noise generated should not be
traveling over a coarse road surface. 60 mph. Listen to quality and amount objectionable or significantly worse
of noise produced. than unworn tires on the same road.

Tread Whine--high frequency noise Drive over test surface at 50--60 Tread noise shoud not be
resulting from the tread pattern of the mph. Listen to quality and amount of significantly louder than unworn tires
tire when driven on a smooth asphalt noise produced. on the same road. Noise should not
surface. have an objecionable sound quality,
regardless of amplitude.

Sizzle--Tire noise when driven over a Drive over test surface at 50-60 mph, Sizzle noise should not be
polished concrete road surface. and listen to noise produced. significantly louder or more
objectionable than unworn tires on
the same surface.
Coastdown Noise--Tire noise noted Accelerate to 60 mph, shift to neutral, Tire noise levels over the entire
when coasting down from high speed turn engine off, allow vehicle to coast speed range should not be
to a stop with the engine off. to a stop. Listen to tire noise significantly higher or objectionable in
produced at various speed ranges. character relative to unworn tires on
Note speeds at which noise is notably the same road.
different.

Tire Evaluation Example 28

DaimlerChrysler Tire NOISE AFTER WEAR Evaluation DATE: 12/4/2003
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: Goodyear
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R16
EVALUATORS: DBH/TAD TIRE TYPE: Wrangler SR-A
VEH. NUMBER: 5ND-1413 PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 35 / 35
MODEL/DRIVE: ND1L33 WHEEL: 16 x 7
WHEELBASE: 131.5
ENGINE: 4.7V8 LOCATION: SAPG
TRANS: Auto TEMP: 60

Control Control Control

Manufacturer Gdyr Gdyr
Tire Type W SR-A W SR-A
Size P245/70R16 P245/70R16
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35
Construction # 2X7290M 2X7290H
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Coarse Road 0 -0.25
Tread Whine 0 -
Sizzle 0 -
Coastdown 30+ 0 -
Noise 30-10 0 -
10-zero 0 -
Rolling Feel 0 -0.25
Overall Rating 0 -
COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS
TIRE 1: Minor coarse road noise, noticeable, not objectionable. Minimal tread noise. Sizzle barely
audible. No unusual noises during coastdown. Rolling feel OK.
2X7290M
TIRE 2: More "hollow" sound on coarse road. Little more sizzle, different sound quality. Slightly more
tread noise. Cornering noise more noticeable. Rolling feel slightly degraded. Overall not bad,
2X7290H
slightly degraded from control tire.
TIRE 3:

TIRE 4:

TIRE 5:

TIRE 6:

TIRE 7:

Tire Evaluation Example 29

 SPARE TIRE PERFORMANCE - MINIMUM ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA COMPARISON
CONFIDENTIAL
CHARACTERISTIC TYPICAL TEST MINIMUM ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
Evaluate with spare front & rear, ROAD TIRE (baseline) COMPACT SPARE Non-match full size spare
driver only & GVW loading.
ESP/ABS on/off as appropriate.
Braking stability - High Mu Straight line limit braking Maintain vehicle within 10' Maintain vehicle within 10' Maintain vehicle within 10'
lane lane lane
Braking stability - Low Mu Low Mu ABS braking Maintain vehicle driver able to prevent Maintain vehicle directional
ABS directional control (easily vehicle spin control (driver controlled
driver controlled yaw yaw rate, wider range than
attitude) road tires acceptable)

Braking stability - Split Mu Split Mu ABS braking Maintain vehicle driver able to prevent Maintain vehicle
ABS directional control (driver vehicle spin (large yaw directional control (driver
controlable to prevent amplitudes acceptable) controlable to prevent
large yaw amplitudes) large yaw amplitudes)
Multiple Transient Slalom or linked turns without Competitive capability per Safe, predictable level of Safe, predictable level of
Stability use of slalom cones. Evaluate functional objectives; evasive capability. evasive capability.
on both dry and wet road progressive, predictable Degradation from road tire Degradation from road tire
surfaces. with understeer at limit should not change the should be minimal and not
overall vehicle character change the overall vehicle
or predictability. character or predictability.
With spare at rear &
GVW, maintain
understeer at limit

Transient Handling Single / double lane change Competitive capability per Spare in front; Turning Evasive capability near
vehicle functional capability within range of road tires, no major driver
objectives; progressive, other vehicles on the road. surprises spare side / not
predictable with Spare in rear with GVW; spare side. With spare at
understeer at limit Driver able to maintain rear & GVW; Driver able
control and avoid spin. to maintain control and
avoid spin.

Turn and brake transient Simulated expressway exit Progressive yaw attitude Test up to maximum of Test up to maximum of
ramp up to 0.5g lateral change and controllable 0.5g lateral acceleration 0.5g lateral acceleration
acceleration. Throttle off and: yaw rate (will require speed beyond (will require speed beyond
(a) decreasing radius, (b) those recommended to those recommended to
decreasing radius plus braking consumer). Controllable consumer). Spare in
(light to heavy range of braking yaw rate and yaw front; Turning capability
to identify and test at worse overshoot. Driver able to near performance of road
case lateral g and weight avoid spin. tires, left / right (spare
transfer off rear tires), (c) side or not spare side).
constant radius plus range of Degradation from road tire
braking, (d) brake then turn (range should be minimal and not
of braking). Test on both dry change the overall vehicle
and wet road surfaces. character or predictability.
Spare in rear with GVW;
Progressive and
controllable yaw rate.
Ultimate attitude is
understeer, no major
driver surprises left vs.
right.

Trailer tow handling & 70 mph expressway speed and Stable steady state & For recommended trailer For recommended trailer
directional stability 55 mph secondary road speed transient handling. applications only if applications only if
evaluations of understeer, Excellent directional allowed; typical heavy allowed; typical heavy
vehicle control sensitivity and stability without any lead duty trailer tow package duty trailer tow package
directional stability. Perform or pull. recommendation includes recommendation includes
tests with vehicle loaded to full size, matching spare full size, matching spare
maximum permissible weights tire. Stable steady state & tire. Stable steady state &
compatible with towing the transient handling within transient handling within
largest/heaviest permissible recommended spare tire recommended spare tire
trailer. speeds and trailer size. speeds and trailer size.

W.V. Cornish
RELEASED OCT. 20,
2003

Tire Evaluation Example 30

DaimlerChrysler Spare Tire Evaluation DATE: 7/6/2004
Truck Vehicle Dynamics TIRE BRAND: Goodyear
TIRE SIZE: P245/70R17
EVALUATORS: DBH TIRE TYPE: Wrangler SR-A
VEH. NUMBER: Kenner Durango PRESSURE FRONT / REAR: 33 / 33
MODEL/DRIVE: 4x4 WHEEL: 17x8
WHEELBASE: 118
ENGINE: 5.7V8 LOCATION: CPG
TRANS: Auto, AWD TEMP: 78
Curb Wt + Driver GVW
Road Tires Front Spare Rear Spare Road Tires Front Spare Rear Spare Road Tires
Manufacturer GDYR GDYR GDYR GDYR GDYR GDYR GDYR
Tire Type W SR-A W SR-A W SR-A W SR-A W SR-A W SR-A W SR-A
Size P245/70R17 P245/70R17 P245/70R17 P245/70R17 P245/70R17 P245/70R17 P245/70R17
Pressure F/R 33 / 33 33 / 33 33 / 33 33 / 33 33 / 33 33 / 33 33 / 33
Construction # 0D3694G DR low RR"C" DR low RR"C" 0D3694G DR low RR"C" DR low RR"C" 0D3694G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
High Mu Braking 0 0 -0.25 0
Low Mu Braking N/A N/A N/A N/A
Split Mu Braking N/A N/A N/A N/A
Slalom 0 0 -1.5 0
Lane Change 0 0 -0.75 0
Brake in Turn 0 0 -0.75 0
Skidpad 0 0 -1.5 0
Trailer Tow N/A N/A N/A N/A
Overall Rating 0 0 -1.5 0
COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS
Configuration 1:

Configuration 2:

Configuration 3:

Configuration 4: BIT--Very good; slight tightening. Slaom--Mile overshoot, scrubs speed quickly. Steering
response a little slow with load. Lane change--some overshoot, scrubs speed quickly, no
tendency to spin. Transients a little slow & imprecise.
Configuration 5:

Configuration 6: Asymetric response, not as progressive when loading spare, breakaway & recovery much less predictable, becomes
abrupt. Slalom has much higher yaw angle, difficult to control precisely. More overshoot in lane change, not confidence
(Spare on Right Rear) inspiring. Skidpad has very little U/S when spare is on outside, sensitive to lift throttle. More yaw & yaw rate during BIT,
doesn't want to spin, but not predictable or confidence inspiring.
Configuration 7:

Tire Evaluation Example 31

 Tires Summary

• Tires are complex composite structures using a variety of

materials.
• Tires affect nearly every aspect of vehicle performance.
• Tires do not behave according to the usual law of friction;
increasing the load on a tire reduces its efficiency in
producing lateral or longitudinal force.
• Choosing the “best” tire involves selecting the best
compromise of many, often conflicting, parameters.
• Inflation pressure has a significant effect on tire
characteristics; always check and set tire pressures before
testing or evaluating a vehicle.

2-135
 Tires--Reference Info
Tire / Wheel Systems Sharepoint Site
https://teamsites.chrysler.com/sites/Tirewheelsystem/SitePages/Home.aspx

2-136
 References
 The Pneumatic Tire, A.N. Gent and J.D. Walter editors, NHTSA 2005
https://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/safercar/pdf/PneumaticTire_HS-810-561.pdf

 Guide for Pavement Friction, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
2009 https://doi.org/10.17226/23038

 The Racing & High-Performance Tire, Paul Haney, SAE R-351, 2003
 Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, T. Gillespie, SAE SP-114
 Natural Rubber, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber
 SAE J2047 Tire Performance Technology http://standards.sae.org/j2047_201303/
 SAE J1987 Force and Moment Test Method http://standards.sae.org/j1987_199801/
 “Optimum Ackerman for Improved Steering Axle Tire Wear on Trucks,” Gerald Miller, Robert
Reed, Fred Wheeler, SAE Paper 912693 http://papers.sae.org/912693/

 NHTSA Consumer tire information: http://www.safercar.gov/tires/index.html

 The Tire as a Car Component, HANS University,
https://www.tut.fi/ms/muo/vert/11_tyre_as_car_component/

 PF.90235 Tires – Production Tire Quality

2-137
 References
 Michelin Tire Manufacturing Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Li-MKobBg5w
 MegaFactories Michelin Tyres - National Geographic Documentary 2015
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mlw_Tccg2tg

 National Tire Research Center tire testing video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kL3Wbd_9Fts&t=87s

 History Channel Tire Manufacturing Video—Goodyear Lawton, OK Plant

Notes://sctcda07.wk.dcx.com/85256D36005DD601/3F22A26ED2787C57852562C7000A1624
/4C04356A56E4491E8525770700491452

 Automobile Tire Hydroplaning https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pV9DKTzB8dE

 Video from inside tire while driving: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rILyBg7ZjeI&t=324s

2-138
Basic Vehicle Dynamics
Part 3--Alignment

3-1
 Alignment
Definition: The orientation of the vehicle’s wheels
in 3 dimensions relative to the ground and the
vehicle chassis throughout the range of suspension
motion.
Alignment is determined by:
•Static alignment settings / adjustments
•Suspension geometry (kinematics)
•Suspension compliance (suspension & cradle bushings,
structural stiffness)
Alignment is key to vehicle steering and
handling, as the orientation of the tires relative
to the road and the vehicle determines the
vehicle’s path. 3-2
 Kinematics & Real World
Static Alignment + Compliance
= Alignment

Function of Function of
suspension suspension
position load

3-3
 Left Front Wheel
Kingpin Axis
Steer Kingpin Inclination Angle
Kingpin Caster Angle Angle

Kingpin Offset
Inclination at Wheel Center
(Camber)
Angle

Kingpin Offset
Mechanical Trail
Offset
at Ground
Steer Arm (SAE J670 Scrub
Radius Definition)
Length
Kingpin Axis Ground
Geometric Center of Intersection
Tire at Road Contact
Scrub Radius Based on “Steer Axis,”
(ISO 8855 Definition) Racecar Engineering, May 2003

3-4
Alignment—Toe

Top view angle of the wheel/tire relative to Total

Toe

the vehicle centerline (applies to both front Individual

Toe

and rear tires).

Expressed as either individual toe (angle of
one wheel to vehicle CL) or total (“sum”) toe
of both left and right wheels

Toe-in (+): leading edges of tires are closer than trailing

edges.
Toe-out (-): leading edges of tires farther apart than trailing
edges.

3-5
Alignment—Toe

Typical static toe settings are +0.1 to +0.2 degrees total toe
in.
Toe in generally provides vehicle stability. Some static toe in
is required to ensure that tires do not toe out in dynamic
conditions due to suspension compliance.
Toe is the primary contributor to tire wear, too much will
accelerate tire wear and cause un-even tire wear.

3-6
Alignment—Toe

How much is 0.2?

+0.2


+0.2

+0.4 Total Toe

+0.2

3-7
Alignment—Toe
Front

Front: Oversteer in Roll

Rear: Understeer in Roll

Front: Understeer in Roll

Rear: Oversteer in Roll

Front: Understeer in Roll

Rear: Oversteer in Roll

Front: Oversteer in Roll

Rear: Understeer in Roll

3-8
Alignment—Steering Wheel Centering

Good alignment
• Steering wheel centered on alignment
rack
• Front toe set equal left & right
• Rear toe / thrust angle correct
• Total toe set correctly
• Camber set equal left & right
• Caster set equal left & right
• Tire conicity zero or equal & opposite
left & right
➔Steering wheel centered when driving,
vehicle does not pull to left or right on flat
road. 3-9
Alignment—Steering Wheel Centering

Bad alignment
• Steering wheel centered on alignment rack
• Front toe not set equal left & right
• Total toe set correctly
• Rear toe / thrust angle correct
• Camber set equal left & right
• Caster set equal left & right
• Tire conicity zero or equal & opposite left &
right
➔Front toe angles will equalize while driving,
steering wheel will be off center. Vehicle will
drive straight, but with steering wheel off
center. 3-10
Alignment—Steering Wheel Centering

Bad alignment
• Steering wheel centered on alignment rack
• Front toe set equal left & right
• Total toe set correctly
• Rear thrust angle not zero
• Camber set equal left & right
• Caster set equal left & right
• Tire conicity zero or equal & opposite left &
right
➔Front toe angles will average out with thrust
angle while driving, steering wheel will be off
center. Vehicle will drive straight but at an
angle, with steering wheel off center. 3-11
Alignment—Steering Wheel Centering

Bad alignment
• Steering wheel centered on alignment rack
• Front toe set equal left & right
• Total toe set correctly
• Rear toe / thrust angle correct
• Camber not set equal left & right
• Caster not set equal left & right
• Tire conicity zero or equal & opposite left &
right
Pull
➔Vehicle will pull to one side when driving,
steering wheel will be off center. Vehicle will
not drive straight without steering effort and
angle to make it go straight. 3-12
Alignment—Steering Wheel Centering

Bad alignment
• Steering wheel centered on alignment rack
• Front toe set equal left & right
• Total toe set correctly
• Rear toe / thrust angle correct
• Camber set equal left & right
• Caster set equal left & right
• Tire conicity not equal and opposite left
& right
Pull
➔Vehicle will pull to one side when driving,
steering wheel will be off center. Vehicle will
not drive straight without steering effort and
angle to make it go straight. 3-13
 Alignment—Camber
Front view angle of tire relative to vehicle vertical

+ + - -
Positive Negative
Camber Angle Camber Angle

Positive Camber: Top of Negative Camber: Top of

tire is tilted away from tire is tilted toward
Vehicle CL Vehicle CL

Cross-Camber: Left Camber – Right Camber Cross Camber =

Left – Right = -3
+3
Positive Cross-Camber makes the vehicle pull +3 – (-3) = +6
& drift to the left.
3-14
Alignment—Camber
Typical static camber settings are 0 to 2 negative. (Some solid
axle trucks use small positive camber settings to offset axle deflection under
load.)

Increasing negative camber improves vehicle steady state

handling due to camber thrust produced by tires.
Increasing negative camber is detrimental to braking since the
full tire width is no longer in contact with the road.
Large camber settings can cause un-even tire wear.
Negative camber counteracts camber change with body roll and
promotes vehicle stability, especially when used in the rear.
Most suspensions have a camber curve that increases negative
camber in jounce, but not enough to offset body roll. Increasing
negative camber with jounce is detrimental to braking due to
camber change with brake dive. 3-15
Alignment—Camber
Front Camber Curves
140
03 LD DR 4X4
120
<--Rebound Suspension Travel (mm) Jounce-->

06 LD DR 4X4
100 03 LD DR 4X2
SRT 10
80
AN 4X4
60 AN 4X2

40 2005 ND
HB 4X4
20

0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120
Camber (deg)
3-16
Alignment—Inclination Angle
Front view angle of tire relative to road surface
Inclination Camber Inclination
Angle = Angle Angle
= Camber
Angle

On a flat, level road, the On a crowned road, the

camber and inclination camber and inclination
angles are the same. angles become different

3-17
 Alignment—Inclination Angle
In addition to being sloped, roads are very rarely flat. The
orientation of the tire to the local road surface can cause
trough wander, lead/pull, etc.

Inkster Rd at Grantland
2

0
Elevation (in)

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Distance from Left Turn Lane (ft)

3-18
Alignment—Steer Axis (Kingpin Axis)
The axis about which the knuckle rotates when steered.

For a McPherson strut For a typical control arm

suspension, the steer axis suspension, the steer
is a line from the upper axis is a line connecting
strut mount through the the upper and lower ball
lower ball joint. joints.

3-19
 Positive
Alignment—Caster Caster

Side view angle of the steer

Front
axis relative to vertical.

All vehicles use positive caster

settings.

Positive caster:
Cross-Caster: Left Caster – Right Caster
Positive Cross-Caster makes the vehicle steer axis is inclined
pull & drift to the right. rearward.
3-20
Alignment—Caster
Typical static caster settings are 2 to 7 positive, but may be as
high as 11.
Increasing positive caster increases a vehicle’s tendency to
return to straight ahead after turning due to lateral force at the
tire contact patch.
Increasing positive caster increases a vehicle’s tendency to drift
or pull on a crowned or sloped road surface.
Increasing positive caster increases steering effort while driving
due to lateral force at the tire contact patch.
Too little positive caster can result in negative caster under hard
braking, which causes an unstable condition.

VF Negative Caster
Run 5.mp4

3-21
Alignment—Caster
Unless an offset spindle is used, increasing caster also
increases mechanical trail.
Increasing caster increases camber change in a turn.
Camber Change = Caster Angle * sin(Steer Angle)
For positive caster, camber change is negative with toe in.

3-22
Alignment—Caster
6 deg Caster
8
Increasing caster 6
Left Wheel

Camber Angle (deg)

increases the amount of 4
Right Wheel

camber change in a turn. 2

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
-2

-4

-6
Left Turn Steer Angle (deg)
Right Turn

Camber Change = -Caster Angle * sin(Steer Angle)

For positive caster, camber change is

negative with toe in. This gives the
outside tire more negative camber in a
turn.
3-23
Alignment—Caster

Steer
Right Front Wheel Axis

Caster
Plane of spindle rotation Angle
about steering axis
Spindle

3-24
Alignment—Caster

Caster Curves
140
03 LD DR 4X2
120
<--Rebound Suspension Travel (mm) Jounce-->

06 LD DR 4X4
100 03 LD DR 4X2
SRT 10
80
AN 4X4
60 AN 4X2

40 2005 ND
HB 4X4
20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120
Caster (deg)
3-25
Alignment—Mechanical Trail
Caster Offset at Ground (ISO 8855)
Caster Trail

Linear distance from the projected steer axis intersection

with the ground to the centerline of the tire at ground

Front Of Front Of
Vehicle Vehicle

Side
View
Spindle
Offset
(Caster
Offset at
Wheel
Center)

Mechanical Mechanical
Trail Trail

3-26
 Alignment—Mechanical Trail (Caster Offset at Ground)
The distance between
the center of the tire
and the intersection of
the steer axis with the
ground is the
Mechanical Trail.

Note that Mechanical A larger tire will

Trail is a function of result in a longer
mechanical trail
both caster angle and
tire diameter.
When a tire lateral
(cornering) force is
applied, mechanical trail
becomes a moment arm
Pneumatic Trail (tire property)
that generates a torque Mechanical Trail
about the steering axis.
3-27
Alignment—Mechanical Trail (Caster Offset at Ground)

Typical mechanical trail values are 14mm to 25mm.

Unless a side view spindle offset (“caster offset”, “kingpin offset”)
is used, caster and mechanical trail are directly related.
Increasing mechanical trail increases a vehicle’s tendency
to return to straight ahead after turning.
Increasing mechanical trail increases a vehicle’s tendency
to drift on a crowned or sloped road surface.
Increasing mechanical trail increases steering effort.

3-28
Alignment—Kingpin Inclination (KPI)
Positive KPI

Front view angle of steer axis

relative to vertical.
Sometimes referred to as
Steering Axis Inclination (SAI).

Positive Kingpin
Inclination: Kingpin
axis is tilted toward
Vehicle CL

3-29
Alignment—Kingpin Inclination (KPI)

Typical kingpin inclination range is up to 17, depending on

suspension design.
Increasing kingpin inclination increases a vehicle’s
tendency to return to straight ahead after turning due to
“lifting” the front of the car.
Increasing kingpin inclination increases steering effort due
to lifting the front of the car.
Increasing kingpin angle increases outside wheel positive
camber in a turn.
Increasing KPI increases camber change in a turn.
Camber Change = KPI*(1-cos(Steer Angle))
3-30
Alignment—Kingpin Inclination (KPI)
10 deg Kingpin Inclination
8
Increasing kingpin 6 Left Wheel

Camber Angle (deg)

inclination increases 4
Right Wheel

camber change in a turn. 2

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
-2

-4

-6
Left Turn Steer Angle (deg) Right Turn

Camber Change = KPI* (1-cos(Steer Angle))

For positive kingpin inclination,

camber change is positive for both
wheels when steered in either
direction.
3-31
Alignment—Kingpin Inclination (KPI)

Right Front Wheel

Steer
Axis
Kingpin
Inclination

Plane of spindle rotation

about steering axis

Spindle

3-32
 Alignment—Combined Effect of Caster & KPI
Camber with 6 deg Caster and 10 deg KPI
8
Left Wheel Camber
6 Right Wheel Camber

Camber Angle (deg)

4

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
-2

-4

-6
Left Turn Steer Angle (deg) Right Turn

Camber Change=-Caster Angle * sin(Steer Angle)

+ KPI* (1-cos(Steer Angle))

3-33
 Alignment—Combined Effect of Caster & KPI
Normal Force vs Steer Normal Force vs Steer
LF Wheel Force Z N 12000
6000
RF Wheel Force Z N
5800
Normal Force (N)

5600
10000
5400
The total vertical load on the
5200 front axle increases with steer
5000
angle.
8000
This produces a self-
centering tendency, since it will

Normal Force (N)

4800
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600
return to the lowest force level.
Left Turn Steering Wheel Angle (deg) Right Turn
6000

4000
The vertical load on each front
wheel changes with steer
angle due to the combination
of caster, kingpin inclination 2000
and scrub radius. LF Wheel Force Z N
RF Wheel Force Z N
Front Axle Force Z N
0
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600
Left Turn Steering Wheel Angle (deg) Right Turn

3-34
Alignment—Included Angle +KPI

Included Angle Camber Angle

(neg)

Front view angle of kingpin axis

relative to tire camber angle.
Included Angle = KPI + Camber

3-35
Alignment—Scrub Radius (SAE J670 2008)
Kingpin Offset at Ground (ISO 8855)
Front view distance from steer axis intersection at ground to
tire centerline.

Positive scrub radius: Negative scrub radius:

steer axis intersection steer axis intersection
inboard of tire CL outboard of tire CL
3-36
Alignment—Scrub Radius

Typical scrub radius values are +30mm to -20mm.

(Negative values are typically only used on FWD vehicles.)
Large positive values of scrub radius increase vehicle
sensitivity to brake imbalance and brake torque variation.
Large positive values of scrub radius increase steering
effort (especially parking effort with brakes on) and
steering kickback when driving over bumps.
Negative scrub radius is used on front wheel drive vehicles
Scrub
Radiu
to reduces sensitivity to side to side drive torque and
braking torque variations.
Scrub radius is a function of kingpin inclination, wheel
offset, and tire diameter.
3-37
Alignment—Spindle Length
Hub Offset
Kingpin Offset at Wheel Center (ISO 8855)
Steering Axis Offset at Wheel Center (SAE J670 2008)
Steering
Distance from the steering axis to Axis
Tire
the tire vertical center line at the CL
wheel center.

Wheel
Center

Spindle
Length

3-38
 Alignment—Spindle Length

As a rule of thumb, spindle length should be less than 62 mm.

Longer spindle lengths contribute to torque steer, kickback,
and brake shudder.
Spindle length is the result of suspension design and
packaging constraints, it is not independently variable.

3-39
Alignment—Thrust Angle

Net angle of rear tires to vehicle

centerline.
Positive
Thrust
Angle

Positive Thrust
Angle: Net rear tire
angle to right
3-40
Alignment—Thrust Angle
Typical thrust angle values are 0  0.3.
Non-zero thrust angles result in “dogtracking”.
Non-zero thrust angles typically do not cause a true pull or
drift condition, but do cause an off-center steering wheel
which can be mistaken for a pull condition.

3-41
Alignment—Ackermann Steering Geometry
Inside wheel steer angle is
larger than outside wheel 35
steer angle to compensate
for different turn radii. 38

(Sometimes referred to as
“toe-out in turn”)

3-42
Alignment—Ackermann Steering Geometry

Typical Ackermann values range from 30% to 100% of

theoretical at a 20 inside front wheel steer angle.
Ackermann geometry is important primarily to minimize tire
wear in city type driving (larger steer angles).
Less than about 35% Ackermann typically results in tire
wear complaints and tire squeal in low speed turns.
Vehicle wheelbase affects the Ackermann value. Vehicle
platforms with multiple wheelbases (trucks) should be
designed for the “worst case” or shortest wheelbase.
Most vehicles will exhibit “anti-Ackermann” at small steer
angles due to static toe-in settings. This is not significant
in terms of Ackermann geometry. 3-43
Alignment—Ackermann Steering Geometry

Ackermann geometry is determined by the location of the

steer arms on the knuckle relative to the kingpin.
For a rear-steer vehicle, locating the tie rod attachments to
the steer arm inboard and behind the kingpin axis results
in Ackermann geometry.
For a front steer vehicle, the tie rod attachment to the steer
arm should be outboard and forward of the kingpin axis for
Ackermann geometry

3-44
Alignment—Ackermann Steering Geometry

Rear Steer Front Steer

Steering Rack
Kingpin Axis

Kingpin Axis
Tie Rod
Outer Ball
Joint

Lines connecting kingpin axis

and outer ball joint converge at
the center of the rear axle
approximate 100% Ackermann 3-45
 Vehicle used for
alignment “As found”
specifications alignment
measured when
vehicle first put
on alignment
machine

Alignment
Individual

specifications
wheels
Front Suspension

(usually stored
in alignment
machine or
downloaded
from the
Total or

Values
Cross

internet)

Final alignment
after making
adjustments
Rear Suspension

3-46
 Alignment Summary
Alignment consists of more than just the static settings from
an alignment rack. The orientation of the wheels relative to
the vehicle and road surface during actual operating
conditions is key to the directional control of the vehicle.
Some alignment parameters such as scrub radius and
kingpin inclination affect other areas of vehicle performance,
such as brake pull.
Alignment is determined by:
•Static alignment settings
•Suspension geometry (kinematics/hardpoints)
•Suspension compliance (bushings)

3-47
 Alignment Summary
Alignment Effects on Vehicle Performance
Steering
Constant
Tire Wear Wheel Wander Handling
Pull
Centering
Toe out can
Toe cause Wander

(Cross
Camber
Camber)
(Cross
Caster
Caster)
Thrust
Angle
Ackermann
Geometry

Small Effect Large Effect

3-48
 Alignment Summary
References:
SAE J670 2008 Vehicle Dynamics Terminology
ISO 8855 2011 Road vehicles - Vehicle dynamics and road-holding ability -
Vocabulary
Hunter Engineering—alignment training:
http://www.hunter.com/training/hunter-university
Hunter Engineering YouTube Learning Channel:
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC-MY-nAmjswCv68JDCPsiqw

SAE 912693 “Optimum Ackermann for Improved Steering Axle Tire Wear
on Trucks,” Gerald Miller, Robert Reed, Fred Wheeler

SAE 2006-01-3638 “Analysis of Ackermann Steering Geometry, ” Wm. C.

Mitchell, Allan Staniforth, lan Scott

SAE 861975 “The Effect of Ackermann Steering Correction Upon Front Tire
Wear of Medium Duty Trucks.” Gerald R. Miller
3-49
Kinematics & Compliance
 Kinematics & Compliance

 What is kinematics and compliance, and why does it

matter?

 What are the results?

 How is K&C testing done?

 What do the results mean?

“If you control your kinematics & compliance,

you control your destiny”—Jack Cooper

4-2
 Kinematics & Compliance
Kinematics & Compliance—why do we care?
Steering and handling characteristics are determined by three primary
factors:
 Tire properties
 Orientation of the tires relative to the road
 Load (weight) transfer and load transfer distribution

Ride characteristics are determined by numerous factors including:

 Shock Absorber tuning
 Tire Properties
 Spring Rates
 Suspension Travel
 Suspension Compliance K & C Properties
 Suspension Recession

(There are many more secondary factors)

4-3
 Kinematics & Compliance

The orientation of the wheels is determined by a

combination of three parameters:
 Static alignment
 Suspension kinematics
 Suspension compliance

Suspension kinematics are primarily determined by

suspension geometry.
Suspension compliance is generally a function of bushings
in the suspension and cradles. Structural stiffness may
also affect compliance.

4-4
 Kinematics & Compliance
Static alignment
 Toe, Caster, Camber, Thrust Angle
 Typically set and/or audited on each individual vehicle in
production.

Warren Truck Assembly Plant (WTAP) Final Alignment

4-5
 Kinematics & Compliance

Kinematics
 Wheel position / orientation
change with suspension
travel
 Typically “designed in”
using simple analysis
methods (Suspension
Geometry Workbench, ADAMS,
SuspensionSim, etc.)

4-6
 Kinematics & Compliance
Compliance
 Compliance is the inverse Left
Parallel Lateral Force
0.4

of stiffness (i.e. deg/lb or Right

0.3

mm/N) 0.2

 Wheel position or 0.1

Steer Angle (deg)

orientation change with -1000 -800 -600 -400 -200
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000

applied load. -0.1

 Primarily a function of
-0.2

bushing properties. -0.3

-0.4

 Typically “tuned in” using Lateral Force (lbs)

modeling, simulation,
evaluation iteratively.
 Includes compliance due to stiffness of suspension parts,
attachments, cradle isolators, body/frame stiffness, etc.
4-7
 Kinematics & Compliance

Operating
Static Alignment + Kinematics + Compliance =
Alignment

Hunter
Morse Measurements LLC

Static Function of Function of

suspension suspension
position load

4-8
 Kinematics & Compliance
Load (Weight) Transfer
 Load transfer in cornering is important for handling because it
determines the vertical load on the tire, and consequently the tire’s
capability of generating cornering force.
 The two most important aspects of load transfer are the total amount
of load transfer, and front-to-rear load transfer distribution.

4-9
 Kinematics & Compliance

Load (Weight) Transfer

 Total load transfer is primarily determined by the vehicle center of
gravity height and track width.
 These dimensions are usually
fixed early in the program and
cannot be changed significantly
during development.

CG
CG Height
Height

Track Width
Track
Width
4-10
 Kinematics & Compliance

Load (Weight) Transfer

 Load transfer distribution is determined by the vehicle’s front and
rear suspensions, and can be changed or tuned to balance the
handling characteristics of the vehicle.

4-11
 Kinematics & Compliance Understeer Effects
(Left Turn Example)

K & C characteristics that tend to K & C characteristics that tend to

steer the front tires away from the steer the front tires in the
direction of the turn increase direction of the turn decrease
understeer. understeer.

Increased Understeer Decreased Understeer

K & C characteristics that tend to K & C characteristics that tend to
steer the rear tires in the direction steer the rear tires away from the
of the turn increase understeer. direction of the turn decrease
understeer.
4-12
 K&C Characteristics that Increase Understeer
(Left Turn Example)
Left Front Right Front
Toe In in rebound Toe Out in Jounce
Negative Camber in Rebound Kinematics Positive Camber in Jounce
Negative Camber in Roll Positive Camber in Roll

Toe In with Outward Lateral Force Toe Out with Inward Lateral Force
Toe In with Aligning Moment Compliance Toe Out with Aligning Moment
Negative Camber with Outward Lateral Force Positive Camber with Inward Lateral Force
More Front Weight Transfer

Left Rear Right Rear

Toe Out in rebound Toe In in Jounce
Positive Camber in Rebound Kinematics Negative Camber in Jounce
Positive Camber in Roll Negative Camber in Roll

Toe Out with Outward Lateral Force Toe In with Inward Lateral Force
Toe Out with Aligning Moment Compliance Toe In with Aligning Moment
Positive Camber with Outward Lateral Force Negative Camber with Inward Lateral Force

Less Rear Weight Transfer

4-13
 K&C Characteristics that Decrease Understeer
(Left Turn Example)
Left Front Right Front
Toe Out in rebound Toe In in Jounce
Positive Camber in Rebound Kinematics Negative Camber in Jounce
Positive Camber in Roll Negative Camber in Roll

Toe Out with Outward Lateral Force Toe In with Inward Lateral Force
Toe Out with Aligning Moment Compliance Toe In with Aligning Moment
Positive Camber with Outward Lateral Force Negative Camber with Inward Lateral Force
Less Front Weight Transfer

Left Rear Right Rear

Toe In in Jounce Toe Out in rebound
Negative Camber in Jounce Kinematics Positive Camber in Rebound
Negative Camber in Roll Positive Camber in Roll

Toe In with Inward Lateral Force Toe Out with Outward Lateral Force
Toe In with Aligning Moment Compliance Toe Out with Aligning Moment
Negative Camber with Inward Lateral Force Positive Camber with Outward Lateral Force

More Rear Weight Transfer

4-14
 Kinematics Understeer Effects
(Right Front Wheel in a Left Turn Example)

FRONT
FRONT

Negative camber Positive camber

with jounce with roll
Reduced understeer  Increased understeer
FRONT

Front Steer

Toe Out with jounce

 Increased understeer

4-15
 Compliance Understeer Effects
(Right Front Wheel in a Left Turn Example)

FRONT
Front Steer

Toe Out with inward

lateral force
 Increased understeer

FRONT
FRONT
Positive camber with Toe Out with aligning
inward lateral force moment
 Increased understeer  Increased understeer

4-16
 Kinematics & Compliance

Pacifica Rear Suspension Video

Front view of left rear tire on a Pacifica.

4-17
 Kinematics & Compliance

Kinematics & Compliance Measurement

4-18
 Kinematics & Compliance
FCA US uses a Suspension Parameter Measurement Machine
(SPMM) that is capable of measuring kinematics and compliance, and
also vehicle center of gravity height and moments of inertia.

4-19
 Kinematics & Compliance
FCA LATAM uses a newer version of the Suspension Parameter
Measurement Machine (SPMM) that has the same capabilities as FCA
US.

4-20
 Kinematics & Compliance

Suspension Parameter Measurement Machine

“SPMM”

4-21
 Kinematics & Compliance
Measurement capabilities:
Kinematics & Compliance test
Max vehicle weight: 8000 lbs
Max wheelbase: 161 inches
Cannot test with dual rear wheels
Center of Gravity / Moment of Inertia test:
Max vehicle weight: 6000 lbs (actually 1500 lbs per load cell x 4)

4-22
 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Machine
X-Y and Steer
String Tables
X-Y and Steer
Encoders
Tables
(6 per wheel)

4-23
 Kinematics & Compliance

 Vehicle body / frame is clamped to the center “roll-pitch-bounce”

table.
 Tires are centered on the 4 wheel platforms (X-Y tables).
 Six string encoders are attached to each wheel to precisely measure
its position in 6 DOF.
 Bounce (vertical), pitch, and roll inputs are applied to the vehicle
through the center table.
 Lateral, longitudinal, and aligning moment (steer) inputs are applied
through the wheel platforms.
 A steering robot holds the steering wheel at a given position or turns
the wheel at a specified angular rate or to a specified position. It also
measures the torque required to hold or turn the steering wheel.
(The steering wheel is typically held in the straight ahead position
except for steering geometry test.)

4-24
 Kinematics & Compliance
The test vehicle is clamped to the center table by pinch flanges (unibody)
or brackets welded to the frame.

Clamps on
Clamps on
brackets
pinch flanges

4-25
 Kinematics & Compliance
Long wheelbase vehicles have a long cantilever length from the
attachment to the center table. The stiffness of the body or frame affects
measurement of suspension lateral and vertical stiffness.

4-26
 Kinematics & Compliance
To measure body/frame lateral deflection, two additional string encoders
are attached to the body or frame of the vehicle over the front and rear
suspension on the left side of the vehicle.

4-27
 Kinematics & Compliance
To measure body/frame vertical deflection, two additional string encoders
are attached to the bottom cradle or body or frame of the vehicle near the
centerline of the front and rear suspension.

Front Rear

4-28
Kinematics & Compliance

4-29
Kinematics & Compliance

4-30
 Kinematics & Compliance

SPMM Degrees of Freedom

Table
Vertical
Pitch
Roll
Yaw (inertia meas only)

Wheel Platforms
Fore-Aft
Lateral
Steer
4-31
 Kinematics & Compliance
Coordinate Systems

X
Z

Vehicle SPMM Machine

SAE J670 coordinate system, ISO 8855 coordinate system, with origin at
with origin at the CG of the the center of the roll/pitch/bounce table at
vehicle ground level. With the vehicle installed on
the machine, the origin will be at the center
of the vehicle’s track and wheelbase at the
ground plane.
4-32
Kinematics & Compliance

4-33
 Kinematics & Compliance
Each SPMM Test involves several different sub tests to evaluate the
vehicle’s kinematic and compliance properties.
Typical tests are:
Kinematic Tests Compliance Tests
 Bounce (Ride)  Parallel Brake Force Compliance
 2.5 x GVW Bounce  Single Left Wheel Brake Force Compliance
 Roll  Single Right Wheel Brake Force Compliance
 Steer  Parallel Lateral Force Compliance
 Bounce NARB Test  Opposed Lateral Force Compliance
 Roll NARB Test  Parallel Aligning Moment Compliance
(NARB= No Anti-Roll Bar, front &  Opposed Aligning Moment Compliance
rear anti-roll bars removed or  Parallel Wheel Recession
disconnected)  Single Left Wheel Recession
 Single Right Wheel Recession

Center of Gravity & Moment of Inertia Test

4-34
 Kinematics & Compliance
Some of the tests are repeated at different vehicle conditions to further
quantify the vehicle’s kinematic and compliance properties.
Additional vehicle test conditions:
Engine Off (no power steering) 2.5 x GVW Loading
 Roll  Bounce (Ride)
 Parallel Lateral Force Compliance
 Parallel Aligning Moment Compliance

GVW Loading
 Bounce (Ride)
 Roll
 Steer
 Parallel Brake Force Compliance
 Parallel Lateral Force Compliance
 Opposed Lateral Force Compliance
 Parallel Aligning Moment Compliance
 Opposed Aligning Moment Compliance

4-35
 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Kinematics Test Descriptions
TEST Test Conditions
Table moves vehicle chassis vertically for jounce and rebound.
Bounce
Steering wheel fixed in straight ahead position.
Wheel platforms float in X, Y, & steer directions.
Bounce NARB (No Anti-Roll Bar)
Performed with and without anti-roll bars connected
Kinematics

Table moves vehicle chassis vertically and in pitch to reach target axle loads.
Bounce With Pitch (2.5 GVW) Steering wheel fixed in straight ahead position.
Wheel platforms float in X, Y, & steer directions.
Roll Table rolls vehicle chassis.
Steering wheel fixed in straight ahead position.
Wheel platforms float in X, Y, & steer directions.
Roll NARB (No Anti-Roll Bar)
Performed with and without anti-roll bars connected
Table holds vehicle chassis at fixed attitude.
Steer
Powered handwheel input. Wheel platforms float in X, Y, & steer directions.
Bounce NARB and Roll NARB are the same, but with the anti-roll bars removed or disconnected.

Steer Test

Roll Test
Bounce Test
4-36
 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Compliance Test Descriptions
TEST Test Conditions
Table holds vehicle chassis at fixed attitude.
Parallel Brake Force Compliance Brakes applied, steering wheel fixed in straight ahead position.
Wheel platforms input longitudinal forces equal on both sides, float in Y & steer directions.
Single Left Wheel Parallel Brake Table holds vehicle chassis at fixed attitude.
Force Compliance Brakes Applied, steering wheel fixed in straight ahead position.
Single Right Wheel Parallel Brake Wheel platform inputs longitudinal force on one side only, float in Y & steer directions, unloaded
Force Compliance wheel pads float in X, Y, & steer directions.
Longitudial
Table holds vehicle chassis at fixed attitude. Steering wheel fixed in straight ahead position.
Parallel Wheel Recession Tire/Wheel assmebly strapped to wheel platform, becomes part of test fixture.
("Straps Test," "Wheel Center Compliance Test")
Wheel platforms input longitudinal forces equal on both sides, float in Y & steer directions.
Compliance

Single Left Wheel Recession Table holds vehicle chassis at fixed attitude. Steering wheel fixed in straight ahead position.
Tire/Wheel assmebly strapped to wheel platform, becomes part of test fixture.
Single Right Wheel Recession Wheel platform inputs longitudinal force on one side only, float in Y & steer directions, unloaded
("Straps Test," "Wheel Center Compliance Test") wheel pads float in X, Y, & steer directions.
Table holds vehicle chassis at fixed attitude. Steering wheel fixed in straight ahead position.
Parallel Lateral Force Compliance Wheel platforms input lateral forces in the same direction at all 4 wheels, float in X & steer
directions.
Lateral
Table holds vehicle chassis at fixed attitude. Steering wheel fixed in straight ahead position.
Opposed Lateral Force Compliance Wheel platforms input lateral forces in opposite directions on left & right wheels, float in X &
steer directions.
Table holds vehicle chassis at fixed attitude. Steering wheel fixed in straight ahead position.
Parallel Aligning Moment
Wheel platforms input aligning torques in the same direction at each wheel, float in the X and Y
Compliance
Aligning directions.
Torque Table holds vehicle chassis at fixed attitude. Steering wheel fixed in straight ahead position.
Opposed Aligning Moment
Wheel platforms input aligning torques in opposite directions on left & right wheels, float in the X
Compliance
and Y directions.

4-37
 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Compliance Test Descriptions
Parallel Single Wheel

Brake Force
Compliance

Wheel
Recession
(wheels strapped down)

4-38
 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Compliance Test Descriptions
Parallel Opposed

Lateral Force
Compliance

Aligning
Moment
Compliance

4-39
 Kinematics & Compliance

Kinematics & Compliance Video

Center of Gravity & Moments of Inertia Video

4-40
 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
Results from SPMM tests:
1. Results Book
2. Summary Sheets
3. Bounce with Pitch Test to 2.5 x GVW
4. Overall Steer Ratio Analysis
5. Read_Me
6. ASCII Data (folder)
7. Chrysler Binary Files (folder)
8. Center of Gravity and Moment of Inertia Summary
Other Information:
8. Signoff Sheet (Excel)
9. Vehicle Data “Vdat” file
10. CG & Moment of Inertia “MOISequence” file

Optional
1. Binary to csv Converter (folder)--Raw Data in ASCII .csv format
2. Photographs of test vehicle (typically only for competitive vehicles)

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
Results from SPMM tests:
1. Results Book
• ###_ebook.pdf
2. Summary Sheets
• ###_Summary_Bsln_Curb.xlsm
• ###_Summary_Bsln_Eng_OFF_Curb.xlsm
• ###_Summary_Bsln_GVW.xlsm
3. Bounce with Pitch Test to 2.5 x GVW
• ###_ebook_2.5GVW.pdf
4. Overall Steer Ratio Analysis
• Veh ### Overall Steering Ratio Info.pdf
• Veh ### Overall Steering Ratio Info.xlsx
5. Read_Me
• READ_ME_###.pdf
6. ASCII Data (folder)
• Rig#V###S#T#R#.txt
7. Chrysler Binary Files (folder)
• Rig#V###S#T#R#.txt.tstp
8. Center of Gravity and Moment of Inertia Summary
• Veh ### CG and MoI Test Summary.xlsx
9. Signoff Sheet (Excel)
10. Vehicle Data “Vdat” file
• Rig#Vdat###.txt
11. CG & Moment of Inertia “MOISequence” file
• MOISequence_S#_R#.txt
Optional
1. Binary to csv Converter (folder)--Raw Data in ASCII .csv format
2. Photographs of test vehicle (typically only for competitive vehicles)

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results

Typical SPMM test results folder contents on shared drive

(\\SITMF317.servers.chrysler.com\NITM_SPMMVehicleData-F317):

Each vehicle
tested will have
a separate folder

Typical results files and sub-folders for each vehicle.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
1. Results Book (Adobe .pdf)

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
1. Results Book (Adobe .pdf)—Cover Page

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
1. Results Book (Adobe .pdf)—Vehicle Information
This information is taken from
the vehicle as-tested.

Information that will be in

the Overlay Tool database

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
1. Results Book (Adobe .pdf)—Vehicle Information

Track widths and

wheelbase from initial
measurements as vehicle
is loaded on SPMM.

Curb weights are from weighing

the vehicle as-received prior to
testing with full fuel, fluids, etc.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
1. Results Book (Adobe .pdf)—Vehicle Information

Alignment readings are

from an alignment rack
(not the SPMM),
immediately prior to
testing.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
1. Results Book (Adobe .pdf)--Plots

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
2. Summary Sheets (Excel)

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
2. Summary Sheet—Express Checkout

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
2. Summary Sheet—Express Checkout

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
3. Bounce with Pitch (2.5 x GVW) Test

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
3. Bounce with Pitch (2.5 x GVW) Test-Wheel Rate

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
3. Bounce with Pitch (2.5 x GVW) Test-Wheel Rate

Curb Weight
(at 0 displacement)

Suspension
Spring Preload

Tire Liftoff
(Zero load) Full Rebound Rebound Jounce “Full”
Travel Spring Bumper Jounce
Engagement Engagement Travel 4-55
 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
4. Overall Steering Ratio Analysis--Plot

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
4. Overall Steering Ratio Analysis--Summary

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
4. Overall Steering Ratio Analysis--Analysis

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
4. Overall Steering Ratio Analysis--Analysis

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
5. Read Me—Test Information

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
6. ASCII Data—data corresponding to plots in the Results Book

Rig6V719S1T8R1.txt

SPMM Machine
Rig1 = MIRA Vehicle 719 Run 1
Rig2 = Goodyear
Rig6 = FCA CPG Sequence 1 Test 8
Rig8 = Morse Measurements
Rig16 = CATARC (China Automotive Test and Research Center)
Rig22 = MIRA #2
Rig26 = FCA LATAM 4-61
 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
7. Chrysler Binary Files—Used with ABD Overlay Tool to plot data

Rig6V817S1T7R1.tstp

SPMM Machine
Rig1 = MIRA Vehicle 817 Run 1
Rig2 = Goodyear
Rig6 = FCA CPG Sequence 1 Test 7
Rig8 = Morse Measurements
Rig16 = CATARC (China Automotive Test and Research Center)
Rig22 = MIRA #2
Rig26 = FCA LATAM 4-62
 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
8. Center of Gravity and Moment of Inertia Summary

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
8. Center of Gravity and Moment of Inertia Summary

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
8. Center of Gravity and Moment of Inertia Summary

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
9. Vehicle Signoff Sheet

The Signoff Sheet is filled out by the engineer requesting the

K&C test. It documents the configuration of the vehicle and
the tests to be run.
It is important to fully complete the signoff sheet so that the
springs, bushings, stabilizer bars, etc. used are documented.

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SPMM Test Results
10. Vehicle Data “VDat.txt” file

The VDat.txt file contains information from the test including:

• Vehicle Information (manufacturer, model, VIN, model Year,
mileage, etc.)
• Weight ratings, actual weights and dimensions
• Drive configuration (FWD, RWD, AWD, etc.
• Alignment information
• Tire & Wheel Information (size, type, wheel size, pressure, etc.)
• Suspension configurations (MacPherson strut, SLA, 5-Link, etc.)
• Test Setups and notes

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
11. Center of Gravity & Moment of Inertia “MOISequence_S#_R#.txt” file

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
Optional
Binary to csv Converter (folder)--Raw Data in ASCII .csv format

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 Kinematics & Compliance
SPMM Test Results
Optional
Photographs of test vehicle (typically only for competitive vehicles)

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Testing—Bounce Test
Vehicle chassis is moved vertically by the center table quasi-statically (to
eliminate damper and inertia effects).
The steering wheel is held in the straight ahead position.
Wheel pads “float” so that only vertical force is transmitted through the
tires.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce Test Results
1. Wheel Rate
2. Tire Radial Rate
3. Ride Rate
4. Kinematic Roll Center Height
5. Bump Steer
6. Bump Camber
7. Bump Caster
8. Lateral Wheel Center Displacement
9. Longitudinal Wheel Center Displacement
10. Track Width Change
11. Wheelbase Change
12. Lateral Tire Contact Patch Displacement
13. Front view Swing Arm Length
14. Front View Swing Arm Angle
15. Kinematic Roll Center Locus
16. Longitudinal Tire Contact Patch Displacement
17. Side View Swing Arm Length—Braking
18. Kinematic Anti-Dive / Anti-Lift Angle—Braking

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce Test--Definitions
“Bounce” is the displacement between the vehicle body and the ground. It
includes suspension travel and tire deflection.
“Suspension Travel” is the displacement of the vehicle body relative to the
wheel center. It does not include tire deflection.

Suspension
Travel
Bounce Bounce
Travel Travel
Ground Plane

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce Test Results—Wheel Rate

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce Test Results—Wheel Rate
Wheel rate is the effective stiffness of the suspension, measured at the
wheel. It is the combined stiffness of the suspension spring and its
motion ratio, stiffnesses of the suspension bushings, stabilizer bar
bushings (unless they are ‘slipper’ bushings), jounce bumpers, shock
absorber ‘gas spring’, and anything else that contributes to stiffness.

Wheel
Rate

Note: stiffness of the chassis/body

is included in the Wheel Rate

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce Test Results

MS Sprung Mass

KS Suspension
KJB
Spring
Wheel Rate

Jounce KG Damper Gas Spring

Stiffness
(Including Motion Bumper Stiffness (Including Motion
Ratio) Stiffness Ratio)

KR Rebound Spring Stiffness

(Including Motion Ratio)
Ride Rate

DR -Free Travel Before Rebound

Spring Engagement (Including
Motion Ratio)

MUS-Unsprung Mass

KB DJ -Free Travel Before Jounce

Effective Bumper Contact (Including Motion
Suspension Ratio)
Bushing Stiffness KT Tire Stiffness

Road Profile 4-76

 Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce Test Results—Wheel Rate with Rebound Spring

Jounce Bumper
+ Suspension
Stiffness

Suspension Stiffness
(including bushings)

Rebound Spring Jounce Bumper

Engagement Engagement

Suspension Spring Rebound Spring

Preload
+ Suspension Stiffness

Tire Liftoff
(zero load) Full Suspension
Rebound Travel

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce Test Results—Tire Radial Rate

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Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce Test Results—Ride Rate

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce Test Results—Ride Rate

Ride rate is the combined stiffness of the suspension (wheel rate) and
the tire radial rate.

1 1 1
= +
Ride Rate Wheel Rate Tire Radial Rate
Wheel
Rate
Ride
Rate

Tire
Radial Rate

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce Test Results—Ride Rate with Rebound Spring

Jounce Bumper
+ Suspension
Stiffness
Suspension Stiffness
(including bushings, stabar,
shock/strut gas spring)

Rebound Spring
Engagement
Jounce Bumper
Bushing and
mount Stiffness Engagement

Suspension Spring Rebound Spring +

Preload Suspension Stiffness

Tire Liftoff Full Suspension

(zero load) Rebound Travel
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 Kinematics & Compliance
Testing—Roll Test
Vehicle chassis is moved in roll by the center table.
The vehicle is effectively rolled about its roll axis, not about the
centerline. Bounce and pitch corrections are made to maintain the total
load at each axle.
The steering wheel is held in the straight ahead position.
Wheel pads “float” so that only vertical force is transmitted through the
tires.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Roll Test Results
1. Total Roll Stiffness
2. Suspension Roll Stiffness
3. Wheel Vertical Loads vs Suspension Roll
4. Wheel Vertical Rates in Roll
5. Kinematic Roll Center Height in Roll
6. Total Roll Steer
7. Suspension Roll Steer
8. Bump Steer in Roll
9. Total Roll Camber
10. Suspension Roll Camber
11. Bump Camber in roll
12. Track change
13. Static Roll Weight Transfer Coefficient
14. Bump Lateral Tire Contact Patch Displacement in Roll
15. Front View Swing Arm Length in Roll
16. Front View Swing Arm Angle in Roll
17. Bump Front View Swing Arm Length in Roll
18. Kinematic Roll Center Locus
19. Longitudinal Wheel Center Displacement
20. Lateral Wheel Center Displacement

4-83
 Kinematics & Compliance
Roll Test
The vehicle is rolled about its roll axis, not about the centerline. A
combination of bounce and pitch motion of the center table attached to
the body maintain the total load at each axle (no fore-aft weight shift).
This replicates how the vehicle would behave when actually cornering on
a flat road surface.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Testing—Steer Test
Vehicle chassis held fixed by the center table.
Engine running to energize the power steering system.
Steering robot inputs steer torque and angle at the steering wheel.
Wheel pads float in X, Y, and Steer directions.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Steer Test Results
1. Steer Wheel torque
2. Instantaneous Steer Ratio
3. Steer Ratio
4. Percent Ackermann vs Inside Roadwheel Steer
5. Ackermann Curves
6. Center of Tire Contact Locus
7. Kingpin Inclination Angle v Roadwheel Steer
8. Kingpin Caster Angle v Roadwheel Steer
9. Kingpin Offset v Roadwheel Steer
10. Mechanical Trail v Roadwheel Steer
11. Scrub Radius v Roadwheel Steer
12. Kingpin Ground Intersection X Position v Roadwheel Steer
13. Kingpin Ground Intersection & Position v Roadwheel Steer
14. Camber Angle v Roadwheel Steer
15. Normal Force v Roadwheel Steer
16. Longitudinal Wheel Center Displacement
17. Lateral Wheel Center Displacement

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, Parallel Braking Test
Vehicle chassis held fixed by the center table. Brakes are applied.
Steering wheel is held in straight ahead position.
Wheel pads apply longitudinal (X) forces to all 4 wheels to simulate
braking forces in forward and reverse directions.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, Parallel Braking Test
1. Braking Wheel Center Stiffness
2. Braking Toe Compliance
3. Braking Camber Compliance
4. Braking Caster Compliance
5. Braking Force Anti-Dive / Anti-Lift Angles
6. Braking Jacking Forces
7. Lateral Wheel Center Displacement

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, SLW Braking
Vehicle chassis held fixed by the center table. Brakes applied. Steering
wheel is held in straight ahead position.
Wheel pads apply longitudinal (X) forces to wheels on the left side of the
vehicle only.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, SLW Braking
1. Braking Wheel Center Stiffness
2. Braking toe Compliance
3. Braking Camber Compliance
4. Braking Caster Compliance
5. Lateral Wheel Center Displacement

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, SRW Braking
Vehicle chassis held fixed by the center table. Brakes applied. Steering
wheel is held in straight ahead position.
Wheel pads apply longitudinal (X) forces to wheels on the right side of
the vehicle only.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, SRW Braking
1. Braking Wheel Center Stiffness
2. Braking toe Compliance
3. Braking Camber Compliance
4. Braking Caster Compliance
5. Lateral Wheel Center Displacement

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Parallel Lateral Force Test
Vehicle chassis held fixed by the center table. Steering wheel is held in
straight ahead position.
Wheel pads apply lateral (Y) forces to wheels in both inboard and
outboard directions in phase.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Parallel Lateral Force Test Results
1. Lateral Wheel Center Stiffness
2. Lateral Toe Compliance
3. Lateral Camber Compliance
4. Lateral tire Contact Patch Stiffness
5. Lateral Jacking Forces
6. Force Based Roll Center Height
7. Force Based Roll Center Locus
8. Longitudinal Wheel Center Displacement
9. Lateral Wheel center displacement

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Lateral Compliance, Parallel Test—Force Based Roll Center Height

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Lateral Compliance, Parallel Test—Force Based Roll Center Height
(Calculated from Front Normal Force vs Lateral Force)

Roll
Center

Normal
θ Force

Lateral Force
Normal Force
tan( ) =
Lateral Force
Note that these calculations assume that the vehicle’s roll
center is on the centerline of the vehicle. 4-96
 Kinematics & Compliance
Lateral Compliance, Parallel Test—Force Based Roll Center Height
(Calculated from Front Normal Force vs Lateral Force)

Roll
Center

Roll Center
Height

Track Width, T
T
2
RCH
tan( ) =
T/2
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 Kinematics & Compliance
Lateral Compliance, Parallel Test—Force Based Roll Center Height
(Calculated from Front Normal Force vs Lateral Force)

RCH Normal Force

tan( ) = =
T/2 Lateral Force

Normal Force
RCH = (T/2)
Lateral Force

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Lateral Compliance, Opposed Test
Vehicle chassis held fixed by the center table. Steering wheel is held in
straight ahead position.
Wheel pads apply inboard and outboard lateral (Y) forces to wheels in
opposite directions on each side of the vehicle (out of phase).

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Opposed Lateral Force Test Results
1. Lateral Wheel Center stiffness
2. Lateral Toe compliance
3. Lateral Camber compliance
4. Lateral Tire Contact Patch Stiffness
5. Lateral Jacking Forces
6. Force Based Roll center Height
7. Force Based Roll Center Locus
8. Longitudinal Wheel center displacement
9. Lateral Wheel center dispalcement

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Aligning Moment Compliance, Parallel Test
Vehicle chassis held fixed by the center table (engine running to energize
power steering system. Steering wheel is held in straight ahead position.
Wheel pads apply aligning torque (steer) to wheels in both left turn and
right turn directions in phase.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Aligning Moment Compliance, Parallel Test Results
1. Aligning Moment Toe Compliance
2. Aligning Moment Tire contact Patch Stiffness
3. Longitudinal Wheel center displacement
4. Lateral Wheel Center Displacement

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Aligning Moment Compliance, Opposed Test
Vehicle chassis held fixed by the center table. Steering wheel is held in
straight ahead position.
Wheel pads apply in both toe-in and toe-out aligning torque (steer) to
wheels in opposite directions on each side of vehicle out of phase.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Aligning Moment Compliance, Opposed Test
1. Aligning Moment Toe Compliance
2. Aligning Moment Tire Contact Patch Stiffness
3. Longitudinal wheel Center Displacement
4. Lateral Wheel center displacement

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce No Anti-Roll Bar (NARB) Test
The front and rear anti-roll bars are removed, and just as in the Bounce
test, the vehicle chassis is moved vertically by the center table quasi-
statically (to eliminate damper and inertia effects).
The steering wheel is held in the straight ahead position.
Wheel pads “float” so that only vertical force is transmitted through the
tires.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Bounce No Anti-Roll Bar (NARB) Test Results
1. Wheel Rate
2. Tire Radial Rate
3. Ride Rate
4. Bump Steer
5. Bump Camber
6. Bump Caster

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Roll No Anti-Roll Bar (NARB) Test
Vehicle chassis is moved in roll by the center table.
The vehicle is effectively rolled about its roll axis, not about the
centerline. Bounce and pitch corrections are made to maintain the total
load at each axle.
The steering wheel is held in the straight ahead position.
Wheel pads “float” so that only vertical force is transmitted through the
tires.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Roll No Anti-Roll Bar (NARB) Test Results
1. Total Roll Stiffness
2. Suspension Roll Stiffness
3. Wheel Vertical Loads vs Body Roll
4. Wheel Vertical Loads vs Suspension Roll
5. Wheel Vertical Rates in Roll
6. Total Roll Steer
7. Suspension Roll Steer
8. Bump Steer in Roll
9. Total Roll Camber
10. Suspension Roll Camber
11. Bump Camber in roll
12. Static Roll Weight Transfer Coefficient

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, Parallel Wheel Recession
Vehicle chassis held fixed by the center table. Brakes not applied.
Steering wheel is held in straight ahead position.
Wheel pads apply longitudinal (X) forces to wheels. Force is reacted
through the wheel center, rather than through the brakes.

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 Kinematics & Compliance

Longitudinal Compliance, Parallel Wheel Recession

Front & rear wheels are strapped down to wheel pads to prevent rotation.
Brakes are not applied, transmission in neutral.
Fore-aft forces are reacted through the spindle, not through the brakes.
This simulates fore-aft road inputs (potholes, curbs, etc.) that are not
reacted through the brakes during normal driving.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, Parallel Wheel Recession Results
1. Wheel Recession Stiffness

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, Single Left Wheel Recession
Vehicle chassis held fixed by the center table. Brakes not applied.
Steering wheel is held in straight ahead position.
Wheel pads apply longitudinal (X) forces to wheels on left side only.
Force is reacted through the wheel center, rather than through the brakes.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, Single Left Wheel Recession Results
1. Wheel Recession Stiffness

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, Single Right Wheel Recession
Vehicle chassis held fixed by the center table. Brakes not applied.
Steering wheel is held in straight ahead position.
Wheel pads apply longitudinal (X) forces to wheels on right side only.
Force is reacted through the wheel center, rather than through the brakes.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Longitudinal Compliance, Single Right Wheel Recession Results
1. Wheel Recession Stiffness

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Center of Gravity & Moment of Inertia Test
Vehicle chassis is attached to the center table through load cells.
Wheel pads are moved away and vehicle is moved by center table while
loads at the four attachment points are measured.

Load
Cells

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Center of Gravity & Moment of Inertia Test
1. CG Location
• Height
• Aft of front axle
• Right of centerline
2. Roll Moment of Inertia
3. Pitch Moment of Inertia
4. Yaw Moment of Inertia

Measurements are made with the suspension in full rebound, so the

measured CG is lower than actual due to this. If unsprung weights
are provided, a correction can be made, and the unsprung mass
and inertia properties can be separated out from the whole vehicle
properties.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Center of Gravity & Moment of Inertia Test
Because the CG / MoI test is done with the suspension at full rebound
travel, the measured CG height is typically lower than the actual value at
normal ride height. The magnitude of this discrepancy varies with the
amount of suspension travel and the unsprung weight. If unsprung
weights are known, the results can be corrected for.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
What do I do with SPMM Data?

 Roll Stiffness Distribution

 Weight Distribution and Roll Stiffness Distribution
 Understeer Budget
 Ride Measurements – Rates & Stiffness
 Static Stability Factor (SSF) and NHTSA Rollover Ratings
 Steering Characteristics
 Roll Axis Relationship to Mass Axis

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Roll Stiffness Distribution
 Tire forces are load sensitive
 Weight transfer determined by CG Height & Track Width (generally
can’t be changed)
 Front to rear weight transfer distribution is determined by the roll
stiffness distribution
 Roll stiffness is determined by suspension properties and measured
during K&C Testing

Roll Stiffness
Front Rear Total
885 ft-lb/deg 644 ft-lb/deg 1529 ft-lb/deg
With Anti-Roll Bar
57.9% 42.1% 100%
590 ft-lb/deg 147 ft-lb/deg 737 ft-lb/deg
No Anti-Roll Bar
80.1% 19.9% 100%

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Weight Distribution and Roll Stiffness Distribution
Using SPMM results, the front to rear weight distribution of a vehicle
can be compared to the front & rear roll stiffness values to gain an
understanding of their effect on understeer.
The “Cooper Factor” is used to compare roll stiffness distribution to
weight distribution.
The Cooper Factor is best used to compare against competitive
vehicles, not as an absolute target.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Weight Distribution and Weight Transfer Analysis
Weight Transfer and Cooper Factor SPMM Data Source: VEHICLE: Vehicle 94: Toyota Highlander Ltd. 3.5L V6
4wd ATX SUV

Calculated
SPMM Data User Input
Results

Front Rear
Source Characteristic Sign Convention Units L R L R
Vehicle SPMM Summary Wheelbase m 2.716
Dimensions Track Width m 1.571 1.55
Corner Weights N 5139 4966 4174 4111
Axle Weights N 10105 8285
Weight Distribution % 54.9% 45.1%
CG X Distance From front Axle + = Behind Front Axle m 1.224
SPMM Summary
Roll Stiffness (w/ Tire) N-m/deg 1200 874
Roll Test
Kinematics &
SPMM Summary
Compliance Info
Parallel Lateral Roll Center Height + = Above Ground mm 115 140
Force Test
CG / Moment of SPMM Summary
Center of Gravity Height + = Above Ground mm 634
Inertia Data CG / MoI Test

Calculated Values Roll Axis Height at CG X Location + = Above Ground m 0.126

CG Height Above Roll Axis + = CG Above m 0.507
Weight Transfer N/G 4175 3286
Weight Transfer Distribution % 56.0% 44.0%
Calculated Roll Gradient deg/G 4.88
Cooper Factor 24

Plot Data
CG & Roll Axis
X (mm) Z (mm)
1000
900 CG 1224 634
Height (mm)

Front CG Roll Axis Tires

800 Front Roll Center 0 115
700
Rear Roll Center 2716 140
600
500 Front Tire 0 300
400 Rear Tire 2716 300
300
200
100
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
X (mm) Note: Tires not to scale.
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 Kinematics & Compliance
Handling Characteristics—Understeer Budget
The “Understeer Budget” spreadsheet can be used to calculate basic
vehicle understeer characteristics from SPMM and Tire Data.
Many understeer budget inputs come from SPMM results:

Wheelbase Roll camber

Corner Weights Lateral force steer
CG Height Lateral force camber
Roll steer Lateral force stiffness
Roll Stiffness Aligning moment steer

A nearly complete Understeer Budget (without tire data) is included with

SPMM results.

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 Kinematics & Compliance
Handling Characteristics—Understeer Budget
Understeer Budget SPMM Data Source: VEHICLE: Vehicle 94: Toyota Highlander Ltd.
3.5L V6 4wd ATX SUV
Tire Data Source:

SPMM Calculated
Tire Data User Input
Data Results
Comments:

Front Rear
Source Characteristic Sign Convention Units L R L R
Vehicle Info SPMM Wheelbase m 2.716
Summary Corner Weight N 5139 4966 4174 4111
CG Height mm 634
Kinematics &
Compliance Info
SPMM
Summary
Roll steer
Roll Stiffness
+ = U/S deg/deg
N-m/deg
0.046
1200
0.016
874
Inputs from
+ = pos camber w / roll
Roll camber (wrt to ground)
Lateral force steer (parallel) (off-center) + = U/S
deg/deg
deg/kN
0.827
0.150
0.805
-0.031 SPMM Results
Lateral force camber (parallel) + = pos camber deg/kN 0.220 0.246
Lateral force stiffness (parallel) N/mm 2577 2989
Aligning moment steer (parallel) (off center) + = toe in deg/kN-m 4.640 0.699
Tire Info Tire Model / Pneumatic trail - = behind Tire Center m
Tire Test Data Cornering stiffness
Slip angle change per degree of camber (10% is typical)
N/deg
% 10 10
Tire Data
Calculated Values Weight Distribution % 54.9% 45.1%
Roll Stiffness Distribution % 57.9% 42.1%
CG Distance From front Axle + = Behind Front Axle m 1.224
- = roll to outside of
Roll Gradient deg/G -5.619
turn per IH convention

Understeer Contributions Roll steer + = U/S deg/G 0.258 0.089

Roll camber contribution + = U/S deg/G 0.465 -0.452
Lateral force steer compliance + = U/S deg/G 0.759 -0.128
Lateral force camber contribution + = U/S deg/G 0.111 -0.102
Aligning moment steer compliance + = U/S deg/G 0.000 0.000 Calculated
Total Understeer (w/o tires) + = U/S deg/G 1.593 -0.593

Vehicle Level Understeer

Tires (using linear fit) + = U/S
Vehicle Understeer (w/o tires)
deg/G
deg/G
#DIV/0!
1.00
#DIV/0! Results
Vehicle Understeer (w/ tires) deg/G #DIV/0!

Sideslip Sideslip Gradient deg/G #DIV/0!

Sideslip Angle @ 0.3G (150' radius) deg #DIV/0!

Yaw Angle due to lateral stiffness Lateral Displacement at Front Axle mm/G 3.921
Lateral Displacement at Rear Axle mm/G 2.772
Lateral Stiffness Yaw Angle Gradient +=rear axle inside front deg/G 0.024
4-124
 Kinematics & Compliance
Handling Characteristics—Understeer Budget

Understeer Contributions
2.0
Front Rear

1.5

1.0
<===Oversteer Understeer===>
Understeer (deg/G)

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0
Roll Roll Lateral Lateral Aligning Total Tires Vehicle Vehicle
Steer Camber Force Force Moment (w/o U/S (w/o U/S
Steer Camber Steer Tires) Tire) (w/Tire)
4-125
 Kinematics & Compliance
Ride Characteristics
Many basic ride characteristics are measured in SPMM tests:
Suspension Travel
Ride Rates
Jounce Bumper Transition & Rate
Tire Stiffness
Fore / Aft Stiffness
Wheel Recession in Jounce
Suspension Friction
(Shock absorber damping characteristics, an important part of ride, are
not measured by SPMM.)

4-126
 Kinematics & Compliance
Ride Characteristics
Wheel Rate

Jounce Bumper
+ Suspension
Stiffness

Suspension Stiffness
(including bushings)

Rebound Spring Jounce Bumper

Engagement Engagement

Suspension Spring Rebound Spring

Preload
+ Suspension Stiffness

Tire Liftoff
(zero load) Full Suspension
Rebound Travel
4-127
 Kinematics & Compliance
Ride Characteristics
Tire Radial Rate

1 1 1
Note that the tire stiffness=measured on+the SPMM Machine will
Wheel
not be the same Rate
as the Ride
actual tire Rate
stiffnessTire Radial
because theRate
tire is not
fixed at zero camber angle.
4-128
 Kinematics & Compliance
Ride Characteristics
Wheel Center X vs Longitudinal Force

Longitudinal stiffness affects harshness, lower stiffness reduces

harshness.
X Displacement

Force
Force
Stiffness =
Displaceme nt

4-129
 Kinematics & Compliance
Ride Characteristics
Wheel Center X vs Bounce

Recession affects harshness, more recession reduces harshness, less

recession (or more procession) increases harshness.

X Displacement

Procession
Recession
Bounce
Displacement
Force

Procession Recession

Forward
4-130
 Kinematics & Compliance
Olley Ride Criteria
Additional ride calculations can be made from SPMM test results. As
defined by Maurice Olley (see Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, pg
176), the ride characteristics of the vehicle can be calculated from
SPMM and CG / Moment of Inertia data:
•Front to rear ride rate ratio
•Spring center location
•Pitch and bounce frequency ratio
•Pitch and bounce frequencies

4-131
 Kinematics & Compliance
Olley Ride Calculations
Inputs From SPMM Results

SPMM Ride Analysis SPMM Data Source: VEHICLE: Vehicle 94: Toyota Highlander Ltd.
3.5L V6 4wd ATX SUV
This spreadsheet is intended to automate the calculation of vehicle ride
characteristics and compare them to the "Olley Criteria." The calculations
are based on Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics by Thomas Gillespie (SAE SPMM CG/MoI Calculated
User Input
R-114) pages 172--178. Data Data Results
Comments:

Front Rear
Source Characteristic Sign Convention Units L R L R
Vehicle Info Vehicle Info
Driver's Seat H-point X (from front axle) + = behind front axle mm 1344
Workbench
SPMM Wheelbase m 2.716
Summary Corner Weight N 5139 4966 4174 4111
Kinematics &
Ride Rate N/mm 37 37 31 30
Compliance Info
CG / MoI Info CG X + = behind front axle mm 1224
Pitch Moment of Inertia kg-m2 3571

4-132
 Kinematics & Compliance
Olley Ride Calculations
Calculated Values
Calculated Values Axle Weight N 10105 8285
Total Weight N 18390
Total Mass kg 1875
Sprung Weights N 5139 4966 4174 4111
CG distance to Front Axle "b" m 1.224
CG distance to Rear Axle "c" m 1.492
Radius of Gyration k 2 m2 1.905
Dynamic Index k 2/bc 1.043
Front Ride Rate K f N/mm 73.4
Rear Ride Rate K r N/mm 61.3
a sec -2 71.849
b m/s 2 0.913
g sec -2 69.011
Z/θ1 Pitch or Bounce Center Location + = rearward of CG m -6.230 Bounce Center
Z/θ2 Pitch or Bounce Center Location + = rearward of CG m 0.306 Pitch Center
w 12 72.00

w 22 68.86

w1 rad/sec 8.49

w2 rad/sec 8.30

Pitch / Bounce Frequency w1 Hz 1.35 Bounce Frequency

Pitch / Bounce Frequency w2 Hz 1.32 Pitch Frequency

Front suspension ride frequency Hz 1.34
Rear suspension ride frequency Hz 1.36
Rear / Front Ride Frequency Ratio 1.01
Spring Center Location + = rearward of CG m 0.013
H point distance from CG + = rearward of CG m 0.120
+ = rearward of Spring
H point distance from Spring Center m 0.108
Center
Pitch Center distance from H point + = rearward of H-Point m 0.185 4-133
 Kinematics & Compliance
Olley Ride Criteria

Olley Criteria 1a Front suspension ride rate 30% lower than rear Kf / Kr ≤ 0.7 ? 1.20
1b Spring center located at least 6.5% of WB behind CG Spring Center / WB ≥ 0.065 ? 0.00
2 Bounce frequency less than 1.2 x pitch frequency Bounce Freq / Pitch Freq ≤ 1.2 ? 1.02
Bounce Frequency ≤1.3? 1.35
3 Neither bounce nor pitch frequency should be > 1.3 Hz
Pitch Frequency ≤ 1.3? 1.32

Illustration of Olley results

Bounce, Pitch, Spring Centers, CG and H-point VEHICLE: Vehicle 94: Toyota Highlander Ltd. 3.5L V6 4wd ATX SUV

CG
Pitch/Bounce Center
Front Spring Center
Front Driver Driver H-Point
Wheel CG H-point
Pitch Center
Bounce Center (inside Wheelbase)
(outside wheelbase)

Spring Rear Wheel

Center

4-134
 Kinematics & Compliance
Static Stability Factor (SSF) and NHTSA Rollover Star Ratings
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration rates rollover
resistance for vehicles based largely on their center of gravity height
and track with, both of which are available from SPMM measurements
(if CG / MOI tests are included).

4-135
 Kinematics & Compliance

Static Stability Factor (SSF) and NHTSA Rollover Star Ratings

Based on the average of front & rear track widths and the CG height
reported in the SPMM summary sheet, the SSF and corresponding
NHTSA Star rating can be calculated.
Note that star ratings are given based on 3 conditions, SSF Only, SSF +
Fishhook test with no wheel lift, and SSF + Fishhook test with two wheel
lift. The SSF Only star rating can be calculated from SPMM results, the
other ratings require that the vehicle be subjected to a fishhook test.
However, there are only small differences between the three ratings, and
most vehicles’ ratings will be the same for all three categories.

4-136
 Kinematics & Compliance
NHTSA Rollover Resistance Rating Estimate SPMM Data Source: VEHICLE: Vehicle 279: Chevrolet Traverse SUV

Note: NHTSA uses vehicle weight with driver to calculate SSF, SPMM
data is for curb weight only.
Calculated
SPMM Data User Input
Results
Comments:

Front Rear
Inputs from
Vehicle
Source Characteristic
SPMM Summary Track Width
Sign Convention Units
m
L
1.72
R L
1.71
R
SPMM results
Dimensions Center of Gravity Height mm 656.10

Calcualted Values Avg Track Width m 1.71

Static Stability Factor (SSF) 1.30 Calculated
Percent Chance of Rollover
Based on SSF Only % 16% SSF Value
****
Fishhook with Tip-up % 16%
**** Rollover
Fishhook with No Tip-Up % 14%
**** Star Ratings
NHTSA Rollover Resistance Ratings Data for Plot
1.304298125 14%
1.304298125 16%
SSF Only Fishhook w/ Tip-Up Fishhook w/o Tip-Up VEHICLE: Vehicle 279: Chevrolet Traverse SUV

50%

40%

All ratings are 4-Star

Rollover Rate

NHTSA Star Rating

30%

20%

10%

0%
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
#DIV/0!
Static Stability Factor (SSF)
4-137
 Kinematics & Compliance
Steering Characteristics
Steering Sensitivity can be calculated if the Understeer gradient is
known (either measured or calculated)

Steering Sensitivity SPMM Data Source: VEHICLE: Vehicle 94: Toyota Highlander Ltd.
3.5L V6 4wd ATX SUV
Steering sensitivity is calculated based on the wheelbase and steering ratio
from the SPMM summary and the vehicle level understeer from the US Budget
or Instrumented Handling test results. SPMM U/S Calculated
User Input
Data Budget Results
Comments:

Front Rear
Source Characteristic Sign Convention Units L R L R
Vehicle Info SPMM
Wheelbase m 2.716
Summary
Steering Info Overall Steer Ratio (on-center) 17.32
Handling Info US Budget /
Vehicle Understeer (w/ tires) deg/g 3.12
IH results
Calculation Speed 60 mph is Vehicle Speed for Steering Sensitivity
mph 60
typical calculation
40 mph for CR Vehicle Speed for Steering Sensitivity
40
prediction calculation mph

Calculated Results
g/
Steering Sensitivity at 60mph 1.10
100° SWA

g/
Steering Sensitivity at 40mph 0.35
100° SWA

4-138
 Kinematics & Compliance
Steering Characteristics

Maneuverability Index (number of steering wheel turns for a typical city

block corner) is calculated from SPMM results.

Maneuverability Index SPMM Data Source: VEHICLE: Vehicle 94: Toyota Highlander Ltd.
3.5L V6 4wd ATX SUV
Maneuverability Index is defined as the number of steering wheel revolutions
required to negotiate a typical city block corner.
SPMM Calculated
User Input
Data Results
Comments:

Front Rear
Source Characteristic Sign Convention Units L R L R
Vehicle Info SPMM Wheelbase in 106.93
Summary Rear Track Width in 61.02
Steering Info Steering Ratio Coefficients
Cubic -0.000861 -0.000844
Square 0.02686 -0.02526
Linear 17.35 17.29
Turn Radius Outside Turn Radius (31' is standard) ft 31

Calculated Results Average Roadwheel Steer Angle deg 18.35

Steer Wheel angle deg 312.9
Maneuverability Index Rev 0.87

4-139
 Kinematics & Compliance
Roll & Mass Axis Calculations
From CG and Moment of Inertia data, the mass distribution of the
vehicle can be determined and compared to the roll axis.

Roll & Inertia Axis Analysis SPMM Data Source: VEHICLE: Vehicle 94: Toyota Highlander Ltd.
3.5L V6 4wd ATX SUV
CG/MoI Data Source: MOISequence_S6_R2.txt (Vehicle # 94)

SPMM CG/MoI Calculated

User Input
Data Data Results
Comments:

Front Rear
Source Characteristic Sign Convention Units L R L R
Vehicle Information Vehicle Info Driver's Seat H-point X (from front axle) + = behind front axle mm 1344
Workbench Driver's Seat H-point Z + = above ground mm 748.8
SPMM Wheelbase m 2.716
Summary Corner Weight N 5139 4966 4174 4111
Kinematics & SPMM
Roll Center Height + = above ground mm 114.9 140.3
Compliance Info Summary
CG / MoI Info CG X + = behind front axle mm 1224
CG Z + = above ground mm 633.6
MOISequence
X Principal Axis Cos Z Ground -0.0019
text file

Calculated Values Roll Axis Slope neg=higher in rear mm/mm -0.0094

Roll Axis Angle neg=higher in rear deg -0.5358
X Principle axis of Inertia Slope neg=higher in rear mm/mm -0.0019
X Principle axis of Inertia Angle neg=higher in rear deg -0.1089
Mass Axis height at Front Axle + = above ground mm 631.3 4-140
Mass Axis height at Rear Axle + = above ground mm 636.4
 User Input
Data Data Results
Comments:

Source
Kinematics & Compliance
Characteristic Sign Convention Units L
Front
R L
Rear
R
Vehicle Information Vehicle Info Driver's Seat H-point X (from front axle) + = behind front axle mm 1344
Roll & Mass Axis Calculations
Workbench Driver's Seat H-point Z + = above ground mm 748.8
SPMM Wheelbase m 2.716

Calculating the distance between the mass axis and the114.9roll axis4174of140.3the
Kinematics &
Summary
SPMM
Corner Weight 4111 N 5139 4966

Roll Center Height + = above ground mm

Compliance Info Summary
vehicle allows comparison
CG / MoI Info CG X
and calculation
+ = behind frontof
axle the mm
Roll Axis And
1224
Mass
Parameter (RAAMP).
MOISequence
CG Z + = above ground mm 633.6

X Principal Axis Cos Z Ground -0.0019

text file

Calculated Values Roll Axis Slope neg=higher in rear mm/mm -0.0094

Roll Axis Angle neg=higher in rear deg -0.5358
X Principle axis of Inertia Slope neg=higher in rear mm/mm -0.0019
X Principle axis of Inertia Angle neg=higher in rear deg -0.1089
Mass Axis height at Front Axle + = above ground mm 631.3
Mass Axis height at Rear Axle + = above ground mm 636.4

Mass Axis vs Roll Axis Difference in slopes neg=closer in front mm/mm 0.007
Difference in angles neg=closer in front deg 0.427
+ =Inertia axis above
Z separation at Front Axle mm 516.4
roll center

Z separation at CG + =CG above roll axis mm 507.3

+ =Inertia axis above
Z separation at Rear Axle mm 496.1
roll center

H-Point to Roll Axis Driver's H-point distance from Roll Axis + = above roll axis mm 621.3

Analysis Front Axle weight x (Front Z separation)2 N-m2 2694

Rear Axle weight x (Rear Z separation)2 N-m2 2039
Is Front / Rear > 1? 1.32

RAAMP (>1 is desirable)

4-141
 Kinematics & Compliance
Roll & Mass Axis Calculations
Roll Axis And Mass Parameter (RAAMP) results illustration.

CG, Roll Centers & Inertia Axis VEHICLE: Vehicle 94: Toyota Highlander Ltd. 3.5L V6 4wd ATX SUV
1200
CG
Height (mm)

1000 Front Inertia Axis

Roll Centers
800 Driver H-Point
Vehicle Mass Axis
600

400
Vehicle Roll Axis
200

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
X (mm)

4-142
 Kinematics & Compliance
References
• Kinematics & Compliance 101:
https://teamsites.nafta.fcagroup.com/sites/vehdyn/Lists/Vehicle%20Dynamics%20Database/DispFo
rm.aspx?ID=3525
• How to schedule a SPMM Test:
https://teamsites.nafta.fcagroup.com/sites/IHdatabase/Lists/Vehicle%20Dynamics%20Database/Di
spForm.aspx?ID=3806
• FCA LP13399—Vehicle Suspension Kinematics And Compliance Measurement
• FCA LP.7F015—Kinematics and Compliance Testing
• Anthony Best Dynamics web site: http://www.abd.uk.com/en/Kinematics_&_Compliance
• Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Thomas D. Gillespie, SAE 1992
• NHTSA Website, www.SaferCar.gov
• Using K&C Measurements for Practical Suspension Tuning and Development, Philip Morse, SAE
Paper 2004-01-3547
• Suspension Geometry: Theory vs K&C Measurement, Wm. C. Mitchell, Robert Simons, Timothy
Sutherland, Michael Keena-Levin, SAE Paper 2008-01-2948
• Steering and Suspension Test and Analysis, Keith Van Gorder, Thompson David, Janet Basas, SAE
Paper 2000-01-1626
• Suspension Kinematics and Compliance-Measuring and Simulation, Peter Holdmann, Philip Köhn,
Bertram Möller, Ralph Willems, SAE Paper 980897

4-143
 Kinematics & Compliance
References
• Measurement of Vehicle and Suspension Parameters for Directional Control Studies,
SAE Recommended Practice J1574-1 and J1574-2
• ISO/DIS 23365 Heavy commercial vehicles and buses — Definitions of Properties for
the Determination of Suspension Kinematic and Compliance Characteristics
• Anthony Best SPMM Videos on YouTube:
• Introduction to SPMM machine: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kwS9lulymSc
• More detailed SPMM machine
info: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5h8vypMO25Y
• Steer test: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dwOoHhc0OfE
• Roll test: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6x8_BZwCPbM
• Bounce Test: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6x8_BZwCPbM
• Morse Measurements—SPMM information, videos: www.morsemeasurements.com

4-144
Kinematics & Compliance
Questions?

S.P.M.M. Installation Team

4-145
 Basic Vehicle Dynamics
Part 5 Weight & Weight Transfer
 Weight & Weight Transfer
Static Weight Weight & Tire Effects
Center of Gravity Body Roll
• Fore-Aft • Camber change
• Height Rollover
Weight Distribution Ride
• Cornering
• Braking
Weight Transfer
• Longitudinal
• Lateral

5-2
Vehicle weight is important in many aspects; fuel economy,
energy management (impact), cost, braking, durability, etc.
are all affected by vehicle weight.
From a vehicle dynamics standpoint, weight is important for
steering, ride and handling. Weight transfer under dynamic
conditions is also important for steering, handling and
braking.
Since the load on a tire is directly related to the tire’s
performance, weight and weight transfer have a direct
impact on steering, handling, acceleration, and braking.

5-3
Vehicle Weight
The static weight of the vehicle determines not only how
much vertical load the tires have to support but also The
amount of lateral force they have to provide when the car
is cornering.
The static weight of a vehicle
is determined simply by
weighing the vehicle.
Normally the individual wheel
weights (“corner weights”) are
recorded and then summed for
the total weight of the vehicle.

5-4
Center of Gravity—Fore-Aft (and lateral)
From the corner weights of the vehicle, the location of the
center of gravity in the X and Y directions can be
determined.
Example: SUV Track
Weight (lbs) T

LF 1466 1399 RF 2865 F Total CGy

LR 1175 1245 RR 2420 R Total

L Total 2641 2644 R Total 5285 Total

Rear Weight
CGx = WB CGx b
Total Weight Wheelbase
WB
c
Left Weight - Right Weight
CG y = T
Total Weight

5-5
Static Weight—Cornering
The static weight of the vehicle determines not only how much
vertical load the tires have to support but also the amount of
lateral force they have to provide when the car is cornering.
W V2
V
FyF Cornering Force =
gR
FyR W=Vehicle weight
V=forward (tangential) velocity
g=acceleration due to gravity
R=Turn Radius
FyF, FyR=Total front & rear tire cornering force

For steady state cornering, tire lateral forces must equal

R the cornering force produced by centripetal acceleration:
2
WV
FyF + FyR =
gR
Total tire lateral forces required in cornering are
directly proportional to the vehicle weight.
5-6
Static Weight—Braking
The static weight of the vehicle determines also determines
how much longitudinal (braking) force the tires have to
provide in braking.
FxF FxR
W
Braking Force = ax
g

W=Vehicle weight
V=forward (tangential) velocity
g=acceleration due to gravity
ax=braking deceleration

The sum of the tire forces must equal the W

FxF + FxR = a
braking force due to deceleration: g x

Total tire braking forces required for deceleration

are directly proportional to the vehicle weight.
5-7
 Static Weight Distribution
Static weight distribution is determined by the weight on
each tire. Both the total weight of the vehicle and how that
weight is distributed between the front and rear tires are
critical for handling. (Side to side weight distribution is
usually not an issue.)
Weight distribution is usually reported as the % of total
weight on the front and rear axle.
Example: SUV
Weight (lbs)
LF 1466 1399 RF 2865 F Total 54.2%

LR 1175 1245 RR 2420 R Total 45.8%

L Total 2641 2644 R Total 5285 Total

50.0% 50.0%

1245 lb 1175 lb
1399 lb 1466 lb
5-8
Static Weight Distribution—Cornering
The weight distribution of the vehicle determines the
proportion of cornering force the front and rear tires
contribute. For steady state cornering, the sum of
moments about the vehicle CG must be zero:
FyF
V
F b=F c
yF yR
FyR

b F
yF c
c =
F b
yR

R The tires at the “heavier” end of the car will be

required to generate more cornering force in a
steady state turn.

5-9
Static Weight Distribution—Cornering
For steady state cornering, the sum of the forces in the y
direction must also be zero:
2
WV
FyF gR
V
2
WV
FyR FyF + FyR =
gR
b
c
Fy = C + C
(function of tire and load on the tire)

W=Vehicle weight
R V=forward (tangential) velocity
g=acceleration due to gravity
R=Turn Radius
FyF, FyR=Total front & rear tire cornering force

5-10
Static Weight Distribution—Cornering
We now have two equations and two unknowns for
cornering force at the front and rear:
F WV
2
c
yF
= and FyF + FyR =
F b gR
yR

2
b b WV
FyR = FyF FyF + FyF =
c c gR

2 2
WV and WV
FyF = FyR =
b similarly c
g R(1 + ) g R(1 + )
c b
For a given turn radius and speed, the cornering forces required from the
front and rear tires depend only on the weight of the vehicle and the
weight distribution or CG location.
5-11
Center of Gravity Height
Center of gravity height affects the vehicle primarily in two
ways; weight transfer when accelerating/braking and
cornering, and body roll and pitch angles when
accelerating/braking and cornering. CG Height also
directly affects the rollover characteristics of the vehicle,
including its “star” rating from NHTSA for rollover.

CGz

b c
(CGx)
Wheelbase
WB
5-12
 Center of Gravity Height
Determining the height of a vehicle’s CG is more difficult
than determining CG x and y locations. Typically it is
measured on a CG Swing or on the SPMM machine.

Center of Gravity Swing—vehicle is SPMM—vehicle is fixed to center

fixed to swing, force required to tilt table with 4 load cells. Loads are
the swing up to 8 is measured and measured as the table is moved
CG height is calculated from vertically and rotated in yaw, pitch,
force/angle data. Pitch moment of and roll. Force data is used to
inertia can also be measured. calculate CG location and moments
of inertia in yaw, pitch, and roll. 5-13
Weight Transfer
As a vehicle accelerates either laterally (cornering), or
longitudinally (braking/acceleration), an inertial force is
applied to the vehicle’s Center of Gravity.
Since the CG is above ground, these inertial loads are
reacted by vertical loads on each tire—load on the outside
tires increases in cornering and load on inside tires
decreases. In braking, load on the front tires increases and
load on the rear tires decreases. This is called weight
transfer.
The CG location above ground also creates body roll
(cornering) and pitch (braking/acceleration).

5-14
 V2
Weight Transfer—Cornering ay = M
R
Summing moments about Point O: T T
Ma yH = FzR − FzL
2 2
T
Ma yH = (FzR − FzL )
2
May Ma yH FzR − FzL
=
T 2
H Weight Transfer
Mg Amount of weight transferred
from inside wheel to outside
Point O wheel while cornering
FzL FzR
T
2 Weight transfer depends on the
T weight of the vehicle, the CG
FzL FzR height and the track width.
Note: Does not include suspension effects or tire deflection.
5-15
 ax = braking deceleration
Weight Transfer—Braking
Summing moments about Point O: MaxH = FzF b − FzR c
Assuming CG is near center of
wheelbase, bcWB/2:

WB
MaxH =(F zF − FzR )
2
Max MaxH FzF − FzR
=
H WB 2
Point O
FxF FxR Weight Transfer
Mg
b c Amount of weight transferred
WB from rear wheels to front
FzF FzR wheels while braking

Weight transfer depends on the

weight of the vehicle, the CG height
and the wheelbase.
Note: Does not include suspension effects or tire deflection.
5-16
Weight Distribution—Tire Effects
Vehicle handling performance is closely tied to tire
performance, and tire performance is a direct function of
the load on the tires.
Therefore, basic handling characteristics of the vehicle are
determined by its tires and the weight distribution of the
vehicle.
As a vehicle corners, accelerates or brakes, the load on the
tires changes, thus affecting the performance of the tires.
In most cases, this has a negative effect on tire and vehicle
performance.

5-17
Weight Distribution—Tire Effects
As the load on a tire increases, the tire’s effective
“coefficient of friction” decreases. Increasing the load on a
tire makes it less efficient in producing cornering force.
Cornering Coefficient vs Load
1.20
Goodyear
P235/65R17
Wrangler HP
1.00 33 psi inflation
7.00" rim
Cornering Coeff (lbs/lb)

0.80

Slip Angle
0.60 (deg)
1
3
5
0.40
7
9

0.20 11
13
15
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Load (lbs)
5-18
Weight Distribution—Tire Effects
Tire performance is commonly plotted as cornering force vs
slip angle for various loads.

P235/65R17 Wrangler HP 7.00 in Rim Width

Cornering Force 0 deg Camber
Load (lbs)
749
2500
Increasing 1125
1500
2000 Load
Cornering Force (lbs)

1875
2250
1500

1000

500

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Slip Angle (deg)

5-19
Weight Distribution—Tire Effects
At low cornering forces (“on center”), tire properties can be
treated as linear. For the example vehicle, the properties of
the tires at the static front & rear loads can be linearized as
shown below.
P235/65R17 Wrangler HP 7.00 in Rim Width
Cornering Force 0 deg Camber
Load (lbs)

2500 1125
305 Lb/deg 252 Lb/deg
Cornering Cornering
2000
Cornering Force (lbs)

Stiffness Stiffness 1500

1500

1000

500

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Slip Angle (deg)

5-20
The basic understeer / oversteer characteristic of the
vehicle is determined by the tire properties and the static
corner weights:
K = Understeer Coefficient (deg/g)
Wf Wr Wf = Front weight (lbs or N)
K= − Cf = Front tire cornering stiffness (lb/deg or N/deg)
C αf C αr
Wr = Rear weight (lbs or N)
Cr = Rear tire cornering stiffness (lb/deg or N/deg)

From this equation it can be seen that a higher front weight

(Wf) will increase understeer, and a lower rear weight (Wr)
will also increase understeer.
Since most cars use the same tires front and rear, the
vehicle’s basic understeer performance is determined by
the weight distribution of the car and the tire properties.
5-21
Example—Jeep Liberty w/ P235/65R17 Wrangler HP Tires

Weight (lbs)
LF 1185 1119 RF 2304 F Total 53.5%

LR 1042 959 RR 2001 R Total 46.5%

4305 Total

959 lb 1042 lb
1119 lb 1185 lb

1152 1001
K= − = 4.57 − 3.97 = 0.59 deg/g
252 252
Positive understeer value indicates understeer—an additional 0.59
degrees of front wheel steer angle is needed per g of lateral
acceleration. This is due solely to the weight of the vehicle and the tire
properties.
5-22
 Example—Jeep Liberty at GVW

Weight (lbs)
LF 1315 1249 RF 2564 F Total 45.8%

LR 1560 1477 RR 3037 R Total 54.2%

5601 Total

1249 lb 1315 lb
1477 lb 1560 lb

1282 1519
K= − = 4.66 − 4.98 = -0.32 deg/g
275 305
When loaded to GVW, this vehicle and tire combination shifts from a curb
understeer of +0.59 to an oversteer of -0.32 due to weight and weight
distribution.

5-23
 Example—Liberty Tires on Grand Cherokee

Weight (lbs)
LF 1466 1399 RF 2865 F Total 54.2%

LR 1175 1245 RR 2420 R Total 45.8%

5285 Total

1245 lb 1175 lb
1399 lb 1466 lb

1432 1210
K= − = 4.70 − 4.80 = -0.1 deg/g
305 252
Negative understeer value indicates oversteer. This is due solely to the
weight of the vehicle and the tire properties. The same tires on vehicles
with different weights can result in very different handling characteristics!

5-24
Example—Liberty Tires on Dakota at Curb Weight

Weight (lbs)
LF 1180 1220 RF 2400 F Total 57.6%

LR 890 880 RR 1770 R Total 42.4%

4170 Total

890 lb 880 lb
1220 lb 1180 lb

1200 885
K= − = 4.56 − 4.33 = 0.23 deg/g
263 204
Using the same tires on a vehicle with a similar total weight but higher front
weight distribution results in a 60% lower understeer coefficient.

5-25
 Example—Liberty Tires on Dakota at GVW

Weight (lbs)
LF 1200 1240 RF 2440 F Total 40.6%

LR 1790 1780 RR 3570 R Total 59.4%

6010 Total

1780 lb 1790 lb
1240 lb 1200 lb

1220 1785
K= − = 4.64 − 5.36 = -0.72 deg/g
263 333
When loaded to GVW, this vehicle and tire combination shifts from a curb
understeer of +0.23 to oversteer of -0.72 due to weight and weight
distribution.

5-26
 What about using different size tires to compensate for weight
distribution?
This has been done on some cars, but poses practical
problems…spare tires, tire rotation, etc.
Tire Size
Vehicle Front Rear
2015 Mustang GT350R 255/40ZR19 275/40ZR19
2015 SRT Viper 295/30ZR18 355/30ZR19
2013 Porsche 911 Turbo S 235/35R19 305/30R19
2013 BMW M3 245/35R19 265/35R19
2011 Jaguar XJ 245/45R19 275/40R19
2010 Infiniti G37 Convertible 225/50R18 245/45R18
2010 Hyundai Genesis Coupe 225/45R18 245/45R18
2008 Chrysler Crossfire 225/40R18 255/35R19
2008 Cadillac SRX 235/60R18 255/55R18
2007 Cadillac STS 235/50R18 245/45R18
2006 Lexus IS250 225/45R17 245/45R17 Not larger tires,
but more tires
2008 Smart FourTwo 155/60R15 175/55R15
2012 Ram 3500 235/80R17 (2) 235/80R17
2008 Pontiac Grand Prix GXP (FWD) 255/45R18 225/50R18 Larger front tires
2018 Audi RS3 Dynamic Package 255/30R19 235/35R19
5-27
Weight Transfer—Tire Effects
Tire performance is highly load dependent. While absolute tire cornering force
increases with load, it does so at a decreasing rate. The coefficient (cornering
force / vertical load) decreases as the vertical load increases.
P235/65R17 Wrangler HP 7.00 in Rim Width
Cornering Coefficient 0 deg Camber
33 psi Inflation Load (lbs)
749
1.20
1125
Cornering Coefficient (lbs/lb)

1.00 1500
1875
0.80 2250

0.60
Increasing
0.40
Load
0.20

0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Slip Angle (deg)
5-28
Body Roll
The amount of body roll when cornering is a function of the weight of the
sprung mass, the location of the CG, the lateral acceleration and the front and
rear suspension roll stiffnesses. M a D
Roll Angle =
S y

KF + KR


Roll Angle

Note: Above equations don’t include tire deflection or lateral shift of CG with roll 5-29
Body Roll—Camber Change
Vehicles with independent suspensions typically have camber change with
body roll. Camber on the outside wheel becomes more positive when
cornering.

C
L
Body Roll Angle Camber Angle



Tire camber angle changes with

body roll. Outer tire camber
becomes more positive, which
decreases tire grip.
5-30
 Body Roll—Camber Change
Camber change values range from about 0.5 to 1.0 degree of camber change
per degree of body roll, with an average value of 0.76 deg/deg for front
suspensions and 0.67 deg/deg for rear suspensions.
When tire camber becomes positive, cornering force is reduced. A typical rule of
thumb is that the camber coefficient is about 10% of the slip angle coefficient, so
for every degree of positive camber change, the cornering coefficient is reduced
by about 10%.

For the truck shown at right, initial (static)
camber is -0.1 deg, the roll gradient is
6.89 deg/g, and the roll camber change
coefficient is 0.748 deg / deg.
At a lateral acceleration of 0.7 g, the
resulting camber is:
 = -0.1 deg + 0.7 g * 6.89 deg/g * 0.748 deg / deg = +3.5 deg
Note: Camber
Static Lateral Roll Roll Camber Actual Camber change due to
Camber Accel. Gradient Coefficient at 0.7 g compliance is not
included.
Body Roll Angle
5-31
Camber Change due to Body Roll
 Rollover
Assuming equal left-right weight distribution: Mg = FzR + FzL
Mg
FzR = FzL =
2

Cornering Ma yH FzR − FzL

May Weight =
Transfer:
T 2
Ma yH Mg
H
Mg
For 100%
Weight Transfer:
=
(inside wheel lifts off
T 2
ground)
ay T
FzL FzR =
T g 2H
2
T
FzR SSF
FzL
Static Stability Factor

Note: This also assumes a rigid suspension 5-32

 Rollover
NHTSA studied rollover traffic accidents and established correlation between
Static Stability Factor and the likelihood of a rollover:
49 CFR Part 575 [Docket No. NHTSA-2001- 9663; Notice 3] RIN 2127-AI81
Rollovers per Single Vehicle Crash

Static Stability Factor (SSF)

5-33
 Rollover
Even when making allowances for results of the fishhook test, Static Stability
Factor is still the primary determining factor in rollover accidents. These results
are used to determine the “star” ratings for rollover.

49 CFR Part 575 [Docket No. NHTSA-2001- 9663; Notice 3] RIN 2127-AI81
Rollovers per Single Vehicle Crash

Static Stability Factor (SSF)

5-34
Ride—Weight Effects
Vehicle weight affects ride in many ways, directly and indirectly. Generally,
weight is detrimental to ride, however there are some ride advantages to
increased weight.
Ride Frequency
Since vehicles are tuned to a ride frequency, and that frequency is determined
by the weight of the vehicle and the stiffness of the springs, heavier vehicles
require stiffer springs:
k k = spring rate
Ride Frequency = ω = m = mass supported by spring
m
As the weight of the vehicle increases (m), the spring rate has to increase in
direct proportion. This results in bigger, heavier springs and increased loads
into the suspension and body/frame from them.
As spring rates increase, the amount of damping from the shocks / struts must
also increase. This results in higher damping forces into the suspension and
body and may require larger shocks or struts.

5-35
Ride—Weight Effects
Sprung to Unsprung Weight Ratio
The ratio of sprung mass (the vehicle body and everything in it) to unsprung
mass (wheels, tires, knuckles, suspension components) is also important for
ride. In general, a heavier sprung mass (more body weight) improves ride by
making the ratio better (higher). However, there are many aspects of ride, and
for harshness in particular, a lower sprung to unsprung mass ratio can be
beneficial.

5-36
Ride—Weight Effects
Roll and Pitch
As with braking and cornering, pitch and roll motions of the vehicle in ride
increase as sprung weight and center of gravity height increase.
Roll motion of the vehicle can be reduced with stiffer stabilizer bars, but there
are tradeoffs in ride. Stabilizer bars do not increase the ride rate of the vehicle,
except in one-wheel inputs. When the wheel on only one side of the vehicle
hits a bump, the stabilizer bar acts as a spring and increases the rate and
therefore the ride frequency of that wheel. This results in a stiffer, less
comfortable ride.
Pitch ride motion of the vehicle increases with weight and CG height but can be
managed with tuning of the front & rear ride frequencies. However, pitch under
braking is difficult to counteract.

5-37
Comparison
Subaru BRZ vs Jeep Renegade
The Jeep Renegade and Subaru BRZ have nearly identical dimensions, except
for height.
Subaru BRZ Jeep Renegade
Overall Length (mm) 4236 4233
Wheelbase (mm) 2573 2570
Overall Height (mm) 1285 1731
Front Tread Width (mm) 1494 1540
Rear Tread Width (mm) 1482 1540
Driver H-Point Height (mm) 392 705
Tire Size 215/45R17 215/60R17
CG Height (mm) 457 649

Sources:
Renegade: Vehicle Information Workbench Advanced Vehicle Synthesis CAD Model VIW DPM003302381-A03 and SPMM Tests 479 & 521
BRZ: Vehicle Information Workbench Advanced Vehicle Synthesis CAD Model FC00AAP23317-A00 and
https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a28101697/toyota-supra-vs-86-center-of-gravity-claim-tested/
5-38
Comparison
Subaru BRZ vs Jeep Renegade
The Jeep Renegade and Subaru BRZ have nearly identical dimensions, except
for height. However, there is a significant difference in handling and braking
performance between them.

Jeep
Subaru BRZ Renegade
Overall Length (mm) 4236 4233
Wheelbase (mm) 2573 2570
Overall Height (mm) 1285 1731
Front Tread Width (mm) 1494 1540
Rear Tread Width (mm) 1482 1540
Driver H-Point Height (mm) 392 705
Tire Size 215/45R17 215/60R17
192mm (7.6”) difference
CG Height (mm) 457 649
in CG Height!
Sources:
Renegade: Vehicle Information Workbench Advanced Vehicle Synthesis CAD Model VIW DPM003302381-A03 and SPMM Tests 479 & 521
BRZ: Vehicle Information Workbench Advanced Vehicle Synthesis CAD Model FC00AAP23317-A00 and 5-39
https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a28101697/toyota-supra-vs-86-center-of-gravity-claim-tested/
Summary
Weight, weight distribution, and center of gravity height all have significant
effects on the performance of a vehicle. From a vehicle dynamics perspective,
some of the basic characteristics of ride & handling are determined by the
weight, weight distribution and CG height and cannot be “tuned around”.
Effects of increased weight:
(-)More tire required for cornering, braking, and acceleration performance
(-)More body roll/pitch
(-)Positive camber with roll—loss of tire cornering grip
(-)Stiffer springs / stabilizer bars & shocks needed to meet ride and
roll targets
(-)More weight transfer
(-)Weight transfer reduces tire performance
(+)Higher sprung to unsprung weight ratio, which generally improves some
aspects of ride

5-40
 Summary (continued)
Weight Distribution (along with tire performance) determines the basic
understeer / oversteer characteristics of the vehicle. In general, higher front
weight increases understeer, higher rear weight reduces understeer.

Effects of increased Center of Gravity height

(-)More body roll/pitch
(-)Positive camber with roll—loss of tire cornering grip
(-)Stiffer springs / stabilizer bars & shocks needed to meet ride and
roll targets
(-)More weight transfer
(-)Weight transfer reduces tire performance
(-)Reduced rollover stability
“If you get the physics right, everything else falls into
place. A low center of gravity is key.”
-Franco Cimatti, Ferrari, Car and Driver, Vol. 60 No. 2, August 2014
5-41
References
• Center of Gravity Information (calculation, estimation, measurements):
https://teamsites.nafta.fcagroup.com/sites/IHdatabase/Lists/Vehicle%20Dyn
amics%20Database/DispForm.aspx?ID=3810

5-42
References
• Attitude Chart Web Application: http://acwa.stf.chrysler.com/hat/index.aspx
• NHTSA website: www.safercar.gov

5-43
 Basic Vehicle Dynamics
Part 6 Subjective Evaluation

6-1
 Vehicle Evaluation
Objective & Subjective
There are two primary means of evaluating, measuring or assessing
vehicle performance; subjective and objective.
Both methods have advantages and disadvantages.
Both methods are used extensively throughout the vehicle
development process to assess vehicle status vs. objectives and
targets.
To get the best results from either type of evaluation, it is necessary
to use good techniques in both conducting the evaluation and
analysis of the results.

6-2
Customer Wants / Needs Regulatory Requirements
(Nearly all Subjective) (Nearly all Objective)

Functional Objectives
(Mostly Objective, Some Subjective)

Evaluation
vs Objectives

Objective Evaluation Subjective Evaluation

6-3
 Subjective Evaluation
Subjective evaluations are used extensively in Vehicle
Dynamics, almost exclusively at the vehicle level. Examples
include:
•Ride
•Handling
•Steering
•NVH
Subjective evaluations take into account all “channels” of data
in the vehicle and human perception of them. This is
representative of how customers feel and perceive their
vehicles. Subjective evaluation allows qualitative evaluation
of vehicle characteristics, and summarizes them into a single
or small number of ratings.
6-4
 Subjective Evaluation
“Without data, you’re just another with an opinion”

Or a customer!
There are not always means of quantifying, measuring and
analyzing customer wants, yet pleasing customers is absolutely
critical.
Conversely, being able to acquire and analyze data does not
guarantee that customers will be satisfied.

“Computer models are good, but they’re not perfect. Nor are
test drivers. They are both created by humans.”
Mac Demere, Tire Review December 2011
http://www.tirereview.com/computer-models-vs-real-world-tire-scenarios/

6-5
 Subjective Evaluation
Pros
•Simple, no equipment required
•Quick, typically no analysis required (although possible)
•Qualitative, not quantitative
•Gives customer based perception of entire vehicle

Cons
•Requires experienced, knowledgeable evaluators for best results
•Less controlled, less repeatable
•Does not always give clear direction in resolving issues
•Doesn’t always show incremental improvements
•Difficult to “filter out” other vehicle issues

6-6
Why is Subjective Evaluation So Important?

Anticipated Path

Actual Path
Driver
Driver Vehicle
Input Response
Environmental &
Road Conditions Environment

Path Traveled
Vehicle
6-7
Why is Subjective Evaluation So Important?

-- -- -- PERCEIVER

Human Perception
• Noise
• Frequency
• Velocity
• Displacement
• Acceleration
• Jerk
• Snap
• Decay

6-8
 Why is Subjective Evaluation So Important?
Sources of information with the
greatest impact on vehicle
purchasing decisions

Test drives have the

biggest impact on
vehicle purchases.
Test drives are subjective
evaluations!

Enprecis poll of 1500 car buyers regarding the top three sources of information that have
the greatest impact on their vehicle purchasing decisions. 6-9
Why is Subjective Evaluation So Important?
“What we call ‘feel’ in a car is a notoriously slippery concept. In part, it’s the
vehicle’s dynamic response to driver input, in part our response to NVH of the
vehicle, in part our aggregated response to the human-machine interface
components (seat, steering wheel, shifter and so forth) and in part our
perception of ourselves in the thing.” Steve Thompson
Autoweek Volume 57, Issue 5, January 29, 2007

“In all areas of dynamics, it seems, there are characteristics that influence the
customer...for which there isn’t yet a perfect metric.” Simon Newton
Vehicle Dynamics International October 2008

“The human being is fantastic sensor and analyzer. He is probably the best we
have today at analyzing a complete situation with the blink of an eye. We don’t
have technical systems that can do that yet. ” Klaus Kompass
BMW Vice President-Safety
WardsAuto.com December 4, 2013

6-10
Why is Subjective Evaluation So Important?

“Q: How confident would you feel about developing a car purely in the lab?
A: This is not a good idea. At the end of the day this is a car. In a lab, with
measurement and simulation you can reach a very good level of
prototypes, but you need to have a human being driving a car on the road
to give the final tuning that gives a car a character. This is not possible in
the lab.”
Philippe Krief, Fiat
Automotive Testing Technology International, June 2010

“I don't think we will ever completely get rid of people drivers. Our 5 senses
and our brain that compute all that information is still a wonderful machine.
And occasionally you want to put a person in there to sense how a vehicle's
doing.”
Dave Payne, Manager of Vehicle Development Operations, Ford

6-11
Why is Subjective Evaluation So Important?
“Subjective evaluation, instrumented objective testing and CAE simulation are all
credible methods…But what method, or combination of methods, should engineers
choose, and why?
Subjective evaluation remains a very important tool for many reasons. Simply put,
the ultimate and most important evaluation of a vehicle is a subjective evaluation by
the paying customer. If a customer perceives steering efforts are too high, body-roll
control is poor or impact harshness is unacceptable, no amount of objective or CAE
data showing the performance is best-in-class, competitive or even meeting targets
will change their mind. Rightly or wrongly, the customer’s perception is reality.
…the human body is a very capable data-acquisition system, which is able to
acquire many channels of sound, vibration, vestibular and visual data at very high
sampling rates with minimal set-up time. When performed diligently, subjective
evaluation by experienced development engineers is an invaluable tool to create
exceptional vehicles.”
John Heider
Cayman Dynamics LLC
Vehicle Dynamics International June 2010

6-12
 Vehicle Evaluation
Plan
Why (objective), What (vehicles, references, events), When (program timing, climate), Where
(location, road, route, rotations), Who (expert evaluators, jury, customers), How (multiple
vehicles, parts changes, blind evaluations, rating sheets, questions)
Prepare
Prepare and document the vehicle(s)
Plan and document the routes, events, or maneuvers to be used
Plan the vehicle rotations, driver changes, parts changes, etc.
Evaluate
Get comfortable in the car
Familiarize yourself with the controls
Eliminate distractions
Drive consistently and focus on the vehicle’s responses
Minimize environmental effects
Record Ratings & Comments
Choose and use a rating scale consistently
Record both ratings and comments
Document & rate based on observations, don’t hypothesize about causes or solutions
Analyze Results
Use a valid analysis method to get the desired information
Rankings
Consensus Ratings
RIDIT 6-13
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Evaluation Objectives (Why)
Identify the purpose of the evaluation
Examples:
• Benchmarking
• Compare Vehicles / Components / Systems
• Identify issues
- Steering, Suspension, Tires, Handling, Steering, Ride,
NVH
• Verify that vehicle meets functional objectives
• Verify vehicle performance in production

6-14
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Vehicle Selection (What)
How many vehicles?
• Test or Evaluation Vehicles
• Mule/Prototype/VP/Production build level
• Different Trim Levels
• Engine
• Drive Train
• Tires / Suspension packages
• Reference / Control / Baseline vehicles for comparison
• Competitive Vehicles for Benchmarking / Comparison

6-15
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Vehicle Selection (What)
Vehicle Loading
• Passengers
• Fuel replenishment
• Cargo / Ballast
• Amount
• Location
• Fore / Aft
• Height
• Trailer
• Class / Hitch Type Required
• Weight
• Frontal Area
6-16
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Evaluators (Who)
Types of Evaluators
• Expert Evaluators - customer base surrogate
• Know the program, market segment, competitors
• Typically Vehicle Integration, Vehicle Dynamics
• Component / System Experts
• Know one system intimately
• Know system performance across market segment
• Examples: engine calibrators, transmission calibrators
• Random/neither
• “Customers” – know what they like individually
• Need a large pool or jury to get complete representation
of customer base
• Make sure they represent the market segment
6-17
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Timing (When)
Program Timing
• Early—benchmarking
• Throughout program—development
• Program phase timing, component release timing
• Validation
• End of each program phase / beginning of next phase
• At Launch
• In production

6-18
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Timing (When)
Seasonal Timing
• Cold / Hot Trips
• Snow Testing
• 40F Threshold
Time of Day
• Daylight (sunrise / sunset)
• Traffic

6-19
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Location (Where)
Terrain
• Elevation / elevation change
Roads
• Speeds
• Straight, steady state
• Curved
• Road surface
• Road inputs
Climate
• Cold / Hot Trips
• Snow Testing
• 40F Threshold
6-20
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Environmental Conditions (Where & When)
Environmental Conditions are difficult to control but can have a
significant effect on vehicle performance.
Strive for consistency in conditions when evaluating!
• Temperature—can affect steering, handling, braking, ride, NVH
• Wet conditions—affect steering, handling, braking, traction, noise, ride
• Surface type and water depth have significant effects
• Snow—affects steering, handling, braking, acceleration
• Density, packing, and temperature have significant effects
• Wind
• Headwinds/tailwinds affect wind noise and powertrain performance
• Sidewinds affect wind noise, steering, handling
• Wind gusts vs steady state
6-21
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Environmental Conditions (Where & When)
Natural Rubber Temperature Sensitivity
Avoid comparison rides below 40F
• Rubber compounds in bushings, tires, and
0.5 Hz
mounts change properties at about 40 F 16 Hz
and below. Shock oil viscosity also

Shear Modulus, MPa

changes at lower temperatures. Compound B

• Unpredictable component changes at

temperatures below 40 F prevent
comparison of parts (i.e. is the difference
observed due to the parts changed, or the
temperature change?)
Compound A

Continental regards winter tires as -70 -20 32 85

outperforming summer at ambient Temperature, F
From Engineering Design with Natural Rubber, The
temperatures of 7°C (44°F) or below. Malaysian Rubber Producers’ Research Association, 1992
(SAE Automotive Engineering Online Dec 12, 2011)
6-22
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Environmental Conditions (Where & When)
A few evaluations can be done on “wet” roads.
If the road surface is dark, but not shiny, evaluations such as
drift/pull, shake, and gross ride can be carefully done.
Only wet handling / traction evaluations can be done on roads that
are “shiny wet” or have standing water. Use care to make sure that
the “wetness” of the road is consistent between multiple
evaluations.

6-23
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Route (Where)
Route
• Loop vs point to point
• Repeated events
• Focus on evaluating,
not navigating
• Distance / time
• Traffic
Driver Changes
• Rotation schedule
• Locations

6-24
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Evaluation Method (How)
Blind vs Informed Evaluations
• Blind evaluations are usually less biased
• Informed evaluations may provide more clarity
Rating Scale
• Pick a rating scale and use it consistently
• Provide rating scale with or on rating sheets
Rating Sheets
• Rating sheets can be used to focus on the right
characteristics
• Include numerical ratings, comments and space for
additional observations

6-25
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Subjective Rating Scales
Rating
(SAE J1060) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Acceptability Unacceptable Borderline Acceptable
Some Not
Observed by All Observers Most Observers Critical Observers Trained Observers
Observers Observed
Barely
Description Intolerable Severe Very Poor Poor Marginal Acceptable Fair Good Very Good Excellent

FCA US NVH Rating Scale

Subjective Vehicle Rating System
Feature Customer
Rating Condition Description
Description Reaction
10 Subjectively undetectable Perfect --
9 Trained observer must be tuned in and looking for condition Excellent --
8 Condition detected by only the most perceptive customer Very Good Delighted
7 Customer seldom aware of the condition Good Satisfied
6 Customer frequently aware of condition but doesn’t consider it a problem Fair Aware
5 Condition less than desirable or competitive and borders on annoying Borderline Disappointed
4 Condition annoying and correction desired Poor Annoyed
3 Condition unacceptable and must be fixed Terrible Angry
2 Intolerable to all customers Ridiculous --
1 Painful or destructive Impossible --

6-26
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Subjective Rating Scales
Because of the small change in vehicle performance resulting
from many component changes, it is often necessary to break
the customary 1-10 point rating scale into finer increments to
reflect differences in performance. There is no standard for
fractional changes, but the following can be used for reference:

1 point Major difference Noticed by most customers

0.5 point Significant Difference Noticed by some customers
0.25 point Difference Noticed only by critical customers
+ or - Minor difference Used to rank changes of similar performance

6-27
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Rating sheets and description of characteristics to rate

Vehicle Dynamics Database - RIDIT

Analysis for Subjective Ratings
(fcagroup.com)
6-28
 Vehicle Evaluation--Planning
Evaluation Method (How)
Absolute Ratings (typical for benchmarking, final “sign-off”)
• Consistent Location
• Rotation schedule—repeat evaluations
Comparison (relative) Ratings (typical for development)
• Control part / vehicle
• Control re-runs
• Single vehicle with multiple changes
• No vehicle variation
• Downtime due to parts changes
• Multiple vehicles with no part changes
• No downtime for parts changes, can repeat evaluation
multiple times
• Variation between vehicles may mask the effects of the part
changes
6-29
 Vehicle Evaluation--Preparation
Prepare the Vehicles
• Check content—correct trim, powertrain, options for desired
evaluation
• Clean inside and out, especially the windshield
• Check fluids, replenish as needed
• Fuel to desired level (usually full)
• Set tire pressures
• Check and set (if necessary) alignment & ride heights
• Set to desired loading conditions
• Passengers
• Ballast / Cargo
• Trailer
6-30
 Vehicle Evaluation--Preparation
Prepare the Vehicles
• Set tire pressure to placard (or desired) pressure.
• Set tire pressure with the tires at outside ambient temperature
(“cold pressure”).
• Check the tire pressure daily on multi-day trips.

6-31
 Vehicle Evaluation--Preparation
Record vehicle data
• VIN, Fleet #, License Plate
• Model, trim, market, etc.
• Powertrain
• Component Information—part #, durometer, size, valve code,
construction #, etc.
– Tires, springs, shocks, bushings, stabars, steering gear,
mounts, etc.
• Mileage, prior usage
• Corner weights

6-32
 Vehicle Evaluation--Preparation
Vehicle Signoff Sheet—Documents vehicle, system, and components.
Core Dynamics Vehicle Test Signoff Sheet Pg 1/2 Core Dynamics Vehicle Test Signoff Sheet Pg 2/2

Requesting Engineer SL&PG Work Order Number VEHICLE HAS BEEN REVIEWED AND FOUND TO HAVE NO MAJOR ELECTRICAL AND/OR
Phone Request Date Requesting Engineer Initials
Pager / Cell Phone
Email THE TEST VEHICLE WILL BE RETURNED TO THE REQUESTING ENGINEER IF CORE DYNAMICS
CANNOT TEST VEHICLE DUE TO MAJOR ISSUES.
Vehicle Information
Program Make/Model I ACKNOWLEDGE THAT THE INFORMATION LISTED BELOW IS ACCURATE AND THAT THE VEHICLE
Design Level (S0, V1, etc.) Trim Level IS BUILT TO THIS CONFIGURATION. ACTUAL MEASUREMENT RESULTS ARE EXPECTED FOR THE
Engine (Displacement/#Cyl) Model Year ALIGNMENT SETTINGS & RIDE HEIGHTS, NOT RECOMMENDATIONS.
Driveline (FWD/AWD/RWD) VIN Requesting Engineer Initials Vehicle Dynamics Chassis Controls
Transmission (Auto/Manual) Fleet #
Plate # THE CORE DYNAMICS TEST & MEASUREMENT GROUP WILL NOT CHANGE THE FOLLOWING
Overall steering ratio NOTE: OSR is required for Instrumented Handling and FMVSS-126. SETTINGS UNLESS REQUESTED BY AN ADDITIONAL WORK ORDER FROM THE REQUESTING

GVW Rating Suspension Sales Code (SDC, SDD, etc.)

GAWR Rating-Frt / Rear Steering System Specifications
Gear Number
T-Case C-Factor / Ratio
T-Case Setting AWD T-Bar
Auto 4WD Valve
Full Time 4WD
Other Suspension Specifications - Front
Spring Code/PN/Rate - L/R
Instrumented Handling Shock PN/Valve Code
Stabilizer Bar PN/Code/Dia
Fishhook NOTE: A minimum of 2 complete sets of tires and wheels are required for each fishhook test. Ride Height - L/R
ESC On Caster - L/R
ESC Switched Off: Single Push Push & Hold Camber - L/R
ESC Disabled/Disconnected (Please provide instructions for disabling/disconnecting) Toe - L / Total / R

FMVSS 126 NOTE: A complete set of new, unused mounted tires are required for each test. Suspension Specifications - Rear
Spring Code/PN/Rate - L/R
Objective Ride Measurement (Unless otherwise specified, driver's seat will be used.) Shock PN/Valve Code
Stabilizer Bar PN/Code/Dia
Comments Ride Height - L/R
Camber - L/R
Toe - L / Total / R
Thrust Angle

ESC Specifications
Hardware Part No.
Software Version

Tire Specifications
First Test Tire
Tire Manufacturer
Tire Model
Tire Size
Tire PN / Construction Code / DOT Code
Test Tire Pressure (psi) - F / R
6-33
 Vehicle Evaluation--Preparation
Plan and Document the route, events or maneuvers
• Document what roads, surfaces, events, etc. will be used to
evaluate the vehicle.
• Document the vehicle speed and driver input (steering, throttle,
brakes) to be used.
• For evaluations involving multiple drivers, provide route
instructions and/or maps.
• Indicate what vehicle characteristics are to be evaluated at what
time and or location.

6-34
 Vehicle Evaluation--Preparation
Plan vehicle rotations, driver changes, parts changes
• For evaluations with multiple vehicles and drivers, a schedule
and rotation plan is needed.
• Typically “rotate back” is used--the vehicles are kept in order, and the
drivers move back one vehicle at each rotation (driver of the last vehicle
moves to the front).
• For longer evaluations consider the need to re-fuel, restroom
breaks, meals, etc.
• For evaluations involving parts changes, consider the sequence
of parts changes to minimize downtime.
• For example, when evaluating different tire pressures, start with the
higher pressure, since it is easier to let air out of the tires than it is to put
more in.
• Think about other effects from parts changes—will the alignment or ride
height be changed? Should it be re-set?

6-35
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Get Comfortable
• Adjust the seat for an upright seating position.
• You should be able to fully depress the brake and clutch pedals
without moving in the seat. Adjust the seat and/or pedals as
needed.
• You should be able to place your wrist at the top of the steering
wheel without leaning forward. Adjust the steering wheel,
seatback and/or seat position as needed.
• Adjust the mirrors so that you can see traffic beside and behind
you without turning your head to look in the mirror.

6-36
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Get Comfortable
Adjust the mirrors so
that you can see traffic Near Near

beside and behind you Mid

Peripheral Peripheral
Mid

without turning your Peripheral Peripheral

head to look in the Far

Peripheral
Far
Peripheral
mirror.

http://www.caranddriver.com/features/how-to-adjust-your-mirrors-to-avoid-blind-spots
6-37
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Get Comfortable
• Seatbelt On
• Lap belt should be across the hips, snug but not tight.
• Adjust the turning loop to just above your shoulder to keep
the shoulder belt across your chest.
• Familiarize yourself with the controls—shifter, wipers, lights,
HVAC, windows, etc.
• Adjust HVAC
• Comfortable temperature, fan low to middle setting.
• Minimize distractions
• Radio & cell phone off, windows & sunroof closed.

6-38
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Minimize distractions
• No distractions or outside influences
• No cell phones, Blackberries, radio, video, MyGig, etc.
• Minimal conversation if more than one person in vehicle.
• It may help to discuss what you are sensing while you evaluate, but not
so much that you miss events or become distracted.
• Sit in the same seat for all evaluations

6-39
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Drive consistently and focus on the vehicle’s responses
• Both hands on steering wheel
• Hands at 9:00—10:00 and 2:00—3:00 positions.
• Firm but not tight grip.
• Avoid hooking your thumbs around the steering wheel rim
• Use the “dead pedal” to brace your left foot when not on clutch
or brake pedal.

6-40
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Drive consistently and focus on the vehicle’s response
• In a multiple vehicle evaluation, ideally drive every vehicle
before rating any of them. This will help separate vehicle
response and the level of inputs.
• For example, if the first vehicle is very noisy over an unfamiliar road
surface, is it due to vehicle characteristics or the severity of the road?
• Drive the same route:
• Same driver inputs
• Same road
• Same lane
• Same position in lane
• Same speed
• Same bumps & potholes

6-41
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Drive consistently and focus on the vehicle’s response

Relax!
• By being comfortable and familiar with the car, you can focus
on evaluating
• Similarly, familiarity with the route and events allow you to
focus more on evaluating
• Look far ahead and anticipate steering, brake, and throttle inputs
to the vehicle and events (corners, bumps, road surface changes,
etc.)
• Use your senses to look, listen and feel what the vehicle is doing
and not doing.

6-42
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Drive consistently and focus on the vehicle’s response
• Minimize time between back to back evaluations
• The fewer vehicles in a multi-vehicle evaluation the better
• Rotate vehicles often on road trips
• On multi-day/multi-vehicle trips, don’t write down ratings on
the first day, just record your notes and impressions. Wait until
you have spent time in all vehicles before rating them.

6-43
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Drive consistently and focus on the vehicle’s response
• Use a control vehicle or component
If evaluations will be done over multiple days, in different
locations, in different environmental conditions or by different
evaluators, it is important to repeat the “baseline” evaluation.
By evaluating the control before and after each evaluation or
series of evaluations, “drift” due to outside influences can be
reduced.
• Repeat the control evaluation
• Ride A / Ride B / Ride A
• Ride A / Ride B / Ride C / Ride A

6-44
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Record Ratings & Comments
• Record comments that:
• Describe what you sensed in the vehicle
• Not “ride is bad,” but rather “ride is too stiff” or “ride is under damped”
• Describe rather than diagnose
• “Ride under damped on large inputs”, not “shocks need more low speed rebound
damping.”
• Describe how you sensed it (audible, tactile, visual)
• Describe under what conditions (road, speed, driver input) you
sensed it. Include enough information so that someone else can
repeat it for themselves.
• Give comments and explanations that support your 1—10
ratings
• WHY is it rated a ‘6’? WHY isn’t it rated an ‘8’?

6-45
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Record Ratings & Comments
• Refer to the rating scale and give a rating that reflects what you
sensed in the vehicle.
• Don’t inflate or deflate ratings to make a point, give an honest
rating.
• Use fractional ratings if necessary to differentiate between
vehicles or parts changes.
Rating
(SAE J1060) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Acceptability Unacceptable Borderline Acceptable
Some Not
Observed by All Observers Most Observers Critical Observers Trained Observers
Observers Observed
Barely
Description Intolerable Severe Very Poor Poor Marginal Acceptable Fair Good Very Good Excellent

1 point Major difference Noticed by most customers

0.5 point Significant Difference Noticed by some customers
0.25 point Difference Noticed only by critical customers
+ or - Minor difference Used to rank changes of similar performance
6-46
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Record Ratings & Comments
• Avoid making conclusions until all rides are done
• It’s OK to revise your ratings after driving more vehicles, more
roads or for a longer time.
• Don’t let others’ ratings/comments affect yours
• There are no “right answers”—your ratings should reflect what you
sensed and where it lies on the rating scale.
• It’s OK to discuss perceptions, ratings and comments with other
evaluators, but don’t change them just to agree with what someone else
says. Remember there is a wide range of customers that we are trying to
satisfy, they will perceive vehicles differently.

6-47
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Subjective Evaluation Do Not:
• Don’t ride anything else between evaluations
• Avoid night evaluations
• More concentration required, less ability to evaluate.
• Difficult to drive as consistently due to reduced visibility.

• Avoid evaluations on wet/snowy/icy roads

• Avoid evaluations below 40F
(The average temperature in the continental United States is 52F*)

*NOAA data http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/

6-48
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Difficult Subjective Evaluations
• Road Noise:
• Use back-to-back rides on short stretches of road repeated as often as
necessary
• Be careful of wind noise effects
• Noise may change with seating position

• Harshness:
• Clearly define what is being evaluated, noise or feel or both
(it can be very difficult to separate the two)

6-49
 Vehicle Evaluation—How to Evaluate
Difficult Subjective Evaluations
• Fully Camouflaged Vehicles:
• Weight and CG height can be affected by cammo
• Driver’s view and perception of vehicle size affected by cammo.
• Wind noise and road noise can be affected by cammo

6-50
 Vehicle Evaluation—Results Analysis
Ranking
In most tuning/development work, one or two evaluators rate
changes on a relative basis (is part “B” better than “A”?), using a
single vehicle. The desired output is a relative ranking of changes,
and no real analysis of the ratings is required.
Control
Manufacturer GDYR GDYR
Tire Type AT/S AT/S
Size LT265 LT275
Pressure F/R 35/35 35/35
Construction # 8D0501A SO
1 2
Traction 4WD 7.25 7.5
Lateral Grip 4WD 7 7
Steering 4WD 7 7.5
Transient 4WD 7 7
Braking 4WD 7 7
Controlability 4WD 7 7
Overall Rating 7 7.25
COMMENTS/OBSERVATIONS
TIRE 1: Traction good. Steering OK, doesn't climb out of ruts well. Braking OK.
8D0501A

TIRE 2: Noticeably faster speed at constant RPM. Easier to steer out of and across ruts.
Surprising amount of acceleration from a standing start. Lateral grip & braking similar to
SO
control tire. 6-51
 Vehicle Evaluation—Results Analysis
Consensus Ratings
When more than two people do an evaluation, they may review and
discuss their ratings and reach a “consensus” rating that they all
agree reflects the performance of the vehicle(s), system(s) or
part(s) evaluated.
Typically their ratings are qualitatively combined (not averaged)
and their comments are compiled to reach a single agreed upon
rating with corresponding comments.

6-52
 Vehicle Evaluation—Results Analysis
RIDIT Analysis
When larger groups of people do evaluations, there are many more
ratings and typically more spread in the ratings, making it difficult
to rank the vehicles or reach consensus ratings.
The spread or scatter in the ratings doesn’t mean they are wrong or
not useful, it reflects the range of “tastes” that a larger group of
people will have. But it is still important to somehow compare the
vehicles and separate the good from the bad.

6-53
 Subjective Evaluation Results
Periodically throughout a program, “jury rides” or group
evaluations are done, in which a group of people evaluate and
compare several vehicles.
Consider 3 people evaluating a group of 3 cars:

Subjective Ratings
10
Vehicle 1
Vehicle 1 Vehicle 2 Vehicle 3 9 Vehicle
Vehicle3221
Vehicle
Vehicle
Evaluator 1 6 7 5 8 Vehicle 3
Evaluator 2 7 8 6 7
Evaluator 3 5 5.5 4.5 6

0
Evaluator 1 Evaluator 2 Evaluator 3

6-54
 Subjective Evaluation Results
Evaluators 1 and 2 gave the three vehicles different absolute ratings, but
the same relative ratings (i.e. Vehicle #1 is 1 point worse than #2, Vehicle
#3 is 2 points worse than #2.
Evaluator 3 gave lower absolute ratings and smaller relative differences
of 0.5 pt between Vehicles #1 and #2, and 1 point difference between
Vehicles #3 and #2.
10
Vehicle 1
Vehicle 1 Vehicle 2 Vehicle 3 9 Vehicle 2
Evaluator 1 6 7 5 8 Vehicle 3
Evaluator 2 7 8 6 7
Evaluator 3 5 5.5 4.5 6

0
Evaluator 1 Evaluator 2 Evaluator 3

6-55
 Subjective Evaluation Results
Even with these variations in ratings, it is clear that all three evaluators
rated vehicle #2 is the best. Further more, all three evaluators rated #2
better than vehicle #1 by the same increment that vehicle #3 is worse than
vehicle #1.

10
Vehicle 1
Vehicle 1 Vehicle 2 Vehicle 3 9 Vehicle 2
Evaluator 1 6 7 5 8 Vehicle 3
Evaluator 2 7 8 6 7
Evaluator 3 5 5.5 4.5 6

0
Evaluator 1 Evaluator 2 Evaluator 3

6-56
 Subjective Evaluation Results
Even with inconsistent absolute and relative ratings in this simple
example, valid conclusions can be drawn. As the number of evaluators,
vehicles and number of rating categories increase, it becomes more
difficult to reach conclusions, so a more structured approach is needed to
extract information from the subjective ratings.
RATINGS
K. Jeff
Eric Marty Nancy Roger Paul Mitch Nagappan Namir Jerry Oswaldo Tom Derek
Evaluator's Name Bob Wilkins Jac Brow n Al Vieira Kevin Selwa Joe Croke Kaumeheiw Orzechow Phil Jansen
Keipper Morse Vitale Moore Spevetz wehrly Sekkappan Konja Budnick Sanchez Wentw orth Malecki
a ski
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ride N= 118
Overall ride perception 7.75 8 6 6.75 7.5 6.5 6 6.75 7.5 6 6.5 8 6.5 7.5 7.5 7 8 5 6 8
Primary ride balance and control 8 8 6 6.8 7.5 7.5 6 7 7 7 6.5 8 7 7.5 7 7 8 6 6 7.5
Impact Harshness (Feel / Noise) 7.8 9 4 6.5 7 6.5 6 6.5 7 7 8 5.5 8 8 6 7.5 6 5 8
Rough Road Shake 8 9 6 6.5 6.5 7 5 5.8 7 8 7 8 5.5 7.5 7.5 6.5 7 5 5 7.5
Smooth Road Shake 7.5 9 8 6.8 7 5 7 7 7 7 8 6 7 8 7 7 5 5 8
Headtoss 7 8 8 6.8 8 6 6 6.3 7.5 7 6 8 6.5 7.5 7.5 6.5 7 6 5 7.5

Routine Handling N= 100

Yaw Response 7.5 8 7 6.3 8 7 6 7 7.5 7.5 6 8 7 8 7 6.5 8 6 7 7
Roll Angle 8 8 6 6.3 7 7 6 6.3 7 7.5 6 8 7.5 7.5 7 6.5 8 6 7 7.5
Body Control 8 8 7 6.3 7.5 7.5 6 7 7.5 7.3 6 8 7.5 8 7.5 6.5 6.5 5 7 7.5
Nimbleness / Maneuverability 7.8 8 6 6.3 8 7 6 6.3 7 7.5 6 8 7 8.5 7.5 6.5 6 6 7 7
Confidence on winding Roads 7.8 8 6 6.3 8 7 6 6 7.5 7.5 6.5 8 7 8.5 7.5 6.5 6.8 6 7 7

Steering N= 50
Low Speed Effort (5-30 mph) 8 6.5 6.5 7.5 7 9 7.5 6.5 6 7
High Speed Effort (30+ mph) 8 6.5 7 7.5 6 8.25 7 7 6 7.5
Effort Gradient 8 6.5 6.5 7.5 6.5 8.25 8 7 6 7
On-Center Response 8 6.5 7 8 6.5 7 7.5 6 7 7.5
Off-Center Response (Linearity) 8 8 7 8 6.5 8 8.5 6.5 7 7
 Subjective Evaluation Results
When the ratings are plotted, it becomes a little easier to draw conclusions,
but some means of further analyzing the results is still needed.

6-58
 Subjective Evaluation Results
The most common practice is to average these types of subjective
ratings together and compare the average values for each vehicle.
This is not statistically valid, because the subjective rating data is
not robust enough to permit averaging.
Brief review of statistics—types of data
• Nominal: Content is “alike/different than” – jersey
numbers
• Ordinal: Content is order or ranking – subjective jury
results
• Interval: Content is “x units more/less than” – equal
interval scale like a thermometer
• Ratio: Content is “x times greater/less than” – absolute
zero as reference http://www.usablestats.com/lessons/noir
6-59
 Subjective Evaluation Results
How can ordinal data from subjective evaluation be analyzed?
RIDIT Analysis—Relative to an Identified DIsTribution
RIDIT analysis legitimately transforms ordinal data (subjective ratings) to
a quantitative scale, where arithmetic operations can then be done on the
data to produce numbers that can be meaningfully interpreted.
RIDIT analysis is done early in the data reduction process, and makes
meaningful comparisons possible thereafter.
RIDIT analysis was developed in the 1950s to analyze subjective health
care data. It is appropriate for our subjective evaluations as well.

6-60
 Subjective Evaluation Results

RIDIT analysis cannot overcome the inherent limitations of the ordinal

data that from subjective evaluations, but it does provide a means to make
relative comparisons between the vehicles, components, or characteristics
evaluated.
RIDIT analysis also provides a confidence interval for the results, so that
the significance of differences can be understood.
Since RIDIT analysis makes relative comparisons between the items
evaluated, one of them is designated as a “target.” The target is assigned
a RIDIT score of 0.5, and the other items are scored relative to it, from 0
(better) to 1.0 (worse)

6-61
 Subjective Evaluation Results
In addition to producing RIDIT scores that allow comparison between the
vehicles, systems, or components evaluated, RIDIT Analysis also
produces confidence intervals for each score. A 95% confidence level is
typically used, and the corresponding size of the confidence interval
depends on the number of responses for each rating category.
Typically a minimum of 30 responses (number of evaluators x number of
ratings) are needed to provide good results. For example, to rate the ride
of a vehicle, a group of evaluators would be asked to rate several aspects
of ride. The ratings would be combined into a single RIDIT score for
“Ride.”
RIDE RATING COMMENTS
Control / Damping
Ride Frequency
Balance/Pitch
Comfort
Impact Shake
Impact Boom
Headtoss
Nervousness / Busyness
6-62
 Subjective Evaluation Results
Sample RIDIT Analysis Results
Powertrain
95% Confidence Interval

PM 49 Mule

Peugeot 307
Target Vehicle RIDIT Always 0.5
VW Golf (Euro Spec)

Ford Focus

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

Note RIDIT scores are “reversed” <--- Better RIDIT Score Worse--->

VW Golf is better than Peugeot and PM49 (with 95% confidence).

Ford Focus is equivalent to Golf, Peugeot, and PM49 (with 95% confidence).
6-63
 Subjective Evaluation Results
RIDIT analysis provides statistically valid analysis of subjective
ratings, allowing meaningful comparisons. Knowing the
confidence intervals of the ratings provides guidance in making
decisions—i.e. is the difference between two vehicles
significant?
RIDIT analysis should be used when sufficient data is available
( 30+ ratings per vehicle), typically from a ride & drive or jury
evaluation. As long as each participant rates all of the vehicles
in a consistent manner, the results can be analyzed and
conclusions can be made.

6-64
 Summary
• Subjective Evaluations represent the human perception of a
vehicle than cannot be captured by measured data. As such,
they are an integral part of the development process.
• Subjective evaluation is not just driving around. Proper
planning, preparation and execution are required for a good
evaluation.
• Results from subjective evaluations can be treated in several
ways. Just averaging the values, however, is not one of them.

6-65
 References
• RIDIT information and spreadsheet:
https://teamsites.nafta.fcagroup.com/sites/vehdyn/Lists/Vehicle%20Dynamic
s%20Database/DispForm.aspx?ID=1415
• SAE J1060 Subjective Rating Scale for Evaluation of Noise and
Ride Comfort Characteristics Related to Motor Vehicle Tires
• Platzer, G., "The Geometry of Automotive Rearview Mirrors -
Why Blind Zones Exist and Strategies to Overcome Them,"
SAE Technical Paper 950601, 1995
• Driver’s Handbook—Don Palmer Driving,
http://www.donpalmer.co.uk/knowledge.html
• Car Control Handbook—Don Palmer Driving,
http://www.donpalmer.co.uk/knowledge.html

6-66
Basic Vehicle Dynamics

Part 7--Introduction to Dampers

 Dampers

• Purpose of Dampers
• Damper Types and Valving
• Performance Testing
• Development of Dampers

7-2
 What do Dampers do?
Primary function:
• Control (damp) the storage and release of energy in
the suspension spring due to road inputs.
Secondary functions:
• Control (damp) energy in secondary spring
elements.
• Limit suspension travel in jounce and/or rebound.
• Provide location and attachment for a spring.
• Act as a structural member (strut).

Video
Primary Function of Dampers

7-3
 What do Dampers do?

Primary function:
• Control (damp) the storage and release of energy in
the suspension spring due to road inputs.

Spring with no Damping Spring with Damping

Time Time

7--4
 What do Dampers do?

Secondary Function—Rebound Springs

• Internal spring in damper
• Adds stiffness only in rebound
direction
• Can improve handling by
coupling unsprung mass to
sprung mass during cornering.
• Reduces body roll and can
improve stability

7-5
 What do Dampers do?
Front Rear Rebound Springs
Free Travel to Free Travel to
Rebound Rebound
Engage Point Engage Point
Spring Rate Spring Rate
from curb from curb
Vehicle N/mm mm N/mm mm
PF None 19.5 0.0
UF None None
KL 7.5 3.8 10 9.4
LA/LC
LD/LX
None None

WK/WD None Yes

MK Yes Yes
MP Yes Yes Free Travel

JC None None
RU None Yes
DS Yes Yes
FF None Yes

Free Travel
7-6
 What do Dampers do?

Secondary Function—Mini Struts / Coilovers

• Acts as a damper.
• Spring is attached.
• Stabilizer bar may be attached.

How do mini struts differ from shocks?

•Components more robust than shocks.
•Piston rod OD may be larger.
•Provisions for mounting spring.

7-7
 What do Dampers do?

Secondary Function--Struts
• Acts as a damper.
• Structural member, acts as a slider.
• Rigidly attached to front knuckle.
• Spring may be attached.
• Stabilizer bar may be attached.
• Steer arm may be attached.

How are struts different from shocks?

•Components more robust than shocks.
•Piston rod OD is larger.
Typically 18 to 25 mm vs typical shock 11 to 14 mm.
•Side load increases friction.
7-8
 What do Dampers do?
Secondary Function--Struts
• Not all struts have coil springs attached.
• Strut suspensions are not limited
to small vehicles.

1995 Mercedes-Benz Sprinter van strut

suspension with transverse leaf spring

The Automotive Chassis, Reimpell et al, 2001

7-9
How Dampers Provide Damping

• Convert kinetic energy (motion) into heat by forcing

fluid through a variety of restrictions.

• Heat is dissipated from shock fluid to the

environment through the shock body.

• Damping forces are primarily velocity sensitive.

• Damping forces typically are not linear with velocity

and are different in different directions
(compression/extension).

• Dampers may also generate forces that are a

function of position, acceleration and temperature.

7-10
How Dampers Provide Damping
—Adjustable & Adaptive Dampers
Adjustable and adaptive dampers also produce
damping by forcing fluid through restrictions.
• Adjustable dampers vary the damping produced by
changing the size and or number of restrictions or by
changing the preload on restriction valves.
• Adaptive dampers vary damping produced by
electronically changing the size and or number of
restrictions or by changing the preload on restriction
valves.
• Electrorheological / magnetorheological dampers vary
damping forces by changing the viscosity of the fluid
being forced through restrictions. 7-11
 Suspension and Damping Forces

Simple suspension model: force proportional to spring

displacement and shock velocity.
k = spring rate
Force = kx + cxሶ x = spring displacement
Spring Damping
Force Force c = damping coefficient
ẋ = damper velocity
F

k
c X

7-12
 Actual Damping Forces
A simple linear damping coefficient “c” does not represent
actual damping forces accurately.
Force

Jounce Rebound

Velocity

7-13
 Suspension and Damping Forces
Real World:
• The multi-speed valving characteristics of the damper
permit flexibility in tuning the damper.
• Different valving circuits in compression (jounce) and
extension (rebound) of the damper permits further
flexibility.
• Dampers may also generate forces that are a function of
position, acceleration and temperature, and other factors.
Force=kx+ c1 x x+c2 xሶ x+c
ሶ 3(x)
ሷ x+c
ሷ 4 T + F + Fgs+Kgs…
Spring Other Forces
Force
Damping Force
k = suspension spring rate c1,c2, c3, c4 = damping functions
x = spring deflection T = temperature
xሶ = damper velocity F=Friction
x=ሷ damper acceleration Fgs=rod reaction force
c1,c2, c3, c4 = damping functions Kgs=gas spring rate 7-14
 Damper sizing & packaging:
For a damper to produce damping
forces, it must have both a
displacement and velocity input.
• A motion ratio closer to 1:1 will
improve both damper speed and
displacement.
• Larger piston and rod diameters
displace more fluid and, allow
better tuning.
• A larger diameter rod results in a
higher rod reaction force.
• A larger piston results in lower
internal pressures for same force.
7-15
 Dead Length
D

Dead Length = A + B + C + D + E + F
A = Rod Guide Length A

B = Piston Length Basic Damper Design

C = Base Valve Height
F
D = Upper Mount Dead Length
Mounting & Other B
E = Lower Mount Dead Length Options
F = Rebound Stop (optional) Length

Max Travel = (Extended Length – Dead Length) /2 E

7-16
 End Mounts
Shock absorber end mounts serve three purposes:
• To provide a means of attaching the shock absorber to the chassis and
suspension.
• To accommodate misalignment between the upper and lower mounting
brackets throughout the range of suspension travel.
• To provide isolation from road inputs.

Common Types of Shock Absorber End Mounts Stud Mount Components

7-17
 Bushings

Bushing Degrees of Freedom Voided Bushing

7-18
 Basic Damper Types
Twin Tube Monotube

Piston Rod

Seal

Rod Guide
Gas Charge
Piston

Shock Oil

Floating
Compression Head Piston
Gas Charge
(Base Valve)

7-19
 Monotube vs. Twin Tube
Advantages / Disadvantages of Twin Tube and Monotube Shock Absorbers

Twin Tube Monotube

Cost Less More

Weight More Less
Packaging Less dead length. Minor external Longer dead length. Minor
damage OK. Must be mounted external damage can cause failure.
upright. Can be mounted in any position.
Rod Reaction Force Low High
Sealing Requirements Moderate High
Fade Performance Moderate Better

7-20
 Remote Reservoir Dampers
A remote reservoir damper can
function similar to a twin tube or a
monotube damper.

Piston Rod
Remote Reservoir

Gas
Charge
Shock Oil
Rod Guide & Seal

Floating
Piston Piston

Flexible (hose) or
Optional Rigid Connection
Valving 7-21
Example of Twin Tube Coil Spring Blow Off Valving

7-22
Example of Twin Tube Deflected Disc Valving

7-23
 Typical Damper Valving Operation
Typical damper valving designs have at least
three distinct flow paths to control damping
at low, mid, and high speeds.
Low speed damping is usually provided by a
very small orifice.
Mid speed damping is controlled by a valve
that progressively opens and closes with
increasing pressure.
High speed damping is usually provided by
an orifice or restriction.
Damping in compression and rebound are
controlled separately.
Note:
Very crude rule of thumb:
Low speed = 0 to 8 in/sec (0 to 0.2 m/s)
Mid speed = 6 to 30 in/sec (0.15 to 0.75 m/s)
High speed = 25+ in/sec (0.6 + m/s) 7-24
 Typical Damper Velocities
LF Shock Absorber Velocity--South Tortuous Rd.
1.25 50

1.00 40 High Speed

0.75 30

0. 50 20
Shock Velocity (in/sec)
Shock Velocity (m/sec)

Mid Speed
0. 25 10

0 0 Low Speed

-0.25 -10
Mid Speed
-0.50 -20

-0.75 -30

-1.00 -40 High Speed

-1.25 -50

-1.50 -60
125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135
Time (sec)

Example time history of shock absorber velocity from a Durango

(HB) on South Tortuous Road at Chelsea Proving Grounds.
7-25
Typical Twin Tube Damper Valving Operation—
Compression

Low Damper Speed Mid Damper Speed High Damper Speed

7-26
Typical Twin Tube Damper Valving Operation—
Rebound

Low Damper Speed Mid Damper Speed High Damper Speed

7-27
Typical Monotube Damper Valving Operation—
Compression

Floating piston Floating piston Floating piston

Low Damper Speed Mid Damper Speed High Damper Speed

7-28
Typical Monotube Damper Valving Operation--
Rebound

Floating piston Floating piston Floating piston

Low Damper Speed Mid Damper Speed High Damper Speed

7-29
 Idealized Force Velocity Curve
Low Speed Orifice
Rebound==>
Damping Force
<==Compression

<===Compression Damper Velocity Rebound===>

Ideal FV Characteristics of Valve Components

(assumes incompressible flow, no friction) 7-30
 Idealized Force Velocity Curve
Blow Off Valve
Rebound==>

Stiffness of valve
Damping Force

Preload on valve
<==Compression

<===Compression Damper Velocity Rebound===>

Theoretical Force – Velocity Curve

7-31
 Idealized Force Velocity Curve
High Speed Restriction
Rebound==>
Damping Force
<==Compression

<===Compression Damper Velocity Rebound===>

Theoretical Force – Velocity Curve

7-32
 Idealized Force Velocity Curve
Low Speed Orifice
Blow Off Valve
Rebound==>

High Speed Restriction

Damping Force
<==Compression

<===Compression Damper Velocity Rebound===>

Theoretical Force – Velocity Curve

7-33
 Idealized Force Velocity Curve
Low Speed Orifice
Blow Off Valve
Damping Force Rebound==>

High Speed Restriction

Total Force
<==Compression

<===Compression Damper Velocity Rebound===>

Theoretical Force – Velocity Curve
7-34
 Idealized Force Velocity Curve
Total Force
Damping Force Rebound==>
<==Compression

<===Compression Damper Velocity Rebound===>

Theoretical Force – Velocity Curve

7-35
 Other Sources of Damper Forces
Gas Spring
• As rod enters damper it displaces oil.
• To accommodate the rod displacement, a compressible medium,
normally a volume of pressurized nitrogen, must be provided in the
damper.
• Typical gas charge for a twin tube is 50--150 psi, for a monotube
250 psi.
• Monotube pressure has to be greater than pressure drop across the
piston in compression. Otherwise, air will separate from oil.

Friction Effects
• Friction comes from the rod seal, rod guide, and piston seal.
• Friction opposes motion in both directions.
• At low speeds (little damping) friction can be a significant portion of the
shock force.

7-36
 Gas Spring & Friction Effects

400 400

350 350

Gas Spring 300 300

Gas Spring
+ Friction 250 250
Force

Force
Force, N

Force, N
200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 Friction 0

-50 -50
-100 -50 0 50 100 -100 -50 0 50 100
Velocity, mm/s Velocity, mm/s
Displacement Displacement

7-37
 Friction & Gas Spring
800
~Static vs sliding
Force, 0.1 Hz excitation Friction
750

700 Force, 1.0 Hz excitation

650
Force (N)

600

550

500 2 x Friction

450 Gas pressure x rod area,

0.1 Hz excitation
400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Displacement (mm)

Friction and gas spring effects in a damper with no valving and minimal hydraulic drag

Breakaway friction shown at displacement extremes where velocity =0

Sliding friction more apparent at higher excitation.
Many test algorithms check gas spring at middle of stroke, and remove
this as a bias from the damper plots.
7-38
 Theoretical vs Actual Damper Force
300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0

Theoretical
Force

Force
Force, N

Force, N
-100 -100
Viscous
-200 Damping -200

-300 -300

-400 -400

-500 -500
30 40 50 60 70 -100 -50 0 50 100
Displacement, mm Velocity, mm/s
Displacement Velocity
600 600

500 500

400 400

300
300
Total Damper Force
including friction &
Force

Force, N
200
Force, N

200

Force
100 gas spring effects 100

0 0

-100 -100

-200 -200

-300 -300
30 40 50 60 70 -100 -50 0 50 100
7-39
Displacement, mm Velocity, mm/s
Displacement Velocity
 Temperature Effects
• Oil volume increases due to expansion.
• Gas pressure increases with temperature.
• Reduced damping as temperature increases due to loss of oil viscosity.
• Seals: degradation at higher temps (225 F), leakage at lower temps (-40 F).

1000
950
900 149°C
850 Increase in
gas spring Less
800
Force (N)

“stiffness” damping
Increase in
750 gas spring Compression Stroke (loss of oil
viscosity)
700 force
94°C
650
600
Rebound Stroke
550
500
0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06
Displacement (m)

Low speed test (0.5Hz) (little damping) Mid Speed test (2.0 Hz) (significant damping)
Bias shift in curves with change in temperature. Loss of damping at higher temperature.
Higher temperature, gas spring more progressive.

7-40
 Performance Measurement
Originally, all shock absorber dynamometers were
mechanical, with a crank driven by an electric motor.
The motor speed could be varied to change the
shock velocity, and the stroke was determined by Upper Mount
the attachment of the connecting rod to the crank. (fixed)

This produces a sinusoidal input to the damper, with

the amplitude determined by the crank arm length Force
Transducer
and the frequency determined by the motor speed.
Load Frame
Test Damper

Load Platform
(moving)

Connecting Rod

Crank

Electric Motor

7-41
Base
 Performance Measurement

Bottom Dead Center Crank at 90 Top Dead Center Crank at 270
Velocity = 0 Velocity = max compression Velocity = 0 Velocity = max extension
Stroke = Maximum Stroke = 0 (mid stroke) Stroke = Maximum Stroke = 0 (mid stroke)
extension compression
7-42
 Performance Measurement
Modern damper dynamometers are
typically computer controlled with
either hydraulic or electric linear
actuators. Various wave forms can
be used to test, sinusoidal, step,
triangular, track measurements, etc.
However, sinusoidal inputs are still
typically used.
Modern dynos have extensive
controls and instrumentation that
allows measurement of friction and
gas spring effects and the ability to
Computer Controlled Servo Hydraulic Shock Dyno
compensate for their effects in the
output data.
When reviewing data from tests on this type of dyno, it is important to understand
what compensation (if any) was done and how it was done.

7-43
 Sinusoidal Input

3 2
Displacement

Velocity
1

3
2 4 1
4

1 1

Time Time

Peak Velocity
Displacement Input Velocity Input (m/s)
Frequency 0.0
0.05 1 5
0.21
0.04 0.8 0.1
0.42 0.6
0.03
1.25 0.3
Displacement (m)

0.02 0.4

Velocity (m/s)
0.01 1.88 0.2
0 2.51 0
-0.01 0 1 2 3 4 5 -0.2 0 1 2 3 4 5
3.76
-0.02 -0.4
-0.03 -0.6
-0.04 -0.8
-0.05 -1
Time (sec) Tme (sec)

7-44
 Test Outputs

2
Extension

Extension
2
3

Force
Force

1 3
Compression

Compression
4

Velocity Displacement

Force-Velocity Plot Force-Displacement Plot

Force-Velocity curves are the most common type of Force-Displacement plots are less
output from shock dyno tests. commonly used, but they may be of use,
especially in diagnosing problems with
dampers.

7-45
 Test Outputs
2

2
3

Force
Force

1 3

Velocity Displacement

300 VW6 (.05m/s

300 VW6 (.05m/s
: Axial : Axial
250 Load) 250 Load)

200 VW6 (0.1m/s 200 VW6 (0.1m/s

: Axial : Axial
Load) Load)
150 150
VW6 (.3m/s VW6 (.3m/s
100 100
Force (lbf)
: Axial
Force (lbf)

: Axial
Load) Load)
50 50
VW6 (.45m/s VW6 (.45m/s
: Axial 0 : Axial
0 Load)
Load)
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1.6 -1.1 -0.6 -0.1
-50 -50
VW6 (.6m/s VW6 (.6m/s
: Axial : Axial
-100 Load) -100 Load)

-150 VW6 (.9m/s -150 VW6 (.9m/s

: Axial : Axial
Load) Load)
-200 -200
Velocity (m/s) Displacement (in)

7-46
 Force- Velocity Plot
Dampers are tested at different frequencies to get a series of peak
velocities.
Forces are recorded and peak force is plotted against peak velocity.
Many times, peak force does not occur at peak velocity.
Some equipment does not record actual peak velocity, it uses the
command signal, which is the target value.

7-47
 Force- Velocity Plot
Peak Force-Peak Velocity
Rebound--> 300

250

200

150
Damping Force

100

50

Velocity (m/s)
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
<--Compression

-50

-100

-150

-200

Typical Plot of Peak Force and Peak Velocity from each test cycle
7-48
 Force - Velocity Plot
What the data really looks like—hysteresis loops for each speed tested.
“Peak” force-velocity values are picked from the positive (rebound) and
negative (compression) ends of the curve.
Reported Peak Force / Velocity
Data Point
Rebound

Actual Data
Force

Peak Force not at Peak Velocity

Compression

Velocity
7-49
 Force - Velocity Plot
To enlarge the graph, the damping forces in compression are typically
plotted against the absolute value of velocity. This results in the more
familiar looking version of the Force-Velocity plot.
Rebound
Force
Compression

Velocity
7-50
 Peak Force - Peak Velocity Plot
1000
23 Speed
Development
800 Test
Rebound

600

400
Force
lbs

200

3 Speed Audit Test

0
Compression

-200

-400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Velocity
in/sec

Typical Peak Force - Peak Velocity Plot

7-51
 Peak Force - Peak Velocity Plot
1000
23 Speed
Development
800 Test
Rebound

600

400
Force
lbs

200

6 Speed Test
0
Compression

-200

-400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Velocity
in/sec

Typical Peak Force - Peak Velocity Plot

7-52
 Force- Velocity Data and Valve Codes
Many significant characteristics of dampers are not captured by 6 speed
(development) or 3 speed (production) audit tests. Dampers with identical
values in either test may ride very differently.
For this reason, the specification for the damper is the valve code, not the
target force-velocity values. The force-velocity measurements are an indirect
means of auditing the damper to make sure it is built correctly.
Valve codes should not be changed to meet force-velocity targets, shocks
should be evaluated to ensure the ride is correct and either the valve code or
the force-velocity targets should be changed to ensure that the ride is correct.
400

350

300
Gas Spring
250

Force
Force, N
200

150

100

50

Friction 0

-50
-100 -50 0 50 100
7-53
Velocity, mm/s
Displacement
 Displacement Curves
Steep Nose Angle

Rebound
Shallow Nose Angle
Nose Angle:

Force
Indication of low speed control & Blow
Off (valve opening)
Friction

Compression
Displacement

Recoil Lag

Rebound
Lag:
Air above piston. FORCE

Can indicate that the valve code is not

balanced
Compression

Purge path blocked

Lag on compression can indicate a low
fluid level in the damper DISPLACEMENT

7-54
 Displacement Curves

Rebound
Step:
Loose piston

Force
Loose mounts

Compression
Displacement

Rebound
Peaking:
Normal Curve
Reduction in gas volume due to oil Compression FORCE

expansion with temperature increase.

Typically, the rod seal will blow around Peaking
600 psi.
If you run a peaking test, protect yourself
DISPLACEMENT
and equipment from hot oil.
7-55
 Displacement Curves

Rebound
Hydraulic Lock/Position Sensitive:
End of stroke hydraulic lock will increase
damping force.

FORCE
Position sensitive damping will produce
similar curves.

Compression
Rebound bumper will produce similar
curve. Hydraulic Lock

DISPLACEMENT

7-56
What Happens in Production?
Damping Force Variation
• Typically shock orifices contribute more to variation than
valves.
– Orifice size drift with tool wear
– Orifice entry shape change with tool wear
• Contamination
• Blow off spring end condition, orientation
• Preload on spring variation
• Disc preload variation
• Piston assembly torque, component deflection
• Disc seat damage
• Wrong components 7-57
What Happens in Production?
Damping Force Correlation
• Throughout development, damping forces are measured
on “Take Apart” shocks in the shock supplier’s trailer.
• In production, damping forces are measured on “Sealed
Units” at the supplier’s manufacturing plant.
• Often these two measurements yield different results,
possibly resulting from:
– Dyno to dyno variation
– Take Apart vs Sealed Unit assembly process
– Prototype vs production parts and processes
– Break-in and wear on take apart shocks
• The reference remains the complete damping curves
from the “Ride Master” take apart shocks used to
develop the ride character of the vehicle. 7-58
 Summary
• The specification for a damper is the valve code, not the
force-velocity curve.
• There are many characteristics of shock performance
that are not reflected in a simple force-velocity curve.
• The primary function of a damper is to control the motion
of the sprung mass on the suspension. Controlling
unsprung mass motions and other vibrating systems in
the vehicle is a secondary function.
• Damping forces are highly non linear and asymmetric in
compression and rebound. They cannot be adequately
modeled with a simple damping coefficient.

7-59
 Lessons Learned
Ride Development
• Parts for ride development should be hard tooled, or certified to meet production parts.
• Parts for ride work should meet endurance testing requirements.
• For prototype parts, holes should have the same shape as production, ends are critical to achieve
good correlation.
• Prototype valving assembly should maintain the same preload as production process.
• Ensure communication between development and product engineering on valve codes.
• Test for valving balance, and purging.
• Test at low temperatures for noise.
• Friction due to side load and/or mounting can have a significant impact on ride.
• Shock to chassis attachments can impact valve code selection.
• Chart at consistent scales (low and mid/high speed).
• Correlate ride work force velocity curves to production audit speeds.
• Build multiple sets of “ride master” shocks to ensure repeatability. Some of these can be used to
study correlation between ride trailer dyno to plant dyno.
• Keep ride “masters” for future reference.
• Break in shocks for ride work--seal and bushing friction changes significantly in the first 100
miles.
• Dampers with the same peak force–peak velocity curves will not necessarily ride the same.
• At higher and lower speeds, many dynos will be inconsistent.
• Filters often add time lags to signals, which can result in a hysteresis loop that is not
representative of the actual damper.

7-60
 Lessons Learned (cont)
Design
•For a strut, the spring line of action should be such that the moment on the piston and rod guide
does not reverse. Otherwise, the movement of the piston and rod might result in a slap or noise.
•Ensure that parts are tested at lower and upper end of torque for mounting fasteners.
•Struts and shocks must pass washout testing (especially important with integral jounce bumpers).
•Specify the valve code. It determines the damping characteristics. Verify with Force
Velocity checks.
•Verify sufficient gas volume to eliminate potential of peaking (test at high temp).
•Avoid specifying force velocity test points at knees in curve, large variations in force can result from
small variations in velocity.

7-61
 Lessons Learned (cont)

PFMEA Checklist
•Contamination control
• For valving that is sensitive to contaminants (deflected disc) ensure a clean assembly room.
• Tube washing (pressure and reservoir) to clean tube.
• Review parts in storage for contamination, rust, damage.
• For units that are gas charged through an orifice after assembly, if the orifice is closed by welding,
ensure that there is proper control on the welding equipment (electrode replacement) so that the
welding process does not cause contamination.
•Review welding process and control (100 % proof test) on stabilizer brackets welded to strut body.
•Review controls of rod hardness, pay particular attention to brittle rods.
•Control of radius at diametric changes.
•Review rework and scrap procedures.
•Review temperature conditions during process (paint cure, wash) with regard impact on seal life.
•Review integrity of dimension controls on pierce locations of strut brackets for “as built” alignment.
•Robust assembly to ensure that base valve is properly located in the body, should be self guiding.
•Optimize choice of force/velocity check speeds to catch misbuilds. Avoid check speeds near knees
in Force-Velocity curve, as scatter in results will be much higher.

7-62
 References
•Theoretical Shock Absorber Design and Ridework, Charlie Sherman, Gabriel
Ride Control
•“An Investigation of the Influence of High Performance Dampers on the
Suspension Performance of a Quarter Vehicle”, Brian Warner & Subhash
Rakheja, SAE Paper 962552
•“An Analytical and Experimental Investigation of Friction and Gas Spring
Characteristics of Racing Car Suspension Dampers”, Brian Warner & Subhash
Rakheja, SAE Paper 962548
•Automotive Shock Absorbers, Features, designs and applications, Peter
Causemann, Verlag Moderne industrie, 2001 (available through Mannesmann
Sachs AG)
•The Shock Absorber Handbook, John C. Dixon, SAE International, 1999
•Ohlins TTX40 Shock Absorber Manual:
http://www.ohlinsusa.com/files/files/Inside_TTX_A4-Europe1.pdf
•OptimumG Technical Papers http://www.optimumg.com/technical/technical-
papers/ - Springs & Dampers Parts 1 Through 6
7-63
Basic Vehicle Dynamics

Part 8--Basic Ride

 Ride
• What is ride?
• How do you calculate ride frequency?
• Unsprung Weight
• Motion Ratio
• Flat Ride
• Suspension Travel
• Jounce Bumpers
• Friction
• More Motion Ratio
• Spring Rates
• What else affects ride?
• Can ride be measured?
8-2
 What is Ride?
Ride Definitions:
• Displacement, velocity, and acceleration transmitted to the driver
and passengers by large and small irregularities in the road.
• Vehicle Dynamics EBOK: “A general term characterizing the
quality of motion in a vehicle and the vehicle’s ability to carry its
occupants in such a manner that they are not disturbed by road-
induced noise, shock and vibration.”
• SAE:
Ride-The low frequency (up to 5Hz) vibrations of the sprung
mass as a rigid body.
• Vertical (Bounce)—The translational component of ride vibrations of
the sprung mass in the direction of the vehicle z-axis.
• Pitch—The angular component of ride vibrations of the sprung mass
about the vehicle y-axis.
• Roll—The angular component of ride vibrations of the sprung mass
about the vehicle x-axis. 8-3
 What is Ride?
Noise, Vibration, Harshness Definitions
• SAE J670e:
– Shake—The intermediate frequency (5-25Hz) vibrations of the sprung
mass as a flexible body.
• Torsional Shake—A mode of vibration involving twisting
deformations of sprung mass about the vehicle x-axis.
• Beaming—A mode of vibration involving predominantly bending
deformations of the sprung mass about the vehicle y-axis.
– Harshness—The high frequency (25-100Hz) vibrations of the structure
and/or components that are perceived tactually and/or audibly.
– Boom—A high intensity vibration (25-100Hz) perceived audibly and
characterized as a sensation of pressure by the ear.

8-4
 What is Ride?
Z
Vertical

Yaw

Pitch
Roll

X Y
Longitudinal Lateral
 What is Ride?
Basic (Primary) Ride
Pitch Bounce (vertical), pitch, roll
of sprung mass (body) on the
suspension springs. Typically
Roll ~1-3 Hz

Bounce
Secondary Ride
Harshness Higher frequency response of
Shake unsprung mass, body,
Noise powertrain, structure on
bushings, mounts, and other
“springs.”
8-6
What is Ride?
Noise
Noise contributes significantly to the
perception of ride harshness. Both the
amount (intensity) of noise and the
quality of the noise affect how a
vehicle’s occupants perceive harshness.

8-7
 What is Ride?
How is Ride described?
• Hardness / Stiffness—spring rate/natural frequency of suspension
• Float—lack of suspension damping
• Ride Balance—pitch of vehicle resulting from a road input.
• Shake—vibration resulting from a road or other input
• Harshness—noise and feel resulting from an abrupt input.
• Crashthrough—noise and feel when the suspension runs out of travel in
compression.
• Wheel Hop—vertical oscillation of the unsprung mass at the front or rear at its
natural frequency (typically 10-15 Hz) with left and right wheels in phase.
• Tramp—vertical oscillation of the unsprung mass at the front or rear at its natural
frequency (typically 10-15 Hz) with left and right wheels 180 out of phase.
• Head Toss—abrupt roll motion of vehicle due to road inputs.
• Plushness—feeling of isolation from and “rounding off” of road inputs.
• Joint Slap—noise and sometimes feel from expansion joints and small transverse
road inputs.
• Topping—abrupt end of suspension travel in rebound.
8-8
What is Ride?
 What is Ride?
Consumer Reports Ride Comments
buoyant rear at highway speeds
stiff and unsettled ride
supple and controlled
absorbent ride but unsettled
firm yet supple ride
constantly quivering body
Impacts are muted
firm and choppy ride with quick motions
ride is unsettled because of frequent ride motions
bounciness after hitting bumps
Body motions include some side-to-side jostling and fore-and-aft pitching
jittery ride motions at all times
rocking motions mar the ride
supple, controlled ride is marred by suspension noise
ride motions are slow and long, with a buoyant feel 8-10
 What is Ride?
“one reality has persevered through the last 80-plus years: objectively
measuring the ride comfort of a vehicle and correlating that data with
passenger’s subjective impressions of ride comfort is extremely difficult. There
are many reasons for this, but most prominent are the range of frequencies and
amplitudes encompassing a vehicle’s ride performance and how an
individual’s body reacts to those inputs.”
John Heider
Cayman Dynamics
Vehicle Dynamics International Nov-Dec 2019

8-11
What do you feel when you evaluate ride?
Hardness or Stiffness—determined by the ride frequency. Stiffer springs result
in a harder or stiffer ride, more input is transferred to the vehicle body and
occupants.
Pitch—fore/aft angular rotation caused by unequal displacement of the front &
rear suspensions. The human body is especially sensitive to pitch.
Damping/decay—determined by shock absorbers and to a lesser extent
bushings. More damping results in fewer cycles after an input.
Harshness—affected by bushings, structure, tires, sound package. Harshness is
as much sound as it is feel. Sound quality and level are big factors in perception
of harshness.

8-12
What do you feel when you evaluate ride?
Displacement Velocity
2 10
Decay
1
5
Displacement (in)

Velocity (in/s)
0

0 Amplitude
-5
-1

-10
-1

-2
Frequency
-15
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (s) Time (s)

Acceleration Jerk
1500
150

100
1000
Acceleration (in/s2)

50

Jerk (in/s )
3
500
0

-50 0

-100
-500
-150

-200 -1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Time (s) Time (s)

8-13
 What is Ride?
What does it all mean?
Primary Ride—low frequency (0-5 Hz) motion of the body on the springs.
Primarily Vertical and Pitch. Most cars have a ride frequency of 1.2—2
Hz.
Secondary Ride—higher frequency 5—15 (or 20) Hz motion (shake) of the
unsprung mass and possibly powertrain. May be vertical, lateral, fore-aft.
Most vehicles have unsprung natural frequencies in the 10—15 Hz range.
Shake—still higher frequency 10+ Hz vibration in the vehicle. Usually
structural or component driven, not rigid body motion.
Harshness—High frequency 25—100 Hz vibration and noise at even higher
frequencies resulting from abrupt inputs.

8-14
The wheelbase and seating position of a vehicle can have a
significant impact on the ride perceived by the driver and
occupants. Longer wheelbases generally give a better ride.

4

2

8-15
The wheelbase and seating position can have a significant impact
on the ride perceived by the driver and occupants

Jeep on Washboard
Video
8-16
 What is Ride?

Primary Ride
Sprung Mass
ms

cSusp
kSusp
Suspension
Springs
Secondary Ride
Unsprung Mass
mus
Tire “springs”
kTire cTire

Road Surface

8-17
 What is Ride?
Primary Ride—low frequency (0-5 Hz) motion of the body on the springs.
Primarily Vertical and Pitch. Most cars have a ride frequency of 1.2—2
Hz.

Ride Acceleration
10 Measured Data Measured Data
8 Calculated Primary Ride Frequency
6
Amplitude (m/s^2)

4
2
0
-2 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
-4
-6
-8
-10
Time (sec)

8-18
 What is Ride?
Secondary Ride—higher frequency 5 to 15 (or 20) Hz motion (shake) of the
unsprung mass and possibly powertrain. May be vertical, lateral, fore-aft.
Most vehicles have unsprung natural frequencies in the 10—15 Hz range.

Ride Acceleration
10 Measured DataMeasured Data
8 Calculated Unsprung Frequency

6
Amplitude (m/s^2)

4
2
0
-2 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
-4
-6
-8
-10
Time (sec)

8-19
 What is Ride?
Primary Ride— motion of the body on the springs.
Secondary Ride—motion of the unsprung mass

Ride Acceleration
10 Measured Data
Calculated Sprung + Unsprung
8
6
Amplitude (m/s^2)

4
2
0
-2 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
-4
-6
-8
-10
Time (sec)

8-20
What do you feel when you evaluate ride?

Basic Ride
• Ride frequency
• Is ride coupled with pitch?

8-21
 What is ride frequency?
Ride frequency is the natural frequency of
the spring-mass system consisting of the
m
mass of the vehicle and the effective
suspension stiffness.
k
1
Frequency(Hertz) = * k/m
2

8-22
How do you calculate ride frequency?

1
Frequency(Hertz) = * k/m
2
• English units:
• k = wheel rate in lbs / inch
• m = mass = weight (lbs)/gravity (386 in/sec2)

8-23
How do you calculate ride frequency?

1
Frequency(Hertz) = * k/m
2
•Metric units:
•k = wheel rate in Newtons per meter
•m = kilograms

8-24
 What is wheel rate, k?
k  suspension spring rate
k = wheel rate, the total stiffness at the wheel. It is the
combination of the suspension spring rate, the motion
ratio of the suspension, the suspension bushing
windup stiffnesses, jounce bumper stiffness, and shock
absorber gas spring stiffness

8-25
 What is wheel rate, k?
k=
suspension spring rate * (motion ratio)2 +
control arm bushing torsional stiffness effect +
stabilizer bar bushing torsional stiffness effect +
jounce bumper stiffness * (motion ratio)2 +
shock absorber gas spring stiffness * (motion ratio)2

8-26
 Why would you look at wheel rate plots rather than summary data?
Summary data typically lists a single spring rate value for rebound and compression,
independent of suspension travel. In reality, the spring rate maybe non-linear and
different in compression and rebound.

8-27
 What is mass, m?
m  vehicle weight (or mass)
m = sprung mass, or the mass of the portion of the
vehicle supported by the springs. This is the part of
the vehicle that moves on the springs.

8-28
What is sprung weight? What is unsprung weight?

Sprung Mass

Suspension
Springs

Unsprung Mass
Tire “springs”

8-29
How do you measure unsprung weight?

•Vehicle Method
•“Pile of Parts” Method
•a2mac1.com Method

8-30
 Unsprung Weight:
Vehicle Method
• Remove springs (and shocks if possible)
• Place scale under tire
• Jack under center of frame/body
• Bushing to body fasteners loose
• Scale reading = unsprung weight

8-31
 Unsprung Weight:
Pile of Parts Method
Weigh:
– Tire
– Wheel
– Brake rotor
– Brake caliper
– Hub/bearing
– Knuckle
– Control arms (use ½ of weight)

8-32
 Unsprung Weight:
a2mac1.com Method
Use “AutoReverse” section of a2mac1.com
Look up weights for:
– Tire
– Wheel
– Brake rotor
– Brake caliper
– Hub/bearing
– Knuckle
– Control arms (use ½ of weight)
8-33
 All methods
• Add ½ the weight of the spring times motion
ratio
• Add ½ the weight of the damper times
motion ratio
• Motion ratio is spring/damper travel divided
by wheel travel

8-34
 Motion Ratio

0.5”

1”

12”

24”

Spring Travel 0.5 12

Motion Ratio MR = = = 0.5 =
Wheel Travel 1.0 24

8-35
 Motion Ratio

T
L

d1
Simple Calculation: MR =
d2
ΔL
Better Calculation: MR = Spring Travel
Wheel Travel =
ΔT
8-36
Reminder--it’s actually a little more complicated…

ms=Sprung mass—mass of vehicle

ms body and everything that moves with
it.
kSusp cSusp
mus=Unsprung mass—wheel tire,
knuckle, hub, suspension components
mus “below” the suspension spring
kTire cTire Note that the tire acts as a spring &
Road
Surface damper system between the unsprung
mass and the road surface.

8-37
What ranges of ride frequencies should be avoided?

• Below 0.75 Hertz

– Dizziness and motion sickness in some humans

• 4 to 8 Hertz
– Fatigue occurs most rapidly in humans
– Some internal organs have natural frequencies
around 6—8 Hz

8-38
What ride frequencies were historically thought
to be acceptable?

• 1.5 to 2.3 Hertz

– What a human with a 30 inch pace produces
when walking at 2.5 to 4 mile per hour

8-39
 What ride frequencies are
common today?
Front Suspension Rear Suspension
Ride Rate Corner Unsprung Sprung Ride Rate Corner Unsprung Sprung Ride
Frequency Frequency
Vehicle wlo tire Weight Weight Weight wlo tire Weight Weight Weight Ratio
(Ib/in) (lb) (Ib) (lb) (hertz) (Ib/in) (lb) (Ib) (lb) (hertz) Rr/Frt
99 Volvo V70 XC 119 1032 100 932 1.12 131 832 100 732 1.32 1.18
2001 MB E320 4-Matic 117 991 100 891 1.13 148 964 100 864 1.29 1.14
Jeep KJ Liberty 126 1036 85 951 1.14 181 914 85 829 1.46 1.28
97 NS Chrysler T&C 148 1173 85 1088 1.15 145 880 85 795 1.34 1.16
Pacifica 160 1286 85 1166 1.16 153 1074 85 989 1.23 1.06
99 MB E320 4-Matic 121 985 100 885 1.16 150 960 100 860 1.31 1.13
97 Peugeot 306 GTI 110 850 85 765 1.19 113 468 85 383 1.7 1.43
99 Audi A6 Quattro 152 1070 100 970 1.24 172 864 100 764 1.48 1.2
131 907 85 822 1.25
2001 MB E320 2WD 144 969 85 884 1.26 NA
99 907 85 822 1.09
95 BMW M3 113 783 85 698 1.26 159 790 85 705 1.48 1.18
2001 VW Passat 163 1060 100 960 1.29 136 670 100 570 1.53 1.19
2000 Neon 134 836 75 761 1.31 127 510 65 445 1.67 1.27
2001 JR 161 1009 85 924 1.31 136 607 85 522 1.6 1.22
99 LH Dodge Intrepid 185 1125 85 1040 1.32 152 651 85 566 1.62 1.23
02 Jeep WG Grand Cherokee 197 1170 85 1085 1.33 184 1005 85 920 1.4 1.05

2000 VW Golf 107 797 85 712 1.21 105 586 85 501 1.43 1.18

8-40
History lesson: Maurice Olley’s
“Flat Ride”
1930’s problem: ride with a lot of rear kick

8-41
 Problem:
• Ride with a lot of rear kick
• Pitch coupled with ride
• Pitch frequency higher than ride frequency
Bounce
Pitch
Pitch + Bounce
Suspension Travel

Tim e

8-42
 Hypothesis

• Make pitch frequency = ride frequency

• Make pitch center = ride center

8-43
 Experiment to test Hypothesis

• Vehicle with adjustable

pitch and ride center
• Vehicle with adjustable
pitch inertia
• Ride frequencies can be
varied

Cadillac k2 rig
(From Chassis Design: Principles and Analysis,
Milliken & Milliken, SAE 2002)

8-44
 Dynamic Index

Pitch Inertia = mk2

• m = mass
• k = radius of gyration b c

• b = distance cg to front wheel center

• c = distance cg to rear wheel center
• k2/bc is called the “Dynamic Index”
• k2/bc  0.6 for vehicle shown (wheels at “ends” of vehicle)

8-45
Examples of Dynamic Index

k2/bc < 1
(most mass
b c inside
b c wheelbase)

k2/bc ≈ 1
(mass distributed
over wheelbase)
b c

k2/bc > 1
(Mass outside
wheelbase)

b b cc 8-46
 Hypothesis
• Make pitch frequency = ride frequency
• Make pitch center = ride center

Result:
• Resultant ride unsatisfying

8-47
“The thing we had missed was that the excitation at front and rear did
not occur simultaneously. The actual case was more like this--
Front Rear

Suspension Travel

Time
Wheelbase Lag
Time Lag=
Speed

Tim e

--with the angle of crossing of the two wave lines representing

the severity of the pitch.”
(From Chassis Design: Principles and Analysis, Milliken & Milliken, SAE 2002)

8-48
“By arranging the suspension with the lower frequency in front,
this motion could be changed to--
2
Front Suspension Rear Suspension Pitch

1.5

1
Suspension Travel

0.5

Pitch (deg)
0

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
Tim e

--a much closer approach to a ‘flat’ ride”

(From Chassis Design: Principles and Analysis, Milliken & Milliken, SAE 2002)

8-49
 Result:
• Resultant ride satisfying
• Liked k2/bc  1 (Achievable with independent front suspension)
• Liked rear ride frequency higher than front

8-50
 Typical Dynamic Index values

Unsprung Mass Sprung Mass Dynamic

Weight Front Rear Sprung - Pitch Index
Wheelbase Front Rear Total LF RF Axle LR RR Axle Unpsrung b c Inertia (Sprung
SPMM Loading Ratio mass &
Make Model [mm] [kg] [kg] [kg] [kg] [kg] [kg] [kg] [kg] [kg] [mm] [mm] [kg m2] inertia)
Veh #
717 Ram Promaster Curb 3441 1429.0 930.0 2359.0 71 71 0 0 0 106 8.5 1333 2108 6325 1.07
737 Subaru Forester Curb 2644 978.4 716.2 1694.6 60 60 0 52 52 0 6.6 1096 1548 2473 0.99
557 Chrysler RU Curb 3092 1129.9 914.9 2044.8 57 57 0 53 53 0 8.3 1366 1726 4146 0.96
709 Jeep KL Curb 2710 1029.6 760.2 1789.8 63 63 0 54 54 0 6.7 1130 1580 2667 0.96
121 Dodge RT Curb 3080 1141.2 907.7 2048.9 49 49 0 0 0 51 12.8 1383 1697 4129 0.93
333 Dodge WD Curb 3033 1281.8 1233.8 2515.6 74 74 0 74 74 0 7.6 1483 1550 4630 0.91
419 Fiat BF Curb 2612 923.5 610.5 1534.0 72 72 0 0 0 128 4.6 995 1617 1753 0.86
262 Fiat 500 Curb 2298 654.1 401.0 1055.1 37 37 0 34 34 0 6.4 829 1469 959 0.86
567 Chrysler RU PHEV Curb 3093 1316.3 1026.9 2343.2 57 57 0 53 53 0 9.7 1339 1754 4222 0.85
618 Ram DT Curb 3562 1454.7 1073.2 2527.9 79 79 0 0 0 210 5.9 1415 2147 5207 0.79
656 Jeep JL Curb 2456 930.8 870.5 1801.3 0 0 228 0 0 169 3.5 1216 1240 1649 0.78
703 Jeep JL Curb 3008 1041.9 953.9 1995.8 0 0 244 0 0 183 3.7 1472 1536 2530 0.71

8-51
 Front / Rear Ride Balance
2.5 2 2.5 2
Front Suspension Rear Suspension Pitch Front Suspension Rear Suspension Pitch
2 2
1.5 1.5
1.5 1.5
1 1
1 1
Suspension Travel (in)

Suspension Travel (in)

0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5

Pitch (deg)

Pitch (deg)
0 0 0 0

-0.5 -0.5
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1 Reduction in Pitch
-1.5
-1
-1.5
with “Flat Ride” -1

-1.5 -1.5
-2 -2

-2.5 -2 -2.5 -2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Tim e (sec) Tim e (sec)

Front Ride Frequency 1.2 Hz Front Ride Frequency 1.2 Hz

Rear Ride Frequency 1.2 Hz Rear Ride Frequency 1.44 Hz
Rear/Front Ratio 1.0 Rear/Front Ratio 1.2

Rule of thumb: Rear freq = 1.2 * Front freq for “flat ride”
(depends on wheelbase, assumed speed)
8-52
This work resulted in the so-called “Olley Criteria” for ride:

1. The front suspension must have a greater effective

deflection than the rear. Typically front deflection should
be at least 30% greater than the rear.
In other words, the spring center should be at least 6.5%
of the wheelbase behind the CG of the sprung mass.
2. The pitch and bounce frequencies should be close
together; Pitch Frequency
 1.20
Bounce Frequency
3. Bounce and pitch frequencies should not be greater than
77 cpm (1.3 Hz)

(From Chassis Design Principles and Analysis, Milliken & Milliken, SAE R-206)

8-53
The spring center is the longitudinal point on the chassis at which
a vertical force will cause equal deflection in the front & rear
suspension. The spring center location is calculated from the
equation:
Kr * c - Kf * b
Spring Center =
Kr + Kf

Center
Spring
Spring Center

Kf Kr

b c 8-54
 How do you develop a flat ride?

• Remove damping from vehicle

• Vary ratio of rear to front ride frequency

Rear Freq.
• 1st guess: = 1.15 to 1.20
Front Freq.

• Remember results will vary with speed

and wheelbase

8-55
 Additional finding
Best “ride” obtained with minimum damping
How does damping affect Ride?
– Added force in compression—resists suspension
movement
– Shifts frequency (natural vs damped frequency)
– All dampers have some amount of friction—resists
suspension movement
– Gas charged dampers also have “rod reaction force”

8-56
 Ride Calculations from SPMM Data
Kinematics & Compliance (SPMM) test results provide data that
can be used to do basic ride calculations.
The results of these calculations can be compared to the “Olley
Criteria” for good ride.
Included with the results of SPMM tests are ride calculations and
a comparison of them to the Olley Criteria.

8-57
Ride calculations are based on Fundamentals of Vehicle
Dynamics by Thomas Gillespie (SAE R-114) pages 172--178.
Bounce and pitch
frequencies are calculated
from the equation:

M = Mass of vehicle
SPMM Data

Note the , this equation will

have two roots, one will be the Calculated from
bounce frequency, one will be SPMM Data
the pitch frequency. SPMM Data from CG / MoI Test
Calculated from
SPMM CG / MoI Test

(From Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Gillespie, SAE 114) 8-58

 Bounce and pitch center locations are calculated from the
Z 
equation: x =  = −  −  2 using the previously calculated pitch and
bounce frequencies 1 and 2.

Bounce Mode Pitch Mode

Bounce Center Location Pitch Center Location

Note: The bounce center can be located ahead of or behind the vehicle at any distance.
The pitch center can be located anywhere within the wheelbase of the vehicle.
8-59
The calculated values are compared to the classic Olley ride
criteria to give an indication of the expected basic ride
characteristics of the vehicle. Note that the Olley criteria is based
on passenger cars and is not universally applicable. Very few
vehicles meet all of the criteria.
The Olley ride criteria is:
1a: Front spring deflection should be at least 30% greater than the rear or:
Mf Mr
 1.3
Kf Kr
1b: The spring center should be located at least 6.5% of the wheelbase
behind the CG
Pitch Frequency
2:  1.20
Bounce Frequency
3a: Bounce frequency  1.3 Hz
3b: Pitch frequency  1.3 Hz
(From Chassis Design Principles and Analysis, Milliken & Milliken, SAE R-206)
8-60
 SPMM Ride Analysis SPMM Data Source: VEHICLE: Vehicle 239: Dodge DJ 4x2 Std
Long S1 level 5.7L V8 ATX Truck

Example of ride
This spreadsheet is intended to automate the calculation of vehicle ride
characteristics and compare them to the "Olley Criteria." The calculations
are based on Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics by Thomas Gillespie (SAE SPMM CG/MoI Calculated
User Input
R-114) pages 172--178. Data Data Results
Comments:

calculations and Olley Vehicle Info

Source
Vehicle Info
Characteristic

Driver's Seat H-point X (from front axle)

Sign Convention

+ = behind front axle

Units

mm
L
Front

1476
R L
Rear
R

Workbench

criteria comparison from Kinematics &

Compliance Info
SPMM
Summary
Wheelbase
Corner Weight

Ride Rate N/mm

m
N 7124

49
6697

51
3.571
5415

59
5371

60

CG / MoI Info CG X + = behind front axle mm 1566

SPMM test results Suspension Info (optional)

(Can be used to calculate ride rates if
Pitch Moment of Inertia

Suspension Spring Rate

Motion Ratio
kg-m2

N/mm
7156

measured ride rates are not available.) Bushing Rate at Wheel N/mm
Tire Vertical Rate N/mm
Unsprung Weights N
Calculated Ride Rate N #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!

Calculated Values Axle Weight N 13821 10786

Total Weight N 24607
Total Mass kg 2508
Sprung Weights N 7124 6697 5415 5371
CG distance to Front Axle "b" m 1.565
CG distance to Rear Axle "c" m 2.006
Radius of Gyration k 2 m2 2.853
Dynamic Index k 2/bc 0.909
Front Ride Rate K f N/mm 100.1
Rear Ride Rate K r N/mm 118.7
 sec -2 87.236
 m/s 2 32.465
g sec -2 101.018
Z/θ1 Pitch or Bounce Center Location + = rearward of CG m -1.189 Pitch Center
Z/θ2 Pitch or Bounce Center Location + = rearward of CG m 2.400 Bounce Center
 12 114.55

 22 73.71

1 rad/sec 10.70

2 rad/sec 8.59

Pitch / Bounce Frequency 1 Hz 1.70 Pitch Frequency

Pitch / Bounce Frequency 2 Hz 1.37 Bounce Frequency

Front suspension ride frequency Hz 1.34
Rear suspension ride frequency Hz 1.65
Rear / Front Ride Frequency Ratio 1.23
Spring Center Location + = rearward of CG m 0.372
H point distance from CG + = rearward of CG m -0.089
+ = rearward of Spring
H point distance from Spring Center m -0.461
Center
Pitch Center distance from H point + = rearward of H-Point m -1.099

Olley Criteria 1a Front suspension deflection 30% greater than rear Mf/Kf / Mr/Kr  1.3 ? 1.52
1b Spring center located at least 6.5% of WB behind CG Spring Center / WB ≥ 0.065 ? 0.10
2 Bounce frequency less than 1.2 x pitch frequency Bounce Freq / Pitch Freq ≤ 1.2 ? 0.80
Bounce Frequency ≤1.3? 1.37
3 Neither bounce nor pitch frequency should be > 1.3 Hz
Pitch Frequency ≤ 1.3? 1.70

Bounce, Pitch, Spring Centers, CG and H-point DataS1for

VEHICLE: Vehicle 239: Dodge DJ 4x2 Std Long Plot
level X Truck Z
5.7L V8 ATX
Front Tire -0.438331 0.050
CG
Rear Tire 0.5616694 0.050
Pitch/Bounce Center
Front Pitch/Bounce Center -0.332892 0.150
Spring Center
Pitch/Bounce Center 0.672016 0.150
Driver H-Point
CG Location 0.000 0.150
Spring Center 0.1042158 0.150
Driver's Seat H-point -0.025001 0.150

8-61
SPMM Ride Analysis SPMM Data Source: VEHICLE: Vehicle 239: Dodge DJ 4x2 Std
Long S1 level 5.7L V8 ATX Truck
This spreadsheet is intended to automate the calculation of vehicle ride SPMM Vehicle info
characteristics and compare them to the "Olley Criteria." The calculations
are based on Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics by Thomas Gillespie (SAE SPMM CG/MoI Calculated
User Input
R-114) pages 172--178. Data Data Results
Comments:

Front Rear
Source Characteristic Sign Convention Units L R L R
Vehicle Info Vehicle Info
Driver's Seat H-point X (from front axle) + = behind front axle mm 1476
Workbench
SPMM Wheelbase m 3.571
N 7124 6697 5415 5371
Kinematics &
Summary Corner Weight

Ride Rate N/mm

Input Data
Compliance Info 49 51 59 60
CG / MoI Info CG X + = behind front axle mm 1566
Pitch Moment of Inertia kg-m2 7156

Suspension Info (optional) Suspension Spring Rate N/mm

(Can be used to calculate ride rates if
measured ride rates are not available.)
Motion Ratio
Bushing Rate at Wheel N/mm
Optional input data to
Tire Vertical Rate
Unsprung Weights
N/mm
N calculate ride rate
Calculated Ride Rate N #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0! #DIV/0!

Calculated Values Axle Weight N 13821 10786 Calculated ride rate

Total Weight N 24607
Total Mass kg 2508
Sprung Weights N 7124 6697 5415 5371
CG distance to Front Axle "b" m 1.565
CG distance to Rear Axle "c" m 2.006
Radius of Gyration k 2 m2 2.853
Dynamic Index k 2/bc 0.909
Front Ride Rate K f
Rear Ride Rate K r
N/mm
N/mm
100.1
118.7
Dynamic Index
 sec -2 87.236
 m/s 2 32.465
g sec -2 101.018
Z/θ1 + = rearward of CG m -1.189 Pitch Center Pitch & Bounce
Z/θ2 + = rearward of CG m 2.400 Bounce Center

1
2 114.55 Center Locations
 22 73.71

1 rad/sec 10.70

2 rad/sec 8.59

Pitch / Bounce Frequency 1 Hz 1.70 Pitch Frequency Pitch & Bounce

Pitch / Bounce Frequency 2 Hz 1.37 Bounce Frequency
Front suspension ride frequency Hz 1.34 Frequencies
Rear suspension ride frequency Hz 1.65
Rear / Front Ride Frequency Ratio 1.23
Spring Center Location
H point distance from CG
+ = rearward of CG
+ = rearward of CG
m
m
0.372
-0.089 Rear / Front Ride
+ = rearward of Spring
H point distance from Spring Center
Pitch Center distance from H point
Center
+ = rearward of H-Point
m
m
-0.461
-1.099
Frequency Ratio 8-62
 Olley Criteria 1a Front suspension deflection 30% greater than rear Mf/Kf / Mr/Kr  1.3 ? 1.52
1b Spring center located at least 6.5% of WB behind CG
2 Bounce frequency less than 1.2 x pitch frequency
Spring Center / WB ≥ 0.065 ?
Bounce Freq / Pitch Freq ≤ 1.2 ?
0.10
0.80
Olley Criteria
3 Neither bounce nor pitch frequency should be > 1.3 Hz
Bounce Frequency ≤1.3?
Pitch Frequency ≤ 1.3?
1.37
1.70 comparison
results.

Center of
PitchOlley
Center
Criteria
Driver’s H-Point
1a Front suspension ride rate 30% lower than rear GravityKf / Kr ≤ 0.7 ? Spring Center
0.84 Bounce Center
1b Spring center located at least 6.5% of WB behind CG Spring Center / WB ≥ 0.065 ?
Location Location
2 Bounce frequency less than 1.2 x pitch frequency Bounce Freq / Pitch Freq ≤ 1.2 ?
0.10
0.80
Location
3 Neither bounce nor pitch frequency should be > 1.3 Hz
Bounce Frequency ≤1.3? Location
1.37
Pitch Frequency ≤ 1.3? 1.70

Bounce, Pitch, Spring Centers, CG and H-point Data

VEHICLE: Vehicle 239: Dodge DJ 4x2 Std Long S1for Plot
level X Truck Z
5.7L V8 ATX
Front Tire -0.438331 0.050
CG
Rear Tire 0.5616694 0.050
Pitch/Bounce Center
Front Pitch/Bounce Center -0.332892 0.150
Spring Center
Pitch/Bounce Center 0.672016 0.150
Driver H-Point
CG Location 0.000 0.150
Spring Center 0.1042158 0.150
Driver's Seat H-point -0.025001 0.150

Note: Heights above ground

are not to scale.
Front & Rear
wheel locations
(diameter not to scale)
8-63
How many vehicles meet the Olley Criteria?
Of about 200 vehicles SPMM tested, the results are:

Olley Criteria
Front suspension deflection 30%
1a 41.2%
greater than rear.
OR 46.2%
the spring center should be at least
1b 45.1%
6.5% of the wheelbase behind the CG.
The bounce frequency should be less
2 93.0%
than 1.2 times the pitch frequency.
Neither the pitch nor the Bounce 77.5%
3 bounce frequency should be
greater than 1.3 Hz. Pitch 31.0%
Meets all 3 Olley Criteria 8.2%

8-64
 Suspension Travel
Jounce travel allows the suspension to absorb upward motion of
the unsprung mass and downward motion of the sprung mass (i.e.
speed bumps and “valleys” in the road).
Rebound travel allows the suspension isolate the vehicle from
downward motion of the unsprung mass and upward motion of
the sprung mass (i.e. potholes and crests in the road).

8-65
 Suspension Travel

Unsprung Mass moving

~12-15 Hz

Jounce Rebound

Sprung Mass moving

~1.2-1.5 Hz

8-66
 Suspension Travel
Adequate suspension travel is an important part of having a good
ride. The amount of suspension travel determines how smoothly
an input can be absorbed.
More travel means the acceleration and force levels for a given
input will be lower; less suspension travel results in increased
acceleration and force levels.

Video Clip--Value of suspension travel—

off road racing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=seT4etrC7Jk

8-67
 What suspension travels are common?
JC/JS Suspension Ride Travel Comparison
200
Jounce===>

Front Jounce Rear

Rebound

150
Suspension Ride Travel (mm)

100

152
135 136 130 129 128 128 133
112 115
50 105 105 102 105
“Design Load”
(2 passengers)

0
Curb Load

-55 -62
-70 -65 -71 -70
-75 -84 -80
-85 -93 -85 -86
-50 -105
<===Rebound

-100
T otal
180 175 177 186 190 176 198 T ravel 215 213 233 219
205 222 222
(mm)
-150
JS/JC JS/JC Accord Camry Highlander Pilot Endeavo JS/JC JS/JC Accord Camry HighlanderPilot Endeavo
T arget Current T arget Current
8-68
SVPT Veh. Dyn. - Revised 16 Oct. 03
 Balance Jounce/Rebound Travel
Guidelines
• Front jounce and rebound travels approximately equal at
design load (two passengers).
– Higher ride frequencies (stiffer springs) will result in less rebound
travel Curb Weight
Rebound Travel =
Wheel Rate

– Jounce travel is limited by ride height and packaging

– Less jounce travel will require higher or variable (increasing)
spring rates, which will reduce Rebound Travel.
• Rear jounce and rebound travel split needs to
accommodate rear load.
– Spring rate may be decided by loading and available jounce travel,
rather than ride frequency alone.

8-69
 How do you monitor suspension travels
during a vehicle program?
• Attitude Chart Web Application
http://acwa.stf.chrysler.com/hat/index.aspx

8-70
8-71
 How do you integrate available travel
and frequency (spring rate)?

• Rule of thumb:
– Get from curb load to 2 or 2.5 times curb load in
the available jounce travel as smoothly as possible

8-72
 Get from curb load to 2.0—2.5 times curb load in available
jounce travel as smoothly as possible

2.5 x Curb

2.0 x Curb

Two stage spring without

jounce bumper (~80
N/mm second stage)

Constant rate spring,

no jounce bumper

Jounce bumper
Curb
engagement

Full
jounce
(Ford Mustang SPMM Veh 808)
travel
8-73
What do you need to know about
jounce bumpers and travel?

8-74
 What do you need to know about
jounce bumpers and travel?
• Jounce bumpers can be auxiliary springs (typically
urethane material) to stiffen the suspension as
load/jounce travel is increased
• Jounce bumpers can be “stops” (i.e. rubber jounce
bumpers used on trucks)
• Jounce bumpers take away travel on strut
suspensions
– Example 1995 PL rear: an exception to the 2
times rule of thumb
8-75
How does ride friction affect frequency?
Small inputs don’t “break through” the friction,
(3.16 Hz) resulting in artificially high ride frequency
(sprung + unsprung mass on tire “spring”)

As road inputs increase in amplitude, friction

has less and less effect on ride frequency.

(1.05 Hz)
Actual ride frequency

Increasing Input Amplitude

(From Chassis Design: Principles and Analysis, Milliken & Milliken, SAE 2002)

8-76
Where can you find ride friction values?

• SPMM Ride curves

• SPMM Summary chart

8-77
 Example: AN & ND Front Suspension Friction from SPMM Data
AN 4X4 Front Suspension Bounce Test
AN Right Front
5000 AN Left Front
ND Left Front
4000
ND Right Front

3000

2000

1000
Force (N)

-1000

-2000

-3000
AN 4X4 Front Suspension Bounce Test
-4000
AN Right Front AN Left Front
-5000
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 500 80 100 ND Left Front ND Right Front
Suspension Position (mm) 450
400
350
300
250
200
150 ND Hysteresis
100
~425N
Force (N)

50
0
-50 AN Hysteresis
-100
~300N
-150
-200
-250
-300
-350
-400
-450
-500
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Suspension Position (mm)
8-78
 Example: ND Front Suspension Friction from SPMM Data

Front Suspension Hysteresis Comparison

(Goodyear S PMM Data)
500
450
Avg=310
400
(w/o ND)
350
Hysteresis (N)

300
250
200
150
100
50
0 AN 8 4 DR 150 0 BM W X5 KJ Exp lo rer Trailb lazer ND Pre-S0 ND S0 ND S0 No ND S1 ND S1 No
4 x4 4 x2 Stab ars Stab ars
Reference
Truck

8-79
 How do suspension bushings
affect ride?
• Add rate
• Add hysteresis (friction/damping)

8-80
 How do you experimentally determine
wheel rate due to bushings for a vehicle?
• Need vehicle measured wheel rates w/o tire
• Need spring rates
• Need motion ratio

Calculate wheel rate due to spring rate

(including motion ratio), difference from
actual measured rate is the effect of bushings.

8-81
How do you calculate wheel rate
due to bushings for a vehicle?
• Need control arm bushing torsional stiffness
• Need control arm lengths

Convert torsional rate of bushing to vertical

force at wheel end of control arm

8-82
 UCA Bushing Suspension upper control arm
Torsional Rate 1 mm
UCA

UCA Length

Determine bushing windup angle for φ = tan −1 1mm

1mm of vertical motion at ball joint: UCA Length (mm)

Bushing torsional force N − mm

T = φ(deg) * UCA Bushing Rate( )
for 1mm vertical motion: deg

T (N − mm)
Force at ball joint =
UCA Length (mm)

Note that this is the force for one bushing, most control
arms will have two bushing, so multiply this value by 2.
8-83
 UCA Bushing Rate

UCA

UCA Length

Repeat the analysis for the

LCA lower control arm.

LCA Length

LCA Bushing Rate

8-84
For a typical double A-Arm SLA suspension:
Bushing Rate Contribution per wheel =

 1  UCA Bushing Rate

−1
2 * tan  * +
 UCA Length  UCA Length

 1  LCA Bushing Rate

2 * tan −1   *
 LCA Length  LCA Length

8-85
A similar approach can be used for a trailing arm suspension, but the
trailing arms have a single bushings at each end:

Bushing Rate Contribution per wheel =

 1  UCA Front Bushing Rate + UCA Rear Bushing Rate
tan −1   * +
 UCA Length  UCA Length

 1  LCA Front Bushing Rate + LCA Rear Bushing Rate

tan −1   *
 LCA Length  LCA Length

Note that this is for one set of upper & lower control arms (i.e.
one side of the vehicle). Solid axle trailing arm suspensions
typically have a set of control arms on both sides so multiply
the above value by 2.
8-86
 Does motion ratio affect forces
transmitted into the body?
• Motion ratio is spring travel divided by
wheel travel.
• The force transmitted to the body is reduced
if the motion ratio is increased.

8-87
 Motion ratio effects on forces transmitted to the body
Example:
Simple Swing Arm suspension with 150 lb/in wheel rate (to
meet desired ride frequency target) and 0.5 motion ratio

1”

12”

24”
150 lbs
Motion Ratio =0.5/1 =12/24 =0.5
1” travel at wheel=0.5” compression of spring
8-88
Example:
Simple Swing Arm suspension with 150 lb/in wheel rate (to
meet desired ride frequency target) and 0.5 motion ratio, with
spring at 30 angle
30

0.5”

1”

12”

24”
8-89
 30

0.5” cos 30

1”

12”
0.5”

24”

Motion Ratio =12/24 cos 30

1” travel at wheel=0.433” compression of spring

8-90
Motion ratio affects the force transmitted to the body
300 lbs

12”

24”
150 lbs
Motion Ratio =0.5
150 lb load at wheel=300 lb load at spring
Force at body = force at wheel / motion ratio
8-91
Motion ratio affects the force transmitted to the body
30 346 lbs

1”

12”
0.5”

24”
150 lbs
Motion Ratio =0.433
150 lb load at wheel=346 lb load at spring
Force at body = force at wheel / motion ratio
8-92
 Motion ratio affects spring rate
300 lbs

0.5”

1”

12”

24”
150 lbs
Force at spring for 1” wheel travel = 300 lb Spring Rate= Wheel
Compression at spring for 1” wheel travel = 0.5” Rate / MR2
Spring Rate=300 lb / 0.5” = 600 lb/in
8-93
 Motion ratio affects spring rate
30 799 lbs/in

1”

12”
0.5”

24”
150 lbs/in
Spring Rate=
Force at spring for 1” wheel travel = 346 lb Wheel Rate / MR2
Compression at spring for 1” wheel travel = 0.433”
Spring Rate=346 lb / 0.433” = 799 lb/in
8-94
 ND Front Suspension Motion Ratio

Spring packaging constrains New spring design allows New Coil over Shock
motion ratio to 43% improved strut position package and increased
halfshaft clearance

Wheel travel 185 mm Wheel travel 185 mm Wheel travel 185 mm

Strut travel 80 mm Strut travel 111.3 mm Strut travel 102 mm

8-95
 Motion Ratio Summary
• Best way to calculate motion ratio is

L
MR = Spring Travel
=
Wheel Travel
T
• Spring, shock, and stabilizer bar may all have
different motion ratios.
• Load at body = load at wheel / MR
• Spring rate = wheel rate / MR2
• Shock velocity = wheel velocity * MR
• Motion ratio should be greater than 0.5. Closer to
1 is better (greater than 1 is possible).
8-96
 Does roll stiffness affect ride?
Theoretically, stabilizer bars allow roll stiffness to be
tuned separately from ride stiffness.
Ideally choose springs to meet ride frequency targets for
a good ride, and utilize stabilizer bars for roll stiffness
when cornering.

8-97
 Does roll stiffness affect ride?
• Unfortunately ride and roll rates are not
separated in one wheel bump inputs.
• Historically, packaging constraints have
produced less than desired stabilizer bar
rates.
– Bar size limitations
– Bar effectiveness
Stiffer springs are often needed for roll rate,
resulting in higher than desired ride rates

8-98
 What needs to be considered in a roll
gradient calculation?
• Stabilizer bar cushion bushing rates
• Stabilizer bar end link rates
• Stabilizer bar motion ratio
• Stabilizer bar attachment (isolated cradle vs body/frame) &
attachment stiffness
• Suspension type
Suspension type matters for roll gradient, pick benchmark vehicles with the
same basic suspension type.
• Calculation model appropriate for the suspension type

8-99
 Does tire type (ride, touring, handling)
affect ride frequency?

• Initial ride tuning done with “ride” tire

• Optional “touring” (stiffer) tire
– To match the vehicle ride with “ride” tire:
• Will likely require shock tuning
• May require a new suspension frequency to maintain
ride frequency

8-100
 Does tire type (ride, touring,
handling) affect ride frequencies?

msprung
kspring 1
k eq =
keq 1 1
+
kspring k spring k tire
cshock
ktire
Equivalent
munsprung Spring

ktire ctire
Road
Surface

8-101
 What happens in production?
• Weights vary with differing options.
– Engine
– Trans
– Options
• Need to maintain ride heights at design load.

8-102
 A spring “family” is required to maintain
ride heights with varying curb weights.

Two Options for spring family:

1. Constant rate with varied lengths.
2. Constant frequency (varied rates and lengths)

8-103
 Which is better:
one rate or one frequency?
• How big is the variation in weight?
– Cars typically have relatively small variations in curb weight.
– Trucks may have very large (>1000 lbs) variation in weight due to
different powertrains (diesel vs gas).

• Is there a cost or complexity difference?

– Different rates (constant frequency) may require different spring
sizes and possibly different tooling.

• Is there a subjective ride difference?

– A constant rate results in different ride frequencies which may or
may not be noticeable.

8-104
 What additional considerations
should be made for trucks?
• Maintain some Rebound Travel at Curb loading (low spring rate)
• Maintain some free Jounce Travel at GVW loading (high spring rate)
• Loaded attitude—positive rake at GWV loading
• Loaded handling (avoiding jounce bumper contact in roll)

Rake
Angle
(negative)

8-105
 What Else Affects Ride?

• Suspension Geometry
• Body Structure
• Seats

8-106
Suspension geometry influences ride

• Jounce produces scuff when suspension roll

centers are above ground.
– Scuff produces a force opposing body motion.
– A force opposing body motion increases
harshness (like friction).
• Recession (rearward movement) during
jounce improves harshness

8-107
• Wheels do not travel vertically in a straight
line throughout suspension travel.

(From Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Gillespie, SAE 1992)

8-108
 Scuff—lateral
movement of the
wheel/tire with
vertical suspension
travel.
Scuff opposes
suspension
movement. The tire
has to “scuff” across
the pavement
laterally as it moves
up and down.

(From Suspension and Steering, Chrysler Institute of Engineering, 1960)

8-109
Recession improves ride by allowing the tire to move rearward
to “absorb” bumps. Recession can be result from suspension
geometry and/or compliance.

Recession

8-110
Most suspensions have kinematic “procession” (the tire moves
forward as it moves up), so compliance is the primary means of
providing recession.

Front

Procession—wheel moves
forward as it moves up

8-111
 Body Structure & Seats Affect Ride
• DFSS study # 376 on ride of 8 D-Segment sedans shows
differences in how ride is “managed” by the suspension,
body structure and seat.
• Acceleration was measured in the X, Y, and Z directions at
the front & rear suspension and body attachment and at the
seat cushion, seat back and steering wheel. After
reviewing the data, vertical acceleration from the front
knuckle to the seat cushion was focused on.
• All 8 vehicles’ suspensions do a similar job of attenuating
inputs, however there are significant differences in how the
acceleration is transmitted from the spring/strut attachment
to the seat track and from the seat track to the seat cushion.
8-112
 Accelerometers at
4 locations O

Body at
Strut Top

Seat
Cushion
Knuckle Seat
Track

Ride inputs used for measurements (at 35, 45, 55 mph)

Manhole Cover Raised Slab Surface Transition Recessed Slab

Recessed 1” 1 ¼” high 3/4” high 1/2” drop

8-113
 Peak Acceleration Transmitted
% of Peak Acceleration Transmitted from Knuckle to Seat
3.0%

2.5%

2.0%

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0%
JS SDA JS SDC JS SDF Accord Altima Aura Camry Passat

For all 8 vehicles, only 1.5% to 3% of the peak acceleration at the knuckle was
transmitted to the seat cushion.

8-114
 Peak Acceleration Transmitted
Knuckle to Strut Cap Strut Cap to Seat Mount Seat Mount to Seat Cushion
100%
Seat isolation not as good Poor body isolation
90% (more acceleration transmitted)
80% Good body isolation
70%
60%
50%
40%
30% Good seat isolation
20%
10%
0%
JS SDA JS SDC JS SDF Accord Altima Aura Camry Passat

All the vehicles transmitted about 5.5% of the acceleration from the knuckle to the
strut mount on the body, however there were large differences in acceleration
transmitted from the body to the seat track and from the seat track to the seat
cushion.
8-115
 Peak Acceleration Transmitted
Knuckle to Strut Cap Strut Cap to Seat Mount Seat Mount to Seat Cushion Lowest acceleration
100%
90% transmission from each location
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
Since suspension
30%
20%
performance, body
10%
0%
“stiffness,” and seat
JS SDA JS SDC JS SDF Accord Altima Aura Camry Passat Best
Case
isolation are not directly
related, picking the best of
Peak Acceleration Transmitted
% of Peak Acceleration Transmitted from Knuckle to Seat
each should allow us to
3.0%
significantly improve ride,
2.5%

2.0%
at least as measured by
1.5%
acceleration transmission.
1.0%

0.5%
Significantly lower overall
0.0%
JS SDA JS SDC JS SDF Accord Altima Aura Camry Passat Best
Case

8-116
But…
The Volkswagen Passat, which had the highest (worst)
acceleration transmitted to the seat had the second best
APEAL rating for ride smoothness (after the Saturn Aura
which had the lowest acceleration transmitted).
2007 JD Powers APEAL
Q22a Drive Dyn: Ride smoothness in
normal driving Ride is not defined by
Q22g Drive Dyn: Overall rating
Rank Vehicle Rank Vehicle
8.30 Saturn AURA
acceleration alone. The Passat,
8.41 Saturn AURA
8.29
8.26
Volkswagen Passat (Total)
Ford Fusion
while very firm (transmits a lot
8.39
8.34
Volkswagen Passat (Total)
Ford Fusion
8.16 Nissan Altima Sdn of acceleration) also feels very
8.30 Subaru Legacy (Total)
8.06 Mazda 6 (Total) 8.25 Mazda 6 (Total)
8.06 Toyota Camry (Total) solid and has very little shake.
8.25 Nissan Altima Sdn
8.02 Mercury Milan 8.09 Mercury Milan
8.02 Subaru Legacy (Total) It also has very good impact
8.05 ---Midsize Car Seg Avg
7.96 ---Midsize Car Seg Avg 8.00 Toyota Camry (Total)
7.86 Hyundai Sonata sound quality, giving the driver
8.00 Honda Accord (Total)
7.86 Pontiac G6 (Total) 7.97 Pontiac G6 (Total)
7.77 Honda Accord (Total)
a perception of a well built,
7.96 Hyundai Sonata
7.71
7.55
Kia Optima
Chrysler Sebring Sdn
solid vehicle.
7.80
7.63
Kia Optima
Mitsubishi Galant
7.54 Mitsubishi Galant 7.58 Chrysler Sebring Sdn
7.41 Chevrolet Malibu (Total) 7.57 Chevrolet Malibu (Total) 8-117
 Human Perception Still Matters!

Road Input
Tire Characteristics Suspension Characteristics
• Amplitude
• Uniformity • Stiffness
• Frequency Content • Stiffness • Damping
• Micro and Macro Texture
• Damping • Natural Frequency
• Envelopment • Isolation
• Noise • Travel

PERCEIVER

Human Perception
• Noise
• Displacement
• Frequency
• Velocity
• Acceleration
• Structureborne Noise • Jerk 8-118
• Decay
How do you measure ride?
Can ride be measured?

8-119
 BVS Ride Measurement System
South Endurance Road 25 mph Driver's Seat
KA Sport Susp KA Base Susp Charger SRT-8
10
Camry JS VW Rabbit

9 LX Active Damping Version 1 LX Active Damping Version 2 LX Active Damping MB Version

LX Active Damping Final Sept LX Baseline

8

Aufbau

Aufbau
Global
(Vert Ride)

(Shake)

Vibration
(Ride)
Aufbau68

Stuck

Max
0.5—2 Hz (w/o
Frequency Range 0.5—2 Hz 2—16 Hz 16—32 Hz All N/A
0.5—1 Hz X & Y)

Ride without low Maximum value

Overall ride,
Description frequency lateral & Ride frequency Shake Vibration
shake, vibration
in any direction
fore-aft inputs. 0.5—2 Hz

Aufbau68 Aufbau Stuck Aufbau

Road Surface Seat Position Vehicle Vibration Global
(Vert Ride) (Ride) (Shake) Max
S. Endurance 45 mph Driver Seat HB 4.57 3.58 6.19 3.38 4.85 5.82
S. Endurance 60 mph Driver Seat HB 5.28 4.17 6.69 3.54 5.32 6.63
Oval 75 mph Driver Seat HB 2.76 2.18 4.01 2.59 3.16 3.66
 BVS Ride Measurement System

•Tool developed by Mercedes R&D, correlates objective

measurements to subjective ratings from a large pool of
experienced evaluators.
•Utilizes 3 axis acceleration measurements on occupied seat
cushion and seat back.
•Measurements converted to overall ride ratings on 0 to 10+ scale
(lower values are better).
•Results broken down by frequency.

8-121
BVS Ride Measurement System

Two 3 accelerometer arrays

1 on seatback
1 on seat cushion

8-122
 BVS Ride Measurement System
Results are ratings in 6 categories
Ratings 0 (good) to 10+ (bad)

Name Aufbau 68 Aufbau Stuck Vibration Global Aufbau Max

0.5—2 Hz 0.5—2 Hz 2—16 Hz 16—32 Hz All N/A
Frequency
(without 0.5—1 Hz X
Range
& Y)
Description Ride without low Ride frequency Shake Vibration Overall ride, Maximum value in any
frequency lateral & shake, vibration direction 0.5—2 Hz
fore-aft inputs. (0.33*Aufbau+
0.5*Stuck+
0.17*Vibration)

8-123
 BVS Ride Measurement System
Limitations
•Not sensitive enough for smooth road shake (i.e. shake sensitivity
studies).
•Doesn’t measure beyond 32 Hz, so harshness is not well measured.
•Does not measure noise, which can significantly affect perception
of ride harshness.
•Does not measure steering wheel or floor inputs, which can affect
driver’s perception of ride.

8-124
 BVS Ride Measurement System
Despite limitations, BVS has an 80% success rate in predicting
Consumer Reports Ride Ratings.
Jackknifed Prediction Results
6
Score predicted correctly for:
12/15 Vehicles = 80%
5

4
Predicted Rating

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Actual CR Rating
8-125
 Basic Ride Summary
• Ride is the human perception of displacement, acceleration, damping, and
noise and is difficult to quantify. Two primary parts of ride are ride
frequency and pitch frequency/flat ride.
• Use benchmarking to set ride frequency goals. For trucks & SUVs, cargo
capacity may drive a higher ride frequency (stiffer springs).
• Make sure goals for ride frequency and suspension travel are consistent.
• Flat ride requires rear ride frequencies to be different (usually higher) than
front ride frequencies.
• Flat ride requires k2/ab to be close to 1. (Packaging of most modern vehicles
provides this.)
• Avoid ride friction (stabar bushings are often a big contributor).
• Use jounce bumpers to blend ride curves to 2 times curb weight in available
travel.
• Account for bushing effects on ride rates.
• A high (greater than 0.5) motion ratio is needed for good ride.
• Ride is not determined by the suspension alone; the body, seat and NVH
characteristics of the car are also critical for good ride. 8-126
 Ride Enablers
• Plenty of suspension travel
– Allows low spring rates & ride frequencies
– Allows progressive jounce bumper engagement
• Good motion ratio
– Reduces loads into suspension and vehicle structure and
suspension
– Increases shock velocity, facilitates shock tuning
• Stiff structure
– Allows bushing, stabar & spring tuning
– Reduces shake
• Low Friction
– Allows suspension to “work”
– Reduces harshness
• Make sure goals for ride frequency, roll gradient and
suspension travel are consistent with competitive set.
8-127
 References
•Chassis Design: Principles and Analysis Based on previously
unpublished technical notes by Maurice Olley, W.F. Milliken and D.L.
Milliken, SAE 2002
•Car Suspension and Handling, 4rd Ed. D. Bastow and G. Howard, SAE
2004
•Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, T. Gillespie, SAE SP-114
•Vehicle Dynamics Database Sharepoint Site:
https://teamsites.nafta.fcagroup.com/sites/vehdyn/SitePages/Home.aspx
•DFSS Study P376 JS Ride Robust Assessment
•DFSS Study P611 – Front Seat Transmissibility for Unibody CUV /
Sedan
•DFSS Study P1135 Consumer Reports Ride T-Method
•Vehicle Attitude Charts: http://acwa.stf.chrysler.com/hat/index.aspx

8-128
Basic Vehicle Dynamics

Part 9--Steering 7-1

 Steering
What is Steering?
Steering System Components
Basic Parameters
Vehicle and steering system design parameters
Tunable Parameters
Steering system parameters
What is steering feel?
Potential Steering System Problems

9-2
 Steering
Steering Definitions:
• The driver’s ability to make the vehicle follow the desired path with
minimal effort and correction.
• Vehicle Dynamics EBOK:
– Steering Feel—The cumulative subjective term encompassing
several attributes of feedback to the driver through the steering
system. Included in these are steering precision, steering
response, firmness, progressivity, linearity, directness,
overreaction, and steering play.
– Steering Response—The vehicle motion resulting from an input
to the steering wheel. Criteria of steering response include
progressivity, linearity, delay, directness, and overreaction.
– Steering Precision—The closed loop, driver/vehicle relationship
describing the ratio of the amplitude of the driver’s steering input
to the amplitude of the resultant vehicle change of heading.
Steering evaluations are primarily concerned with the vehicle’s
behavior in the linear range of the tire, bushings, suspension, etc.
(Rule of thumb is no tire squeal.)
9-3
 Steering
What does the steering system do?
• Allows the driver to turn the steered (front) wheels of the vehicle
– Converts linear input from driver’s hands/arms to rotational input
– Mechanical advantage (steering ratio)
Reduces the effort required to steer
Reduces the control sensitivity (slows down steering)
– Power assist
Further reduces the effort required to steer, especially at low
vehicle speeds
• Determines how far each wheel is steered
– Maximum steer angle
– Difference in steer angle between wheels
9-4
 Steering

Steering Wheel Angle Angles of steered wheels

Steering
Driver Vehicle
Steering Effort, System Aligning moment,
Effort Gradient, Road surface feedback,
Friction Friction
Vehicle Response
Lateral Acceleration, Yaw Angle, Path Deviation, Body Roll

The vehicle only responds to the angles of the front wheels. All
the tuning put into steering efforts is only for feedback to the
driver, it does not affect how the vehicle steers or handles.
9-5
 Steering Feedback
While the vehicle responds only to the angles of the front wheels, the
“feel” or “feedback” to the driver is a critical part of the vehicle-driver
system. What is steering feedback?
Effort
Torque is the usual measure of steering effort, but drivers typically
sense the linear force applied to the steering wheel. Steering
wheel diameter can have a significant effect. A larger steering
wheel will require less force to produce the same torque.
Both the absolute effort as well as the gradient (slope) of the effort
is important.
Displacement
Angular displacement of the steering wheel is the typical
measurement, but drivers are also sensitive to the linear
displacement applied. Again steering wheel diameter is significant.
A larger steering wheel with require more displacement of the
driver’s hands for a given angle.

9-6
 Steering States
Driving Straight Turning
Cornering

Transients

Low Speed / Parking

Emergency Aviodance
Crowned Road

9-7
 Steering System Components
The steering system encompasses everything from the
steering wheel to the knuckles. Steering is also affected by
many things outside the steering system.

9-8
 Steering System Components
Steering Wheel
By its nature, a steering wheel allows a low control sensitivity for
high speed driving, while conveniently allowing a high total input
for low speed maneuvering without creating any major
ergonomic problems for the driver.
It's easy to input only a few degrees of steering during highway
driving, and relatively easy to turn several hundred degrees for
parking maneuvers.

9-9
 Steering System Components
Steering Wheel
The steering wheel, seat and pedals are the primary points of contact
between the driver and the vehicle and consequently can have a
significant effect of the driver’s perception of the vehicle.
The diameter of the steering wheel affects how the driver’s essentially
linear force inputs are converted to torque in the steering column. The
steering wheel diameter also converts the displacement of the driver’s
hands into an angular input to the steering column.
The mass and moment of inertia of the steering wheel also affect the
feedback from the steering system to the driver. Steering wheel inertia
is often “tuned” to minimize undesirable feedback to the driver.
The geometry of the steering wheel and the instrument panel affects
the driver’s impression of steering wheel angle, which in turn can affect
the perception of steering pull or alignment issues.

9-10
 Steering System Components
Steering Wheel
The shape of the steering wheel hub and what’s behind it
can have a major effect on the driver’s perception of
alignment. 2005 ND Dakota

Straight 4 Right

9-11
2002 Chevy S10 Pickup
 Steering System Components
Steering Wheel
The steering wheel is the point of contact between the
driver’s hands and the vehicle. Since the hands are the
most sensitive part of the body contacting the vehicle, the
shape, size, orientation, surface and “feel” of the steering
wheel are all important in providing feedback to the driver.
“A good steering wheel these days is all about being in control of the vehicle.
As a driver, it is the closest part of the interior in front of you and has a
psychological effect on your feeling of ‘being in control’”
Chris Benjamin, Director, Interior Design, FCA
http://wardsauto.com/interiors/steering-wheel-design-takes-center-stage

“You want to provide a substantial and robust feel, with security and confidence
telegraphed through the wheel.”
Chris Fuso, User Experience Design Manager, GM
http://wardsauto.com/interiors/steering-wheel-design-takes-center-stage

9-12
 Steering System Types
There are two basic types of steering systems used in
production vehicles; rack & pinion (R&P) and recirculating
ball (RCB). There are several variations of each basic
system.

Rack & Pinion Recirculating Ball

•Geometry •Steering Linkage
•Front Steer •Haltenberger
•Rear Steer •Cross Car Tie Rod
•Power Assist •Power Assist
•None (manual) •Hydraulic
•Hydraulic •Electric Hydraulic
•Electric Hydraulic
•Belt Drive Electric
•Dual Pinion Electric
•Column Drive Electric

9-13
Front vs Rear Steer

FRONT
The location of the steer arm Front Steer
on the knuckle determines
whether a vehicle is front or
rear steer (not to be confused
with rear wheel steering).
RCB steering systems are
almost always front steer, rack
& pinion steering systems can
be either front or rear steer.
RWD vehicles typically use Rear Steer
front steer, FWD vehicles
usually have rear steer.
As shown in the Kinematics &
Compliance section, the
location of the steering arms
can have a significant effect on
compliance steer.
9-14
 Front vs. Rear Steer Effects on Compliance Steer
(Right Front Wheel in a Left Turn Example)

FRONT

FRONT
Front Steer

Rear Steer
Toe Out with Toe In with
inward lateral force inward lateral force
➔ understeer ➔ oversteer

9-15
Steering System Components
Hydraulic Power Steering System

From TRW Product 101 Rack & Pinion Steering Gears

9-16
 Steering System Components
Hydraulic Power Rack & Pinion Steering Gear

Valve Input Shaft

Valve Sleeve Rack Bushing,

Outer Rack Seal
Transfer Tubes Piston
Housing

Bellow
Inner Rack Seal
Pinion
Pinion Rack
Inner Ball Joint Yoke,
Yoke Plug Tube

Tie Rod
From TRW Product 101 Rack & Pinion Steering Gears

9-17
Steering System Components
Hydraulic Power Recirculating Ball Steering Gear

9-18
Steering System Components
Hydraulic Power Recirculating Ball Steering Gear

9-19
 Steering System Components
Electric Hydraulic Power Steering System (EHPS)

The usual engine powered PS pump is replaced with one powered by

an electric motor. Advantages include a reduction in parasitic power
losses, cooler fluid temperatures, ability to control pressure/flow to
adjust steering feel/effort, works with RCB steering. Disadvantages
include cost, weight, noise, response time, limited maximum flow &
pressure. 9-20
 Steering System Components
Rack Electric Power Steering (REPS)

An electric motor drives a ball screw on the rack to provide steering

assist.

9-21
 Steering System Components
Belt Drive Rack Electric Power Steering (REPS)

Motor

Drive Belt

Ball nut
Ball Screw

An electric motor drives a ball screw on the rack through a belt drive to
provide steering assist.
9-22
 Steering System Components
Concentric Motor Rack Electric Power Steering (CREPS)

An electric motor concentric with the rack drives a ball screw on the
rack to provide power assist.

9-23
 Steering System Components
Column Drive Electric Power Steering (CEPS)

An electric motor attached to the steering column provides assist to an

otherwise manual steering gear. This type of assist can be used
with RCB steering gears. 9-24
 Steering System Components
Single Pinion Electric Power Steering (SPEPS)

An electric motor attached to the steering rack provides assist to the

input side of an otherwise manual steering gear.

9-25
 Steering System Components
Dual Pinion Electric Power Steering (DPEPS)

An electric motor attached to a second input pinion provides assist to

drive the the steering rack.

9-26
 Advantages of EPS
A vehicle’s steering system has to be sized for the worst
case conditions, even though they rarely occur.
In a conventional hydraulic system, this means the pump
is producing far more hydraulic power than needed most
of the time. This power is taken from the engine, basically
wasting power and fuel.
Electric power steering systems, in contrast, only use
power when it is needed, resulting in less parasitic loss,
and more engine power with lower fuel consumption.
EPS also offers opportunities to alter the steering based
on speed, angle, input, feedback, etc. and provides the
capability for driver assistance or automated driving.
9-27
Customer Usage of Power Steering

1000

900 Typical operating requirements

that drive system sizing
800
800 °/s Driving Evasive

700
Steering Wheel Speed (deg/s)

600 625 °/s Rolling Parking

500 550 °/s On Center Static Parking

800 Watts
400

360 °/s Off Center Static Parking

600 Watts
300

Operating Region for 400 Watts

200
Straight Ahead Driving
(80% of vehicle use) 200 Watts
100
100 Watts
50 Watts
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Rack Load (N)

Standardization - 2010 28
 Steering Input Speeds
Maximum steering input speeds generally occur in emergency type maneuvers.
Speeds in excess of 1000 degrees / second are not uncommon. The power assist
system must be capable of dealing with these input speeds.
Steering Wheel Position/Velocity ND CU Lane Change
1000 1500
Position

Steering Wheel Rate (deg/sec)

Velocity 1000
500
Velocity, deg/sec

500
Angle, deg

0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-500 Elch tests passed(n=841)
-500
100
-1000
-1000Test (passed)
Elch
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time, sec 80 -1500 841 samples
Time (sec)
Frequency
Frequency

60

40

20
Std.abw. = 211,13
Mittel = 746
0 N = 841,00
30 400
300 40 500
50 600
60 700
70 800
80 90090 1000
10 1100
1 1200
1 1300
1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 100 200 300 9-29
Steering Wheel Velocity (deg/sec)
Stellantis NA Steering Systems
A variety of power steering types are used, depending on vehicle
type, size, functional objectives, and vehicle generation:
Vehicle Steering Type Assist Type
DS (1500 Ram) Rack & Pinion Belt Drive Electric
DJ/D2/DD/DP (HD Ram) Recirculating Ball Hydraulic
VF (Promaster) Rack & Pinion Hydraulic
JK (Wrangler) Recirculating Ball Hydraulic
PF (Dart) Rack & Pinion Dual Pinion Electric
UF (200) Rack & Pinion Dual Pinion Electric
KL (Cherokee) Rack & Pinion Dual Pinion Electric
LX (300), LD (Charger),
LC (Challenger), LD RWD Rack & Pinion Belt Drive Electric
Police Package
LD AWD Police Package Rack & Pinion Electric Hydraulic
SRT 6.4 LX, LD, LC Rack & Pinion Belt Drive Electric
SRT Hellcat Rack & Pinion Hydraulic
Fiat 500, 500L Rack & Pinion Column Drive Electric
WK (Grand Cherokee)
WD (Durango) Rack & Pinion Electric Hydraulic
V6 and Diesel Engines
WK (Grand Cherokee)
Rack & Pinion Hydraulic
WD (Durango) V8 Engine
MK (Patriot / Compass) Rack & Pinion Hydraulic
RU (Pacifica) Rack & Pinion Belt Drive Electric
BU (Renegade) Rack & Pinion Column Drive Electric
JC (Journey) Rack & Pinion Hydraulic
Alfa Romeo 4C Rack & Pinion Manual (no assist)
9-30
 Basic Steering Parameters
• These factors must be decided before
progressing to steering tuning.
• These factors may change during
development.
• A change in these factors requires
rethinking all other steering decisions.

9-31
 Basic Steering Parameters
• Steering Sensitivity:
– Understeer
– Overall Steering Ratio
– Wheelbase
• Turn Circle:
– Wheelbase
– Maximum Turn Angle
• Tire clearance
• Halfshaft joint angle capability
– Ackermann
• Parking Effort:
– Power assist
– KPI
– Caster
– Scrub Radius
9-32
 Steering Sensitivity
Steering Sensitivity is a measure of the overall vehicle
response to steering wheel input. It is one of the
fundamental parameters that the driver “feels” when
steering a car while driving at moderate to high speeds.
100
 G' s 
Steering Sensitivity   =   WB  
 100 deg SWA  OSR (57.3)(9.81) +k 

  v2  
SWA = steering wheel angle
OSR = overall steering ratio
WB = wheelbase (m)
v = vehicle speed (m/s) (Usually chosen as 50 mph or 60 mph)
k = linear range understeer (deg/g)

9-33
 Steering Sensitivity
Select a desired steering sensitivity

SIS .2-.4G Steering Sensitivity Guidelines

Truck/SUV/Minivan Truck/SUV
Small-car Large-Car Rack and Pinion Recirculating Ball
G/100 deg SWA G/100 deg SWA G/100 deg SWA G/100 deg SWA
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
1.0 1.4 1.0 1.3 0.9 1.2 0.8 1.2

Values are based on Core Dynamics Slowly Increasing Steer test at 60 MPH

9-34
 Understeer Gradient
Understeer is a measure of the linearity of vehicle response
to steering inputs as lateral acceleration increases. Nearly
all vehicles have decreasing response with increasing
lateral acceleration (the vehicle responds less to steering
inputs as lateral acceleration increases).
HB APG Feb06 300ft CCW3 OSR=19.22 deg/deg
250

Linear Range Understeer Gradient

200 is typically calculated between
Steering Wheel Angle (deg)

0.2 and 0.4 G lateral acceleration.

150

100

50

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Lateral Acceleration (G)
9-35
 Understeer Gradient
Determine the desired understeer gradient

SIS .2-.4G Under-Steer Gradient Guideline

Standard Guideline Rec. Ball Truck/SUV
deg/G deg/G
Min Max Min Max
2.0 4.0 2.0 5.0
Values are based on Core Dynamics Slowly Increasing Steer test at 60 MPH

9-36
 Overall Steering Ratio (OSR)
• Overall Steering Ratio is the ratio between steering
wheel angle and front wheel steer angle, expressed as
degrees of steering wheel angle per degree of front
wheel steer angle.
• OSR is typically in the range of 12:1 to 20:1; lower ratios
make steering faster and higher effort, higher ratios
make steering slower and efforts lower.
• OSR is determined by the steering rack/gear ratio as
well as the tie rod and steering arm geometry.

9-37
 Steering Ratio
From the desired steering sensitivity and understeer
gradient values, determine the required overall steering
ratio can be determined.
Steering Sensitivity vs Understeer Gradient
2.5
14:1 Ratio
2.25 16:1 Ratio
Steering Sensitivity (g/100 deg SWA)

18:1 Ratio
2 20:1 Ratio

1.75

1.5

1.25
1.1
1

0.75

0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.25 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Understeer Gradient (deg / g)
9-38
 Steering Sensitivity, Understeer Gradient, and
Overall Steering Ratios
Steering Understeer Overall Steering Understeer Overall
Trucks Sensitivty Gradient Steering Cars Sensitivty Gradient Steering
g / 100 deg / g Ratio g / 100 deg / g Ratio
05 Toyota Tundra 0.72 4.42 19.25 04 BMW 530i 1.04 3.45 17.08
06 DR 4x2 Quad Cab 0.77 5.38 16.05 Toyota Camry 1.06 3.23 17.70
05 Ford F550 0.77 3.82 18.50 05 PT 1.15 2.98 17.40
05 DH Pwr Wagon 0.82 6.39 13.40 Neon SRT-4 1.16 2.76 17.75
05 DH Diesel SWB 0.86 6.54 12.50 05 Chevy Cobalt 1.19 2.93 17.00
05 Ford F-1504x4 0.94 3.58 16.91 Honda Accord 1.23 2.82 16.40
05 Ford F450 0.99 2.30 18.50 Ford Focus 1.25 2.98 15.90
DR SRT10 Quad Cab 1.06 2.33 18.41 05 VW Golf 1.28 2.57 17.20
DR 4x2 1.26 2.86 15.20 Magnum RT 1.28 2.61 15.70
DR SRT10 Std Cab 1.40 1.51 18.41 300C SRT8 1.29 2.59 15.70
05 Toyota Matrix 1.37 1.75 19.40
SUVs & Minivans 05 Corvette C6 1.63 1.49 16.87
TJ LWB 0.81 4.97 17.39 Mini Cooper 2.09 1.42 14.36
RS 0.81 4.90 17.10
05 WK AWD 0.91 4.51 16.50
05 Honda Oddysey 1.01 3.83 16.20 Steering Sensitivity and Understeer
Nissan Murano 1.03 2.98 18.60
TJ SWB 1.04 3.65 17.35 Gradient data from Core Dynamics
Ford Explorer 1.17 2.48 18.75 Slowly Increasing Steer Test at 0.2-0.4g
06 XK 4.7L 1.27 2.19 18.20 at 60 mph
KJ Diesel 1.28 2.14 18.60
KJ 4x4 1.32 2.00 18.60

9-39
 Overall Steering Ratio (OSR)
• For rack & pinion steering systems, the OSR is
primarily a function of the rack C-factor and the
steer arm length on the knuckle.
• For RCB steering systems, the OSR is a
function of the steering gear ratio, the pitman
arm length, linkage geometry and the steer arm
length on the knuckle.

9-40
 Overall Steering Ratio (OSR)
Steering Arm Length is the distance from the kingpin axis to
the ball joint that attaches the tie rod or drag link to the
knuckle. A longer steer arm will result in a higher (slower)
overall steering ratio, since the tie rod has to move farther for
the same steer angle.

Steer Arm
Length

9-41
 Overall Steering Ratio (OSR)
In general, longer steer arms are desirable:
– Lower steering forces (a longer “lever arm” for the tie rod)
– Toe setting (alignment) is easier (less sensitive to tie rod
adjustments)
– More tolerant of build variation (less sensitive to variation
in tie rod length & position, ride height, and hardpoint tolerances)
– Reduced Lateral force compliance steer (less steer
angle change with suspension compliance)
But the tradeoff is a slower OSR that may require a faster
ratio gear or higher C-factor rack to meet the target for
steering sensitivity.
There are also packaging limitations to steer arm length,
particularly with Ackermann geometry, especially in front
steer designs. 9-42
 Steering Gear / Rack Ratio
The basic definition of steering gear or steering rack ratio is
the ratio of input from the steering wheel to output from the
gear or rack.
For rack and pinion steering, the ratio is expressed as “C-
Factor” or linear travel (typically in mm) of the rack per
revolution of the steering wheel.
For recirculating ball steering gears the ratio is expressed as
degrees of steering wheel rotation per degree of pitman
shaft rotation. For RCB gears, the length of the pitman arm
also has an effect on steering ratio.

9-43
 Rack & Pinion C-Factor
3 : 1 Ratio
Gear set The C-Factor of a rack & pinion steering
Radius = 9 mm
gear is the distance that the rack travels
for one revolution of the pinion.
Radius = 27 mm

C Factor = rack travel / pinion revolutions =

Circumference = 169.9 mm / 3 rev. =
2* PI*Radius=
169.6 mm
56.5 mm / rev.

Radius = 9 mm

169.6 mm

From TRW Product 101 Rack & Pinion Steering Gears

9-44
Recirculating Ball Steering Gear Ratio
The ratio of a recirculating ball
steering gear is a function of the
worm helix angle, the worm shaft
pitch radius, and the sector shaft
gear pitch radius.
Rs
Gear Ratio = * (cot  )
Rw

Rs = Sector shaft gear pitch radius Rs

Rw = Worm shaft pitch radius

 = Worm Helix Angle
The Gear Ratio is the ratio of turns Rw
of the input shaft to turns of the
output (sector) shaft, typically
ranging from 12:1 to 20:1 9-45
 Overall Steering Ratio (OSR)
• Overall steering ratio is non-linear due to a
number of factors:
– Changes in tie rod angles as the vehicle is steered
– Variation due to the phasing of universal joints in
the intermediate shaft
– Variable ratio steering gears/racks

9-46
 Overall Steering Ratio (OSR)
Variable ratio steering gears/racks
Variable ratio allows a different ratio between on-
center and off-center inputs.
Most vehicles that use variable ratio steering have a
slower ratio on-center for reduced steering
sensitivity during highway driving and a faster ratio
off-center for fewer turns lock-to-lock and easier low
speed maneuvering.
Some vehicles (usually trucks) use variable ratio
steering with a faster ratio on center to increase
otherwise low steering sensitivity and a slower ratio
off-center for lower parking efforts.
9-47
OSR Measured by SPMM

Note “lump” on-center

Nominal OSR ~15.5:1

(at 0 deg steer)

9-48
 OSR Analysis

Variable ratio with larger

(slower) ratio on center

9-49
OSR Analysis

Range of steering wheel angle analyzed

Base steering ratio analysis

I-Shaft phasing analysis

Variable ratio analysis

Numeric results from

above curve fits

9-50
 Overall Steering Ratio Breakdown
25
24 Base Steer Ratio
23 Plots of fitted curves
22 I-Shaft Variation
21
20 Variable Ratio

19
18
17
16
15 Base Steer Ratio
14
13
Steering Ratio ( :1)

12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5 Variable Ratio
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
I-Shaft Variation
-4
-5
360 330 300 270 240 210 180 150 120 90 60 30 0 -30 -60 -90 -120 -150 -180 -210 -240 -270 -300 -330 -360
<===Right Turn Hand Wheel Angle Left Turn===>
9-51
 Overall Steering Ratio Breakdown
25
Overall Ratio
24
Base Steer Ratio
23 Plots of fitted curves
I-Shaft Variation
22
Maximum instantaneous Variable Ratio
21
20
overall steer ratio Minimum Ratio
Maximum Ratio
19
18
Minimum instantaneous
17
overall steer ratio Net overall steer ratio
16
15
14
13
Steering Ratio ( :1)

12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
360 330 300 270 240 210 180 150 120 90 60 30 0 -30 -60 -90 -120 -150 -180 -210 -240 -270 -300 -330 -360
<===Right Turn Hand Wheel Angle Left Turn===>
9-52
 Turn Circle Diameter
Wall to Wall vs Curb to Curb

9-53
Wall to Wall Turn Circle vs U-Turn

9-54
 Turn Circle

• Turn Circle is a function of wheelbase, front

wheel steer angle, and vehicle width.
Wheelbase is the primary contributor.
• Front wheel steer angle is different for inside
and outside wheels, and is a function of
packaging, tire size, and Ackermann correction.

9-55
 Turn Circle and Wheelbase
Wall to Wall Turn Circle
60
812 Vehicles Tested by Consumer Reoprts Jan 2003--Jan 2015

55
Wall to Wall Turn Circle (ft)

50
45
40 GMC Sierra
Denali 4WS
35
30
Turn Circle (ft) = 0.2681x Wheelbase (in)+ 10.192
25
R² = 0.6617
20
60 80 100 120 140 160
Wheelbase (in)

9-56
 Turn Circle

• Using a bicycle model, the turn circle can be

approximated from average front wheel steer angle,
wheelbase and track width.
• Front wheel steer angle varies from vehicle to vehicle
– Front wheel drive vehicles with transverse engine/transmission
may have smaller steer angles due to packaging
– Steer angles for front and four wheel drive vehicles may be limited
by halfshaft joint angle capability.
– 34 to 35 is a reasonable initial assumption for average maximum
steer angle (inside wheel angle will be higher, outside wheel angle
will be lower).

9-57
 Estimating Curb to Curb Turn Circle Diameter
Starting with a Bicycle Model (zero track width):
avg= Average of Left & Right Maximum Steer Angles
avg WB = Wheelbase
Rcl = Turn Radius to vehicle Centerline
WB
Rcl =
cos (90−avg)

90°-avg
Rcl
WB

9-58
 Estimating Curb to Curb Turn Circle Diameter
Track o – Outside Wheel Steer Angle
Width
i – Inside Wheel Steer Angle
o i
Tire avg= Average of o and i Max Turn Angles
Width
WB = Wheelbase
Rcl = Turn Radius to vehicle Centerline
Rc-c = Turn Radius Curb to Curb
Rc-c
WB
Rcl =
Rcl cos (90°−avg)
WB

Track Width Tire Width

Rc−c = Rcl + +
2 2

Track Width Tire Width

Curb to Curb Turn Dia=2∗ Rcl + +
2 2

WB
Curb to Curb Turn Dia=2∗ +Track Width + Tire Width
cos(90°−avg )
9-59
Consumer Reports
Vehicle Evaluation Overview – What’s Included
•Acceleration • Braking • Ride • Fit & Finish
• 0-30 • 60-0 (Dry) • Ride Quality – focused on the • The focus is on the Interior
• 0-60 • 60-0 (Wet) primary ride quality, damping issues such as quality of
• 45-65 • 45-0 Split  levels, and resultant gross body materials, fit & finish of
• Quarter Mile (sec) • Pedal Effort, 1st stop (lb) Measured with motions components, etc. Detractors
• Quarter Mile (mph) • Pedal Effort, 12th stop (lb) pressure gauge • Noise include mismatched colors,
• Note: Except for 45- to 65-mph test, • Note: Dry and wet braking figures are
• Weighted averages of objective & exposed screws or wires, and
acceleration runs are made from a from 60 mph, with no wheels locked. poorly aligned trim pieces
subjective measurements.
standstill with engine idling. • Headlights Objective measure taken with • Does not include exterior/body
• Evaluated on moonless nights on test sound analyzer placed in front panels or ergonomic issues
•Transmission track, with no additional ambient passenger seat with microphone
• Prefer quick, decisive, seamless lighting. Scores based on headlights’ at approximately ear level • Controls & Displays
shifting ability to illuminate flat black signs at •40 mph on course surfaces • Includes ease of use,
• Want a transmission that's well
matched to the engine and does
varying distances and widths while the •Turning Radius – 40-42 ft wall—
car is stationary. Done for both low and
•70 mph on smooth surfaces
•0-60mph - wide-open throttle
ergonomics, etc

not have to downshift for quick • Cargo Area/Trunk

• Subjectively, noise level & quality
throttle response. Shifts should be
high beams. Those that light more
signs rate higher. wall is required for a decent • Pipe-frame “box” volume (for
judged by 5 engineers driving the
smooth, quick, and jolt-free. Five- • Points deducted for beam patterns that car over 1-day trip road course
SUVs, minivans & wagons)
and six-speed automatic are not uniform, veiling glare, sharp rating. 35-40ft considered good • # of suitcases & smaller duffel
transmissions often contribute to cutoff, or objectionable levels of glare,
• Driving Position bags that fit in trunk (for cars)
better fuel economy. which are evaluated in their dark room. • Driving position indicates how well
• A short night drive is done in addition drivers of various heights are • Access
•Routine Handling to the static test and gives an situated in relation to the controls • Ease of getting in and out of
• Use subjective impressions from opportunity to view the lights during and their visibility. the various seats
internal road course and external driving. • The driving position should
ride loops. provide an unobstructed view out. • Fuel Economy
• Stability control systems are • Emergency Handling A telescoping steering wheel aids • Flow meter measures:
viewed very favorably – believe it • Skid Pad cornering limits driving comfort •City/Highway/Overall mpg
• Handling Course cornering limits •150-mile trip mpg
should be standard on all vehicles
• Avoidance Maneuver (see Figure 1) • Seat Comfort •Annual fuel gal/cost (based
• Steering Issues
•Steering quality – On-center feel •Speed (Front, 2nd, 3rd rows) on equal portions city &
considered an important •Driver confidence • Determined by a jury evaluation of hwy and on 150-mile trip)
attribute. Non-linear & all or various sized testers. •Cruising Range (based on
Figure 1 • Should be firm & supportive – 150-mile trip)
nothing steering performance Path of Vehicle
12’ adjustable lumbar and supportive
considered undesirable. Also Timing Strip
bolsters are preferred • Passive Safety Features
favor slightly more off center • Measurements • Presence of features and std
efforts & torque gradient than 8’ 12’
•Shoulder Room vs. optional
some of the CG’s vehicles. 35’ •Front Leg Room • Ease of child seat installation
•Turning Radius – 40-42 ft wall – 70’ 50’ 60’ 60’ •Rear Fore-Aft Room • Ability to properly adjust
wall is required for a decent Figure 1: Consumer Reports Double Lane Change course •Head Room headrests
rating, 35-40ft. considered good
 Turn Circle
“Turning Radius – 40-42 ft wall – wall is required for a decent rating, 35-40ft. considered good”

Results published in Consumer Reports magazine do not support this statement!

Out of 533 vehicles, 52 with a wall to wall turn radius of 43 ft or greater received “Good,” “Very Good,”
or “Excellent” ratings for Routine Handling:
2 Vehicles with a turn radius of 43 ft received an “Excellent” rating
19 vehicles with turn radii ranging from 43 to 47 ft received “Very Good” ratings
31 vehicles with turn radii ranging from 43 to 51 ft received “Good” ratings

CR Routine Handling Rating

52 vehicles with turn circles
≥ 43 feet receive Good, Very
Excellent Good, or Excellent ratings for
Routine Handling
CR Routine Handling Rating

Very
Good

Good

Fair

Poor

30 35 40 43 45 50 55 60
Wall to Wall Turn Circle (ft) 9-61
Turn Circle
The Tesla Model S, which
is the highest rated vehicle
in Consumer Reports’
history, has a turn circle of
41 feet.

(The Chevrolet Impala,

recently rated as the best
sedan with a road test
score of 95, has a turn
circle of 40 feet.)

9-62
 Aside—Parking
What makes a vehicle easy to park?
• Tight turn circle helps (combination of max steer angle and
wheelbase and width)
• Narrow width helps
• Good sightlines over the corners help
• Lower steering efforts (parking efforts) help
• Steering ratio can be the most important factor in driver perception.
If the vehicle has a slow (large numerical) steering ratio, the driver
has to turn the steering wheel further to maneuver. Rolling into a
parking spot at a fixed speed, a vehicle with a slower steering ratio
will also require the driver to turn the steering wheel faster.
In evaluations for the ND program, the Toyota Tacoma with the tightest
turn circle and small overall size was judged the worst for parking due
to a very slow overall steering ratio.
9-63
 Aside—Parking
Factors Affecting Parking

Sightlines
Turn Diameter Comparison
60.0
ND Pre-S0
Tundra
S10
ND S0
Frontier
Ranger
AN
Tacoma
Sport Trac
Vehicle Dimensions
DR F-150 (old) GMT 800
Curb to Curb Turn Dia (ft)

55.0
Overall Steering Ratio
20
Left Wheel

50.0 19 Right Wheel

18

45.0 17
Turn Dia = 0.3112*WB + 3.0986
16

Steering Ratio
40.0 15

PM49
14
GMC Sierra Front Wheel Drive
Mule Level
35.0 Denali 4WS 13 6PM2FM11
76M084
12 Nov 25, 2003

30.0 11
100 110 120 130 140 150 160
10
Wheelbase (in) -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Road Wheel Angle {degrees}

Turn Circle Diameter

(wheelbase & max steer angle) Steering Ratio 9-64
 i > O
Ackermann Geometry
Outside Track Inside
• In a low speed turn, the inner and
Steer Angle O i Steer Angle
outer front wheels travel about
different radii. The inner wheel
follows a shorter radius turn than
Wheelbase
WB

the outer wheel.

• Because the inner wheel follows a

smaller radius, it should be turned
to a shaper angle than the outer
wheel. This is called Ackermann
Steering Geometry.
• Since the steer angle of the inner
wheel is typically the limiting factor,
the outer wheel is actually steered
less. 9-65
Ackermann Geometry

(“Anti-Ackermann”
“Negative Ackermann”)

(From Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, Milliken & Milliken, SAE 1995) 9-66
 Ackermann Geometry
• Ackermann geometry is typically specified as
a percentage of ideal Ackermann, measured
at 20 deg of inside road wheel steer angle.
• Ackermann of about 50% at 20 deg is
desired:
– tire wear reduced
– low speed returnability improved
– on-center feel improved
• Ackermann increases turn circle
– Because the inner wheel turn angle is the limiting
factor, increased Ackermann is achieved by
reducing the outer wheel steer angle, thus
reducing the average steer angle and increasing
the turn circle.
9-67
9-68
 Ackermann calculated
at 20 from a curve fit
over 2010

Note that Ackermann

is often negative at
small steer angles

9-69
 Parking Effort
• A desired parking effort (torque) must
be selected:
– For example the CS (Pacifica crossover)
target was 32 in-lb nominal with a
tolerance of +/- 6 in-lb
• Parking effort is a function of front axle
weight, scrub radius, tire properties,
steering ratio, and steering power
assist.
9-70
 Parking Effort
• In hydraulic steering systems the steering
assist is determined by the steering gear
piston area and the hydraulic pressure.
• In electric steering systems, the steering
assist is determined by the motor torque
capacity and the gear ratio between the
motor and the steering system.

9-71
 Parking Effort
• “Catch-up” needs to be considered.
Catch-up occurs when the driver’s
steering input speed exceeds the power
capacity of the steering assist system.
• In a hydraulic steering system, it is
determined by the flow rate of the pump
at engine idle speed.
• In an electric steering system, it is
determined by the output power of the
assist motor.
9-72
 Pump Flow Requirement

 gal 
flow ( ) 2  mm 
 = Piston Area in  c - factor 
1  in  1  gal  s.w.  rev 
   3   
 min   rev  25.4  mm  231 in  speed min 

Assumed maximum sustained steering wheel speed = 600 (degrees/sec):

 degrees 1rev 60sec  rev 

600   = 100 
 sec  360 degrees min  min 

9-73
From TRW Product 101, TRW
Automotive Steering &
Suspensions, 1998

9-74
 Pump Flow Capacity
 gal   cc   1 gal   rev 
Pump flow  = Pump Displacement    * Pump Speed 
 min   rev   3785.4 cc   min 

 rev 
Pump Speed = Engine Speed   Pulley Ratio
 min 

Must have enough pump flow at engine idle to support “parking lot” steering maneuvers

9-75
 Intermediate Shaft U-joint Phasing
• An intermediate shaft is used
between the steering column and the
input shaft of the steering gear/rack
when the two shafts do not lie in the
same straight line.
• The intermediate shaft has a u-joint
at each end. Improper rotational
placement of the u-joints produces
non-uniform steering effort as the
steering wheel is turned. Also,
vehicle response will be different for
left and right turns.

9-76
 Run a dry park steer test if
steering is not uniform.

• Vehicle stationary on dry pavement with

power steering energized
• Vehicle stationary on ball bearing road
wheel turn plates without power to the
steering

9-77
 Intermediate Shaft U-Joints Not Correctly Phased

“Lumpiness” due to
Steering Torque (in-lb)

incorrectly phased
I-Shaft U-Joints

Steering Wheel Angle (deg)

9-78
Steering Torque (in-lb) Intermediate Shaft U-Joints Correctly Phased

Steering Wheel Angle (deg) 9-79

 Intermediate Shaft Clocking
• Typically the intermediate shaft U-joints cannot be
phased to totally eliminate variation.
• The variation should, however, be centered about
zero degrees of steer to make on-center steering as
symmetrical as possible.
• Depending on vehicle functional objectives, either a
peak or valley in intermediate shaft phasing can be
centered.

9-80
 Intermediate Shaft Clocking
Slower→

Slower→
Normal Normal
Driving Driving
Range Range

Left Turn Right Turn→ Left Turn Right Turn→

I-Shaft clocked to give highest I-Shaft clocked to give lowest
(slowest) on-center steering ratio (fastest) on-center steering ratio
(BMW 528 SPMM Vehicle #342) (UT Mule SPMM Vehicle #349)

9-81
 What vehicle on-center
performance do you want?
• Effort vs. lateral acceleration
• Effort vs. path deviation (response)
• Angle vs. lateral acceleration
• Angle vs. path deviation (response)
Gradients are often more important than
absolute values, i.e. how does the effort
increase with lateral acceleration?

9-82
 What about steering friction?

• Some friction reduces lead drift warranty

• If friction is to be added, add it downstream of
the torsion bar.
• Adding friction reduces the magnitude of
torque available for effort gradient (friction
“consumes” some of the driver’s input effort).
• (Dry park effort sets the magnitude of
maximum torque, the amount of steer friction
sets the magnitude of minimum torque.)

9-83
Different ways of looking at on-center
steering performance

• GM method / Core Dynamics

– SAE 840069 Objective Evaluation of On-
Center Handling Performance

• VanDis / Lotus

9-84
 Chrysler Instrumented Handling Test
On-Center Steering Test

• Input is a sinusoidal steer at 60 mph to

a maximum of 0.2 g lateral acceleration
at a frequency of 0.2 Hz (one cycle
every 5 seconds).
• Typical Analysis metrics:
– Steering Angle vs. Lateral Acceleration
– Steering Torque vs. Lateral Acceleration
– Steering Angle vs. Steering Torque
– Yaw Rate vs. Steering Torque

9-85
 Core Dynamics On-Center Test Results
•Steering Stiffness @ 0 Steer: Slope of curve at 0
angle (N-m/deg)
•Steering Stiffness @  10%: Slope of curve over
10% of steer input (N-m/deg)
•Steering Stiffness @  90%: Slope of curve over
 90% of steer input (N-m/deg)
•Steering Friction: Steering friction measured at 0
steer angle (N-m)

•CD Area: Area inside the curve over  50% of steer input (N-m*deg)
•CD Friction: CD Area divided by steer input (N-m)
•Steer Frict / CD Frict: Ratio of steering friction to CD friction, if greater than 1, steering friction decreases
as steer angle increases. If less than one, steering friction increases with steer angle.
•Angle Hysteresis: Hysteresis at 0 torque (deg), and indication of slop or lash on-center

9-86
 Core Dynamics On-Center Test Results
•Steering Sensitivity @0.1g: Slope at 0.1g lateral
acceleration on the loading side of the curve
(g/100deg). An indication of initial steering
response.
•Steering Sensitivity @  20% SWA: Slope of curve
over 20% of steer input (g/100deg). An indication of
just off-center steering response.
•Minimum Steering Sensitivity: The minimum slope
of curve over 0.1g lateral acceleration (g/100deg).

•Steering Sensitivity Ratios: Ratio of steering sensitivity at 0.1g or  20% SWA to minimum steering
sensitivity. An indication of how consistent steering response is.
•U/S @ 0g: Understeer gradient at 0g lateral acceleration. Indication of initial understeer, typically higher
due to any lash in the steering wheel.
•U/S @ 0.1g: Understeer gradient at 0.1g lateral acceleration. Understeer once lash in the steering system
has been overcome.
•SWA-Lat Acc Lag: Delay of lateral acceleration response to steering wheel angle input (sec).
•Angle Deadband at 0g: Width (hysteresis) of the curve at 0g lateral acceleration (deg). An indication of
how far the steering wheel has to be turned before lateral acceleration response.
•Steer Hysteresis over 0.1g: Area encompassed by the curve between -0.1 g and 0.1 g lateral acceleration
(in units of deg*g), divided by 0.2 g (deg).
•Steering Lash: Separate linear fits are made for right and left turn data from 0g to +0.1g and -0.1g
respectively. Lash is the horizontal offset of these lines at 0g lateral acceleration (deg). 9-87
 Core Dynamics On-Center Test Results
•Torque Gradient @ 0g: Slope of the curve at 0g
(N-m/g).
•Torque Gradient over 0.18g: Average slope of the
curve from 0 to 0.18g (N-m/g). Comparing this to
the gradient at 0g gives an indication of how “S”
shaped the curve is.
•Torque Gradient @ 0.1g Loading: Slope of loading
side of the curve at 0.1g (N-m/g).
•Torque Gradient @0.1g Unloading: Slope of
unloading side of the curve at 0.1g (N-m/g).
•Torque Hysteresis: The height of the curve at 0g (N-m). An indication of how much torque can be applied
before lateral acceleration is achieved.
•Torque @ 0.1g Loading: The torque value on the loading side of the curve at 0.1g lateral acceleration
(N-m).
•Torque @ 0.1g Unloading: The torque value on the unloading side of the curve at 0.1g lateral acceleration
(N-m).
•Lateral Acceleration Hysteresis: The width of the curve at 0 steering torque (g).

9-88
 Core Dynamics On-Center Test Results
•Torque Yaw Gradient at 0 yaw: Slope of the curve
at 0 yaw rate (N-m/deg/s). An indication of the yaw
response to initial steering wheel torque input.
•Torque Yaw Gradient Over 3.77 deg/s yaw rate:
The average slope of the curve over 3.77 deg/s of
yaw rate (N-m/deg/s).
•Torque Yaw Gradient at 2.096 deg/s, Loading:
Slope of the loading side of the curve at 2.096 deg/s
yaw rate (N-m/deg/s). Compared to the gradient at
0 yaw, an indication of how non-linear the curve is.

•Torque Yaw Gradient at 2.096 deg/s, Unloading: Slope of the unloading side of the curve at 2.096 deg/s
yaw rate (N-m/deg/s). Compared to the gradient on the loading side, an indication of hysteresis in the curve.
•Yaw Response Deadband: Height of the curve at 0 yaw rate (N-m). How much torque can be applied
before a yaw rate response is generated.
•Torque at 2.096 deg/s, Loading: The actual torque at 2.096 deg/s yaw rate on the loading side of the curve
(N-m).
•Torque at 2.096 deg/s, Unloading: The actual torque at 2.096 deg/s yaw rate on the unloading side of the
curve (N-m).
•Yaw Rate Hysteresis: The width of the curve at 0 steering torque (deg/s). How much yaw rate remains as
the steering torque is reduced to zero from each direction.

9-89
 Van Dis / Lotus Study
• Most “normal” drivers will describe vehicle handling
quality based almost entirely on on-center (0.1 g and
less) driving experience
• Drivers judge a vehicle’s response from several
visual and tactile senses:
– horizon shift
– yawing velocity
– lateral acceleration
– instantaneous turn center Routine Handling
– roll angle
– yaw
– lateral acceleration phase shift
– steer torque feedback
– steer angle
Not-So-Routine Handling

9-90
 Van Dis / Lotus Study

• Driver control requires some

combination of steering angle and
steering torque

• Do not let the slope of steer torque vs.

lateral acceleration change sign

9-91
Sign of slope should
not become negative

9-92
 Steering Evaluation
• What are the steering wheel angles and
efforts when the driver does the
following:
– Straight line tracking
– Small inputs
– Modest lane changes
– Pulse input (flick steer)
– Large inputs--Linearity
– Parking

9-93
Evaluation: Driver Observations
• On-center feel and response
• Off-center response
• Deadband / lash / freeplay
• Torque around zero
• Torque build up (effort gradient)
• Self-centering
• Linearity
• Connection
• Damping (flick steer)
• Tracking: smooth and rough road
• Kick back
9-94
 Steering Effort vs Response
Steering Haptics
0

Sporty Cars
Darty
2

“Darty”
4
6
Vehicle Responsiveness
8
10

Sweet Spot
8
6

High Speed Stability

4
Plodding

(European Luxury Cars) Easy to Drive

2
0

0 2 4 6 8 10 8 6 4 2 0
Stiff Control Feel Light
9-95
 Evaluation: Consumer Reports
A DFSS study to correlate Chrysler’s Instrumented Handling measurements to CR
Routine Handling shows that steering sensitivity is much more important than
steering effort, despite CR’s frequent comments on steering effort and feel.
7.00
Consumer Reports Routine Handling Factors
6.00
Signal to Noise Ratio

Steering Sensitivity
5.00 Measurements
Turn Circle
4.00 Steering Effort
Measurements
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00

9-96
 What is free control cyclic yaw
(“flick steer”)?
• At a constant speed (typically 60mph), a
quick steering input is made and the steering
wheel is released. Input angles are
increased up to about 90 deg depending on
the vehicle.
• Vehicle response is evaluated while
maintaining speed with steering wheel free to
oscillate.
• Is vehicle response damped when subjected
to a flick steer, or does it continue to
oscillate? 9-97
 Free control cyclic yaw
• Depending on inertia, friction, damping and
response levels the steering may continue to
oscillate, which is not desirable.
• Steering wheel inertia is a major contributor
to vehicle behavior in this test. Steering
wheels with lower inertia tend to produce less
oscillation. However, steering wheels with
less inertia are more susceptible to other
issues such as kickback.

9-98
Potential Steering System Problems
• Kickback
– Steering wheel Inertia (more is better)
– Hydraulic Check Valve
– Hydraulic Restriction
– Smaller / softer T-bar
• Nibble / “shimmy”
– Steering wheel inertia (more is better)
– Check valve
– Friction
– Smaller / softer T-bar
• Shimmy (solid axle)
– Steering damper
– Linkage compliance

9-99
Potential Steering System Problems
• NVH
– Hiss:
• valve design
– Moan:
• hose vibration
– Honk, Shudder and Kickback:
• flow rate
• valve design
• check valve
• Backpressure
• Hose Tuning
– Hydraulic Hammer:
• backpressure
9-100
Potential Steering System Problems
• Wander
– Intermediate shaft stiffness
– Friction
– Caster
• Rack Rattle
– Yoke set
– Yoke spring stiffness
• Lead / Pull
– Whole separate topic!

9-101
 References
• Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Thomas D. Gillespie, SAE 1992
• Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, W.F. Milliken and D.L. Milliken, SAE
1995
• Chassis Design: Principles and Analysis Based on previously
unpublished technical notes by Maurice Olley, W.F. Milliken and D.L.
Milliken, SAE 2002
• TRW Product 101, TRW Automotive Steering & Suspension Systems,
1998
• Objective Evaluation of On-Center Handling Performance, Ken
Norman, SAE Paper 840069
• Fundamentals of Steering Systems Seminar, Timothy Drotar, SAE
Course I.D. # C0716

9-102
Basic Vehicle Dynamics

Part 10--Basic Handling

10-1
• What is Handling?
• Definitions
• Understeer Gradient
• Steering Sensitivity
• Sideslip
• What happens when you turn the steering wheel?
• What Affects Handling?
• Linear Range Handling
• Beyond Linear Range
• How do you calculate linear range understeer?
• Where do you get tire Suspension Data?
• K&C Curves vs Summary data
• How do you measure understeer, sideslip, and steering sensitivity?
• How much understeer, sideslip, and steering sensitivity is enough?
• What about handling beyond the linear range?
• Weight transfer & Weight transfer distribution
10-2
 What is Handling?
Handling Definitions:
• The driver’s ability to control the vehicle’s path at high levels of
cornering, braking, acceleration, and combinations thereof in both
steady state and transient conditions.
• Vehicle Dynamics EBOK: “Handling—A general term covering all
aspects of the driver/vehicle control relationship excluding noise and
comfort. It embraces all possible maneuvers and motions in which
the driver is able to transform vehicle control inputs into predictable
vehicle responses. This term is related to the interaction of steering,
tires, suspension, chassis, brakes, aerodynamics, and drive force.”

• “Limit Handling” evaluations are typically done beyond the linear

range of tire, bushing, and suspension characteristics. (Rule of
thumb is tire squeal and beyond. Note that tires begin to squeal at
about 0.5G acceleration, and most vehicles are capable of at least
0.7G.)

10-3
 Handling Definitions

“Understeer is crashing nose first, oversteer is crashing tail first.”

“Understeer is when the driver is frightened, oversteer is when the
passenger is frightened.”
--Tires Suspension and Handling, John C. Dixon, SAE 1996

“Understeer is when l see the tree first.”

“Oversteer is when I hear the tree first.”
--Rally car driver as told by Claude Rouelle

These are “NASCAR” definitions—true for limit (maximum)

handling, but not really applicable in everyday driving.

10-4
 Handling Definitions--Understeer
Understeer is the condition in which the vehicle’s response to steering
inputs decreases with increasing input or speed (i.e. the vehicle’s
response is less than or “under” the expected level). Understeer is a
stable condition, as the driver will naturally increase steering input to
correct for the lack of response. Some level of understeer is
desirable in nearly all vehicles.

10-5
 Handling Definitions--Oversteer

Oversteer is the condition in which the vehicle’s response to steering

inputs increases with increasing input or speed (i.e. the vehicle’s
response is more than or “over” the expected level). Oversteer is a
less stable condition, as the driver needs to reduce steering input to
correct for the excessive response. In extreme situations the vehicle
must be steered in the opposite direction. Oversteer is generally not
desirable.

10-6
 Handling Definitions—Understeer Gradient

The Linear Range Understeer Gradient is a measure of how

the steering angle required to maintain a constant radius
changes with increasing lateral acceleration.

How is the understeer gradient measured?

Drive on a 300’ diameter circle at increasing speed. Measure
steer angle and lateral acceleration as speed increases.
Understeer Gradient is the slope of the road wheel angle vs
acceleration plot. (Need to know steering ratio to calculate
road wheel angle from steering wheel angle measurements.)

10-7
 Handling Definitions—Understeer Gradient
Constant Radius Test on 300 ft diameter skidpad at CPG

Increasing Speed Terminal

Understeer

Increasing
Speed
Lateral Acceleration
Steer Angle

10-8
 Handling Definitions—Understeer Gradient
HB APG Feb06 300ft CCW3 OSR=19.22 deg/deg
250

Linear Range Understeer Gradient is

200 typically calculated between

Steering Wheel Angle (deg)

0.2 and 0.4 G lateral acceleration.
150

Initial angle 
100
WB/Radius 89
84

Positive slope
50
indicates
understeer
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Lateral Acceleration (G)

Angle (89 − 82) SW deg

Steering Wheel Angle Gradient = = = 35
 Accel (0.4 − 0.2) G

SWA Gradient 35 deg

Understeer Gradient = = = 1.82
Overall Steering Ratio 19.22 G

10-9
 Handling Definitions—Understeer Gradient

HB APG Feb06 300ft CCW3

250

Characteristic Speed
200
Steer angle=2 x initial
Steering Wheel Angle (deg)

Initial angle  150

WB/Radius

100
Neutral
steer
50

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Lateral Acceleration (G)

Critical Speed
Steer angle=0
10-10
 Handling Definitions—Oversteer
Constant Radius Test on 300 ft diameter skidpad at CPG

Increasing Speed Terminal

Oversteer

Increasing
Speed
Lateral Acceleration
Decreasing Note that an oversteering
Steer Angle vehicle still drifts outward from
the circle at its limit.
10-11
What is understeer?
Video

10-12
 Steering sensitivity
• The slope of vehicle lateral acceleration
vs. steering wheel angle.
• G’s / 100 degrees steering wheel angle
Steering Sensitivity
1
0.9 Steering
Lateral Acceleration (G)

0.8 Sensitivity
0.7 1.1 G/100
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Steering Wheel Angle (deg)
10-13
What vehicle parameters determine steering sensitivity?

100
 G' s 
Steering Sensitivity   =   WB  
 100 deg SWA)  OSR (57.3)(9.81) +k 

  v2  

OSR = overall steering ratio (ratio of steering wheel angle to

road wheel steer angle)

WB = wheelbase (m)

v = vehicle speed (m/s) (Usually chosen as 50 mph or 60 mph)

k = linear range understeer (deg/g)

10-14
For a given speed and wheelbase
Pick two of the following and the third results
– steering sensitivity
– overall steering ratio
– understeer

10-15
 Steering Sensitivity
Steering Sensitivity vs Understeer Gradient

14:1 Ratio
2.5
16:1 Ratio
Steering Sensitivity (g/100 deg SWA)

2.25 18:1 Ratio

20:1 Ratio
2

1.75

1.5

1.25

0.75

0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6

Understeer Gradient (deg / g)

10-16
 What is Sideslip?
Sideslip results from the rear tires’ need to operate at a
slip angle to generate lateral force to keep the vehicle on
its path. Since the rear wheels aren’t steered, the whole
vehicle must operate at a sideslip angle to induce a slip
angle in the rear tires.

Sideslip Angle Positive

1203 JK Rubicon LWB Jul 14 CCW3 Sideslip
2

1
Sideslip Angle (deg)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
-1

-2

-3

-4
Lateral Acceleration (m/s2)

Negative
Sideslip 10-17
 What is Sideslip?
•  is the vehicle sideslip angle, the angle between the
vehicle’s x-axis and the tangent of the vehicle path.
• There is also a sideslip angle gradient (degree/g)
•  equals rear tire slip angle for vehicle with no
suspension.
•  equals rear tire slip angle + rear suspension
kinematics and compliances for a “real” vehicle.
• Sideslip is typically positive at low lateral acceleration,
and becomes negative around 0.3—0.5g.
• Positive sideslip indicates that the rear axle is “inside”
the front axle.
• Negative sideslip indicates that the rear axle is
“outside” the front axle.
10-18
 What is Sideslip ()?
Instantaneous direction of travel
(tangent to vehicle path at CG)

Vehicle Sideslip Angle β

(negative shown) Vehicle X-axis
(℄)
Vehicle Path

rf Front wheel steer angle

(Angle between tire ℄ and vehicle ℄)

Rear tire slip angle =

vehicle sideslip angle

10-19
 What is Sideslip?

Vehicle Path

Sideslip Angle
Can you subjectively determine Sideslip?

Sideslip is one of the key driver perceptions of vehicle

cornering behavior.
Sideslip is a key factor in predictions of Consumer
Reports Routine and Emergency Handling ratings.

10-21
 What happens with too much ?
A vehicle that is sloppy in transients even
though it understeers.
Sachs Avalanche Nivomat Video

10-22
 What happens when the vehicle’s steering
wheel is turned?

When the driver initiates a turn by turning the steering

wheel, the vehicle’s response is not instantaneous.
A series of events occur in sequence over a period of time
before the vehicle reaches a steady state cornering
condition.

10-23
 Consider a vehicle suspended by a
cable through the CG
• Front tires/suspension provide forces that turn the
vehicle by creating lateral force and a moment
about the CG.
• Rear tires/suspension provide forces that allow the
vehicle to turn (lateral forces) and restrain the
vehicle from turning too much by creating an
opposing moment about the CG.
The balance between these forces determines the
vehicle’s handling characteristics.
“A car is only as good as its rear suspension”
10-24
 Cornering
Force
When a vehicle is steered,
it generates a centrifugal
force that must be
V
balanced by the cornering
force produced by the
β vehicle’s four tires.
ri
fi W V2
CorneringForce =
gR
R W=Vehicle weight
V=forward (tangential) velocity
g=acceleration due to gravity
R=Turn Radius
There is, however a
transient period during
which these forces are
generated and reach
equilibrium. 10-25
 Initial steering
input at Time = 0
Theoretical vehicle (no mass/inertia,
instantaneous response) immediately
Transient achieves Ackermann turn radius
Response
Understeering vehicle has a short
transition, then follows a larger
Transient
Response turn radius

Neutral steer vehicle has a finite

transition time, then achieves
Transient Ackermann turn radius
Response
Oversteering Vehicle has a
longer transition, then follows
a smaller turn radius

Based on Figure 4.12 from Chassis

Design Principles and Analysis, W.F.
Milliken and D.L. Milliken, SAE 2002)
10-26
 Vehicle Response Time

At 70 mph, ¾ second
= 77 feet traveled!

(From Chassis Design Principles and Analysis,

W.F. Milliken and D.L. Milliken, SAE 2002) 10-27
 Maximizing Suspension Performance

Transient Progression : w
8. Rear axle steer angle
(due to vehicle sideslip angle)

1. Handwheel torque
r
9. Rear tire slip angle

q 2. Handwheel angle ro

ri
o i
10. Rear cornering force
3. Front wheel steer angle Fy

ro ri
fo fi
4. Front tire slip angle 11. Rear compliance
Fy
orientation

Fy ro+r ri+r
5. Front cornering force
fo+f G 12. Lateral acceleration
fi+f
Linear Range
6. Front compliance ro+r ri+r Non-Linear Range
orientation 12a. Weight Transfer—tire
w loading

7. Vehicle yaw rate

13. Roll motion + kinematics
(From Chassis Design Principles and Analysis, W.F. Milliken and D.L. Milliken, SAE 2002)

10-29
Now that we know what handling is, what
affects handling?
Vehicle handling characteristics are determined by
three primary factors:
Linear Range Handling
• Tire properties
• Orientation of the tires relative to the road (alignment,
Kinematics & Compliance)
• Vehicle weight and weight distribution
Beyond Linear Range Handling
• Load (weight) transfer and load transfer distribution

(There are many more secondary factors, especially for

transient handling.) 10-30
 How do Suspension Characteristics
Affect Handling?
Toe Change with an Inward Lateral Force
(Compliance Steer)
• Front suspension:
– toe out turns vehicle out of turn
– more understeer

• Rear suspension:
– toe in turns vehicle out of turn
– more understeer
10-31
Aligning Moment Steer
• Front suspension:
– turns vehicle out of turn
– more understeer

• Rear suspension:
– turns vehicle into turn
– less understeer

10-32
Camber Change with an Inward Lateral Force
• Front suspension:
– positive camber change reduces cornering force
– less turning moment
– more understeer

• Rear suspension:
– positive camber change reduces cornering force
– less restraining moment
– less understeer

10-33
Toe Change in Jounce
• Front suspension:
– toe out turns vehicle out of turn
– more understeer

• Rear Suspension:
– toe in turns vehicle out of turn
– more understeer

10-34
Camber Change in Jounce
• Front suspension:
– more negative camber produces more
turning moment
– less understeer

• Rear suspension:
– more negative camber produces more
restraining moment
– more understeer

10-35
Camber Change with Steer Angle
• With positive caster, the tire camber angles will
change when the car is steered
• The outer tire will have more negative camber, the
inner tire will have more positive camber
• Increased turning moment from both tires
• Less understeer

10-36
Camber Budget
By combining the camber change factors along with
static camber, the actual camber under cornering
conditions can be determined.
By using a “camber budget,” the performance of
vehicles can be compared, and the effects of changing
static alignment and suspension characteristics can be
compared

10-37
 For the UF program, a camber budget was used to determine
what static camber setting would produce the same camber
angle at 0.7G of cornering as the target car (VW CC).

from camber gain/roll from lateral force Camber

from steer geometry
stiffness camber compliance Factor
Static Steering Roadwheel Camber Loss Camber Loss
Corner Camber Wheel Angle overall Angle Camber Roll camber (Geometry) (Compliance) camber loss camber when
st # Vehicle wt, N Angle @0.7 g steer ratio @0.7 g From Steer @0.7 g loss coeff @0.7 g deg/kN @ 0.7g cornering
269 VW Jetta 4216 -0.5 90 16.64 5.41 -0.68 3.122 0.85 2.6537 0.1581 0.6665 2.14
346 VW CC 4894 -0.6 100 16.56 6.04 -0.82 2.646 0.83 2.1962 0.1617 0.7914 1.57
327 VW Passat TDI 4481 -0.6 100 16.43 6.09 -0.78 2.968 0.83 2.4634 0.1685 0.7550 1.84
310 Audi A4 Gas 4581 -1.1 85 12.12 7.01 -0.53 3.087 0.77 2.3770 0.1214 0.5561 1.30
145 Altima 4292 -0.67 100 15.88 6.30 -0.56 3.164 0.86 2.7210 0.199 0.8541 2.34
161 Malibu 4606 -0.65 100 16.07 6.22 -0.35 3.031 0.85 2.5764 0.2406 1.1082 2.68
155 Camry 2.4 4365 -0.7 110 17.53 6.27 -0.27 3.038 0.85 2.5823 0.1727 0.7538 2.36
301 JS V6 R/T 4875 -0.65 100 16.55 6.04 -0.31 2.968 0.83 2.4634 0.1994 0.9721 2.48
299 Sonata 4324 -0.65 100 16.06 6.23 -0.48 2.989 0.87 2.6004 0.2009 0.8687 2.33
295 Giulietta Gas 4099 -0.7 80 12.71 6.29 -0.43 2.499 0.7629 1.9065 0.1778 0.7288 1.51
363 UF 4755 -1 100 15.1 6.62 -0.45 2.884 0.82 2.3649 0.1717 0.8164 1.73
UF Proposed 4755 -1.16 100 15.1 6.62 -0.45 2.884 0.82 2.3649 0.1717 0.8164 1.57

If camber coefficients are known for the tires, they can be

multiplied by camber angle at 0.7G to include them in the
comparison.
10-38
A vehicle is only as good as its rear
suspension and tires.
CS Rear Suspension Video

10-39
 CS Rear Suspension Video

Camera 3

Camera 1 Camera 2 Camera 3

Front View of Rear View of Side View of
Left Rear Corner Left Rear Corner Left Rear Corner
10-40
How do tire forces differ from basic friction force?
Cornering Coefficient vs Load
1.20
Goodyear
P235/65R17
Wrangler HP
1.00 33 psi inflation
7.00" rim
Cornering Coeff (lbs/lb)

0.80

Slip Angle
0.60 (deg)
1
3
5
0.40
7
9
0.20 11
13
15
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Load (lbs)
10-41
How does a tire generate cornering force?

10-42
 To develop cornering
β force, a tire must be
δ operated at an angle to
it’s path. This angle is
called the slip angle, and
is not the same as the
steer angle.
δ=Steer Angle
The cornering force
F=Front Slip Angle
generated depends on
R=Rear Slip Angle the tire properties, and is
=Sideslip Angle a non-linear function of
the slip angle and the
vertical load on the tire.
Note: A tire can also develop cornering force by
camber angle, but it is only about 10% of the
force generated by the same slip angle.
From Chassis Design: Principles and Analysis, Milliken & Milliken, SAE 2002
10-43
 Cornering Force vs Slip Angle
2500
Goodyear
Increasing P235/65R17
Wrangler HP
Load 33 psi inflation
2000
7.00" rim
Cornerning Force (lbs)

1500
Tire Normal
Load (lbs)
750 lbs
1000 1125 lbs
1500 lbs
1875 lbs
500 2250 lbs

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Slip Angle (deg)

10-44
 Cornering Coefficient VS Slip Angle
1.20
Goodyear
P235/65R17
Wrangler HP
1.00
33 psi inflation
7.00" rim
Cornering Coeff (lbs/lb)

0.80

0.60
Increasing
Load Tire Normal
0.40 Load (lbs)
750 lbs
1125 lbs

0.20 1500 lbs

2250 lbs
2250 lbs
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Slip Angle (deg)

Cornering Force
Cornering Coefficient =
Normal Load 10-45
 Cornering Coefficient vs Load
1.20
Goodyear
P235/65R17
Wrangler HP
1.00 33 psi inflation
7.00" rim
Cornering Coeff (lbs/lb)

0.80

Slip Angle
0.60 (deg)
1
3
5
0.40
7
9
0.20 11
13
15
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Load (lbs)

10-46
How do performance curves differ between tires?

10-47
“Tires, tires, tires. Tires alone can
make it impossible for your vehicle to
meet its objectives for steering and
handling.”
--Jack Cooper

10-48
 How can you estimate linear range
understeer?
• What is the “linear range”?
• In general, lateral acceleration of less than
0.4 G is considered linear range
– tires behave nearly linearly
– weight transfer effects are not significant
– Most driving is done at less than ~0.2 G lateral
acceleration
– Tires begin to squeal at ~0.5 G lateral acceleration
– Instrumented Handling tests use 0.2—0.4 G range
data for many handling parameters
10-49
 How can you estimate linear range
understeer?

• Core Dynamics
– Understeer budget (Excel)
Based on Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics,
Thomas D. Gillespie, SAE 1992, p. 226

10-50
Understeer Budget Demo

10-51
 Understeer budget details
• Quality of results vastly improved with
“good” tire data.
– Where do you get tire data?
– Where do you get suspension data?

10-52
Tire Data Sources
• Supplier Tire Data
• Tire Drawing Data
• Pacejka Tire Model
• Tire Test Data

10-53
Example of
supplier tire
data

10-54
Example of
supplier tire
data

10-55
Example of
tire drawing
data

10-56
 Lateral Pure Lateral Slip

Example of
245/45ZR20 Goodyear Eagle RSA
a0= 1.3467270E+00 Fz(kN) = -2 Fz(kN) = -4
a1= -2.8970200E+01 Slip Angle alpha_y E Fy alpha_y E Fy 5000.00
a2= -1.2172950E+03 -15 -15.16 0.27 2267.33 -15.15 -0.27 4263.21
4000.00
a3= -1.8841490E+03 -14 -14.16 0.27 2273.29 -14.15 -0.27 4284.29

Pacejka tire
a4= -9.6364360E+00 -12 -12.16 0.27 2281.47 -12.15 -0.27 4325.75 3000.00
a5= 1.9247210E-02 -10 -10.16 0.27 2279.11 -10.15 -0.27 4357.35
a6= 2.6443380E-01 -9 -9.16 0.27 2270.16 -9.15 -0.27 4362.12 2000.00

a7= 7.9346410E-01 -8 -8.16 0.27 2252.27 -8.15 -0.27 4351.32 1000.00

a8= -1.9443220E-03 -7 -7.16 0.27 2220.57 -7.15 -0.27 4313.26
a9= -1.6036350E-01 -6 -6.16 0.27 2167.19 -6.15 -0.27 4228.25 0.00

model
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
a10= -5.9791040E-02 -5 -5.16 0.27 2079.30 -5.15 -0.27 4063.71 -1000.00
a11= 3.5345970E+00 -4 -4.16 0.27 1935.74 -4.15 -0.27 3768.67
a12= -2.9313840E+01 -3 -3.16 0.27 1702.87 -3.15 -0.27 3272.94 -2000.00
a13= 1.5942590E+00 -2 -2.16 0.27 1333.62 -2.15 -0.27 2504.70 -3000.00
a14= 3.3360340E+00 -1.2 -1.36 0.27 910.24 -1.35 -0.27 1674.52
-2
a15= -1.4104290E-03 -1 -1.16 0.27 785.88 -1.15 -0.27 1439.98 -4000.00
-4
a16= 9.5313860E-02 -0.5 -0.66 0.27 447.20 -0.65 -0.27 817.15
-5000.00
a17= 4.2018070E-03 0 -0.16 0.27 80.82 -0.15 -0.27 160.01
0.5 0.34 0.26 -292.70 0.35 -0.26 -505.46
camber_frt= 0.00 deg 1 0.84 0.26 -650.85 0.85 -0.26 -1152.10
80.00
camber_rr= 0 deg 1.2 1.04 0.26 -785.43 1.05 -0.26 -1399.83
delta_d= 1 2 1.84 0.26 -1255.27 1.85 -0.26 -2296.56
60.00
delta_bcd= 1 3 2.84 0.26 -1677.46 2.85 -0.26 -3156.47
4 3.84 0.26 -1947.62 3.85 -0.26 -3728.56
40.00
5 4.84 0.26 -2114.85 4.85 -0.26 -4076.73
Aligning Moment 6 5.84 0.26 -2217.36 5.85 -0.26 -4274.84
c0= 2.41612600 7 6.84 0.26 -2279.78 6.85 -0.26 -4380.07 20.00
c1= 3.64055500 8 7.84 0.26 -2317.16 7.85 -0.26 -4430.03
c2= -0.91290940 9 8.84 0.26 -2338.66 8.85 -0.26 -4447.76 0.00
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
c3= 6.17335000 10 9.84 0.26 -2349.93 9.85 -0.26 -4446.94
c4= 4.52349600 12 11.84 0.26 -2354.77 11.85 -0.26 -4418.73 -20.00
c5= -0.12101800 14 13.84 0.26 -2347.60 13.85 -0.26 -4377.98
c6= 0.01435178 15 14.84 0.26 -2341.88 14.85 -0.26 -4356.85 -40.00
c7= -0.00648538 -2
c8= 0.15856540 Sh= -0.15647 Sh= -0.15259 -60.00
-4
c9= 0.68910210 Sv= -36.38303 Sv= -43.45223
c10= 0.00000000 C= 1.34673 C= 1.34673 -80.00
c11= -0.04907636 D= 2318.70920 D= 4405.65680
c12= -0.59894480 BCD= -749.79611 BCD= -1334.28854
c13= 0.02040276 B= -0.24011 B= -0.22488
c14= -0.96043380
c15= -3.43393800 slope= -723 -1301
c16= -0.06320990
c17= -1.44396800
c18= -0.00057772 Pure Aligning Moment
c19= 0.00000000 Slip Angle alpha_y E Mz alpha_y E Mz
c20= 0.11815820 -15 -15.50 0.39 -1.89 -15.40 -0.05 13.02
-14 -14.50 0.39 -2.51 -14.40 -0.05 11.15
-12 -12.50 0.39 -3.99 -12.40 -0.05 6.50
-10 -10.50 0.39 -5.87 -10.40 -0.05 0.10
-9 -9.50 0.39 -7.01 -9.40 -0.05 -4.06
-8 -8.50 0.39 -8.30 -8.40 -0.05 -9.09
-7 -7.50 0.39 -9.78 -7.40 -0.05 -15.24
-6 -6.50 0.39 -11.46 -6.40 -0.05 -22.79
-5 -5.50 0.39 -13.34 -5.40 -0.05 -32.01
-4 -4.50 0.39 -15.32 -4.40 -0.05 -42.86
-3 -3.50 0.39 -17.12 -3.40 -0.05 -54.16
-2 -2.50 0.39 -17.88 -2.40 -0.05 -61.35
-1.2 -1.70 0.39 -16.42 -1.60 -0.05 -56.99
-1 -1.50 0.39 -15.56 -1.40 -0.05 -53.51
-0.5 -1.00 0.39 -12.31 -0.90 -0.05 -39.72
0 -0.50 0.39 -7.46 -0.40 -0.05 -19.16
0.5 0.00 0.39 -1.52 0.10 -0.05 5.24
1 0.50 0.39 4.41 0.60 -0.04 28.66
1.2 0.70 0.31 6.54 0.80 -0.04 36.71
2 1.50 0.31 12.57 1.60 -0.04 57.71
3 2.50 0.31 14.87 2.60 -0.04 61.53
4 3.50 0.31 13.97 3.60 -0.04 53.00
5 4.50 0.31 11.98 4.60 -0.04 41.67
6 5.50 0.31 9.84 5.60 -0.04 31.15
7 6.50 0.31 7.83 6.60 -0.04 22.30
8 7.50 0.31 6.06 7.60 -0.04 15.05
9 8.50 0.31 4.52 8.60 -0.04 9.14
10 9.50 0.31 3.18 9.60 -0.04 4.28
12 11.50 0.31 1.02 11.60 -0.04 -3.10
14 13.50 0.31 -0.63 13.60 -0.04 -8.39
15 14.50 0.31 -1.32 14.60 -0.04 -10.49

Sh= -0.500792 Sh= -0.402639

Sv= -1.513070 Sv= 0.407797
C= 2.416126 C= 2.416126
D= 16.388039 D= 61.900518
BCD= 12.282867 BCD= 49.720332
B= 0.310208 B= 0.332445

slope= 10 slope= 42

Pneu Trail 14 32

10-57
 Slip Angle

Self Aligning
Torque
Lateral Force

Pneumatic Trail

10-58
Suspension Data Sources
• Suspension Parameter Measurement Machine
– Most inputs for understeer budget come from K&C
Measurements
• Kinematics programs
• Estimates / “What If…”
• Competitive data
• Modeling / Simulation Results

10-59
 Why do you look at individual data
curves instead of the summary sheet?

10-60
 LF Camber (deg)
RF Steer (deg)

Jounce Suspension Travel (in) Rebound➔ Jounce Suspension Travel (in) Rebound➔
LF Steer (deg)

LF Steer (deg)

Inward LF Lateral Force (lbs) Outward➔ Aligning Moment (ft-lb)

10-61
How do you measure understeer?
Core Dynamics Instrumented Handling Tests

• Constant Radius Test

• Step Steer Test
• Slowly Increasing Steer Test
• On-Center Sinusoid Test
• Parking Effort Test

10-62
 How Do You Measure Handling?
Core Dynamics Instrumented Handling Tests

• Constant Radius Test

• Step Steer Test
• Slowly Increasing Steer Test
• On-Center Sinusoid Test

10-63
 How Do You Measure Handling?
The Car as a
“Black Box”
Inputs Outputs
• Load Thousands of
• Speed handling
• Steer Angle metrics
• Road Surface • Steady State
• Ambient Temp. • Tires • Transient
• Road Surface • Mass & Inertia
Temp. • Springs & bars
• Kinematics
• Compliance
• Damping
• Aerodynamics
10-64
 Core Dynamics Constant Radius Results

• 300 foot diameter circle

• Maintain path around circle with inside tire on line
• Slowly and smoothly accelerate from rest until
maximum lateral acceleration of vehicle is
reached
• As limit is reached, smoothly apply additional
steer
• Left and right turn, three runs in each direction

10-65
Core Dynamics Constant Radius Results

• Steering wheel angle gradient

• Understeer gradient
• Sideslip gradient
• Steering wheel torque gradient
• Roll gradient

10-66
Core Dynamics Constant Radius Results

(The raw data for

this plot was shown
on slide 10.)

10-67
Core Dynamics Slowly Increasing Steer Test

• 60 mph constant speed

• Start with 0 steer and slowly and smoothly
increase steer angle
• Steering rate should be selected such that lateral
acceleration rate of increase is below 0.1 g/s
• Continue until lateral acceleration is above 0.5 g
• Left and right turn, three runs each direction

10-68
Core Dynamics Slowly Increasing Steer Results

• Steering sensitivity
• Understeer gradient
• Sideslip angle gradient
• Steering wheel torque gradient
• Roll gradient

10-69
Core Dynamics Slowly Increasing Steer Results

10-70
Core Dynamics Slowly Increasing Steer Results

10-71
 What does it all mean?

From the thousands of metrics quantified in an

instrumented handling test, there are three key
ones for steady state handling:
• Understeer Gradient
• Steering Sensitivity
• Sideslip Gradient

10-72
 What magnitude of linear range
understeer is appropriate?
• Response times are better (reduced) with
increased understeer.
• Yaw damping is reduced with increased
understeer.
Slowly Increasing Steer Test Results 0.2—0.4g:
• Cars: 2.2 to 3 deg/g These are broad
• Performance Cars: 1.5 to 2.2 deg/g classifications,
always review the
• LD Pickups: 3.5 to 4 deg/g competitive set for
• HD Pickups: 3.5 to 5 deg/g each program!

• Minivan/SUV/Crossovers: 2.5 to 4 deg/g

10-73
 What magnitude of linear range
steering sensitivity is appropriate?
Slowly Increasing Steer Test Results 0.2—0.4g:
• Cars: 1.0 to 1.3 g/100deg These are broad
• Performance Cars: 1.1 to 1.6 g/100deg classifications,
always review the
• LD Pickups: 0.7 to 1.0 g/100deg competitive set for
each program!
• HD Pickups: 0.6 to 0.9 g/100deg
• Minivan/SUV/Crossovers: 0.8 to 1.1 g/100deg

10-74
What magnitude of linear range sideslip
is appropriate?
Slowly Increasing Steer Test Results 0.2—0.4g:
• Cars: -2.0 to -3.2 deg/g These are broad
• Performance Cars: -1.7 to -3.0 deg/g classifications,
always review the
• LD Pickups: -2.8 to -3.5 deg/g competitive set for
each program!
• HD Pickups: -3.5 to -5.0 deg/g
• Minivan/SUV/Crossovers: -2.8 to -4.2 deg/g

10-75
How are Steering Sensitivity, Understeer,
and Sideslip Related?
Steering Sensitivity, Sideslip and Understeer are all related,
meeting these guidelines individually does not necessarily
produce a good handling car. Review the values for the
competitive set and develop your vehicle accordingly.

10-76
 How are Steering Sensitivity and
Understeer Related?
7.00
Understeer Gradient (deg/g) 0.2--0.4g SIS Test

Cars
6.00 Performance Cars
Minivan/SUV/Crossover
5.00 Pickups

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
Steering Sensitivity (g/100 deg) 0.2--0.4g SIS Test
10-77
 How are Understeer and Sideslip
Related?

Understeer Gradient (deg/g) 0.2--0.4g SIS Test

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
0.00
Sideslip Gradient (deg/g) 0.2--0.4g SIS Test

Cars
-1.00 Performance Cars
Minivan/SUV/Crossover
Pickups
-2.00

-3.00

-4.00

-5.00

-6.00
10-78
 How can Understeer and Sideslip be Tuned?
Example—2011 LD
Understeer gradient = front cornering compliance – sideslip
gradient
Sideslip gradient = rear suspension & tires
The sideslip angle “steers” the whole car, so a larger sideslip
decreases understeer and smaller sideslip increases
understeer.
Since sideslip gradient is independent and understeer gradient
is dependent on the sideslip gradient, the sideslip gradient
must be improved first with rear suspension improvements.

10-79
The 2011 LD did not match the BMW 550 target vehicle with the 18”
Firestone FR710 tire (tuned for improved comfort). The 2010 LX did not
meet the target BMW with its Michelin Pilot HX MXM4 tire, so the FR710
tire was not likely to be the only shortcoming.
Improvements in both understeer gradient and sideslip gradient were
needed.
Dodge competitor understeer and sideslip gradients
Understeer Gradient - deg/g
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
-2
Sideslip Gradient - deg/g

BMW 550 (Target)

-2.2
Hyundai Genesis
-2.4

-2.6
Cadillac CTS 2010 LX Conti 2010 LX MXM4
-2.8

-3

-3.2

-3.4

-3.6
2011 LD FR710
-3.8

10-80
Review of competitive Kinematics & Compliance data shows
rear suspension opportunities in:
• Roll steer – move to more roll understeer
• Rear static camber setting – increase negative camber to competitive
levels
ADAMS modeling indicated further improvements in:
•Compliance U/S using suspension link bushing rate change – more understeer

Once the sideslip gradient is improved, the front suspension

must be modified to reduce cornering compliance until the
understeer gradient target is met.
Similar processes indicated front suspension improvement
opportunities:
• Compliance understeer – most significant
• Aligning moment compliance - increase rack mounting stiffness
• Front static camber setting – more negative like some competitors

10-81
First, reduce the sideslip by making changes to the rear suspension:

U/S Sideslip
Gradient gradient
BMW 550 (Target) 2.45 2.12
2010 LX MXM4 Tire 3.04 2.63

2011 LD FR710 Tire 2.93 3.53

Sideslip Improvements Original Value Change To

rear camber -0.75 deg -2 deg 3.01 3.33
rear roll steer -0.6 o/s 6.5% u/s 3.328 2.95
rr spring/comp link bushing 15000/1647 10200/1167 3.428 2.85
comfort 25mm frt bar 28mm 25mm 3.61 2.95
comfort 12mm rear bar 16mm 12mm 3.68 2.95
rear cradle lateral rates frt/rr 1190/5775 600/11000 3.7 2.92

After making the feasible changes to the rear suspension, the sideslip
gradient is improved but still short of the target. Understeer gradient is
farther from target because the reduced sideslip “steers” the car less.

10-82
First, reduce the sideslip by making changes to the rear suspension:

Dodge competitor understeer and sideslip gradients

Understeer Gradient - deg/g
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
-2 BMW 550 (Target)
Sideslip Gradient - deg/g

-2.2
Hyundai Genesis
-2.4

-2.6 Cadillac CTS 2010 LX Conti 2010 LX MXM4

-2.8

-3

-3.2

-3.4

-3.6
2011 LD FR710
-3.8

After making the feasible changes to the rear suspension, the sideslip
gradient is improved but still short of the target. Understeer gradient is
farther from target.

10-83
Next, make changes to the front suspension to reduce understeer:
U/S Sideslip
Gradient gradient
BMW 550 (Target) 2.45 2.12
2010 LX MXM4 Tire 3.04 2.63
2011 LD FR710 Tire 2.93 3.53

Sideslip Improvements Original Value Change To

rear camber -0.75 deg -2 deg 3.01 3.33
rear roll steer -0.6 o/s 6.5% u/s 3.328 2.95
rr spring/comp link bushing 15000/1647 10200/1167 3.428 2.85
comfort 25mm frt bar 28mm 25mm 3.61 2.95
comfort 12mm rear bar 16mm 12mm 3.68 2.95
rear cradle lateral rates frt/rr 1190/5775 600/11000 3.7 2.92

Understeer Improvements 3.7 2.92

LCA radial rate 3800 10000 3.167 2.935
Solid rack mounting 9000 solid 2.949 2.935
Tension strut radial rate 550 700 2.845 2.946
Front camber -0.1 -1 2.755 2.946
C-factor 55.6 51.94 2.6 2.946
rear bar 12 18 2.48 2.946

After making feasible changes to the front suspension, understeer is

nearly at target, but sideslip is still off target. 10-84
Next, make changes to the front suspension to reduce understeer:

Dodge competitor understeer and sideslip gradients

Understeer Gradient - deg/g
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
-2 BMW 550 (Target)
Sideslip Gradient - deg/g

-2.2
Hyundai Genesis
-2.4

-2.6 Cadillac CTS 2010 LX Conti 2010 LX MXM4

-2.8

-3

-3.2

-3.4

-3.6
2011 LD FR710
-3.8

After making feasible changes to the front suspension, understeer is

nearly at target, but sideslip is still off target. 10-85
An additional decrease in sideslip is needed to reach the target

Dodge competitor understeer and sideslip gradients

Understeer Gradient - deg/g
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
-2 BMW 550 (Target) 2011 LD MXM4 & Improvements
Sideslip Gradient - deg/g

-2.2
Hyundai Genesis
-2.4

-2.6 Cadillac CTS 2010 LX Conti 2010 LX MXM4

-2.8

-3

-3.2

-3.4

-3.6
2011 LD FR710
-3.8

From the original data, comparing the very similar LX to the LD but
with different tires shows that the Michelin MXM4 tire resulted in
much less sideslip than the Firestone FR710, with only a slight
increase in understeer.
10-86
Since the suspension changes were not sufficient to meet the targets,
the next step is to change the tire:
U/S Sideslip
Gradient gradient
BMW 550 (Target) 2.45 2.12
2010 LX MXM4 Tire 3.04 2.63
2011 LD FR710 Tire 2.93 3.53
Sideslip Improvements Original Value Change To
rear camber -0.75 deg -2 deg 3.01 3.33
rear roll steer -0.6 o/s 6.5% u/s 3.328 2.95
rr spring/comp link bushing 15000/1647 10200/1167 3.428 2.85
comfort 25mm frt bar 28mm 25mm 3.61 2.95
comfort 12mm rear bar 16mm 12mm 3.68 2.95
rear cradle lateral rates frt/rr 1190/5775 600/11000 3.7 2.92
Understeer Improvements 3.7 2.92
LCA radial rate 3800 10000 3.167 2.935
Solid rack mounting 9000 solid 2.949 2.935
Tension strut radial rate 550 700 2.845 2.946
Front camber -0.1 -1 2.755 2.946
C-factor 55.6 51.94 2.6 2.946
rear bar 12 18 2.48 2.946
Tire Change
Switch to MXM4 2.59 2.046
10-87
After changing to the Michelin Pilot HX MXM4 tire, both the understeer and
sideslip values are very close to the target vehicle.

Dodge competitor understeer and sideslip gradients

Understeer Gradient - deg/g
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
-2
Sideslip Gradient - deg/g

BMW 550 (Target) 2011 LD MXM4 & Improvements

-2.2
Hyundai Genesis
-2.4

-2.6
Cadillac CTS 2010 LX Conti 2010 LX MXM4
-2.8

-3

-3.2

-3.4

-3.6
2011 LD FR710
-3.8

10-88
What happens in the non-linear range?
• Tire characteristics become non-linear.
• Lateral weight transfer becomes significant (weight shifts from
inside to outside tires).
• Different tire loads further affect tire properties.

10-89
 Maximizing Suspension Performance

Transient Progression : w
8. Rear axle steer angle
(due to vehicle sideslip angle)

1. Handwheel torque
r
9. Rear tire slip angle

q 2. Handwheel angle ro

ri
o i
10. Rear cornering force
3. Front wheel steer angle Fy

ro ri
fo fi
4. Front tire slip angle 11. Rear compliance
Fy
orientation

Fy ri+r ri+r
5. Front cornering force
fo+f G 12. Lateral acceleration
fi+f
6. Front compliance ri+r ri+r
Non- Linearity
orientation 12a. Weight Transfer—tire
w loading

7. Vehicle yaw rate

13. Roll motion + kinematics
What happens to tires in the non-linear range?

Non-Linear
Range

(Modified from Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, Milliken & Milliken, SAE 1995)

10-91
 Effect of Load Transfer on Tires
P265/65R17 Wrangler SR-A, 5 deg slip
1600
1500
1400
Cornering Force (lb)

1300 2 Left

1200
1100 1
L&R
1000
900
2 Right
800
700
600
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500
Vertical Load (lb)
Total
Lateral
Vertical Lateral
Condition Tire Force
Load (lbs) Force
(lbs)
(lbs) 10% Loss of
1
No Load
Left 1300 1120
2240 cornering force
Transfer Right 1300 1120
2
Left 1700 1220
2050
due to load
With Load
Transfer Right 900 830 transfer 10-92
What determines the total weight transfer
at a given lateral G?
• Weight
• CG height
• Track

CG
Height
CG
Height

Track
Track Width Width

10-93
 What is lateral load transfer?
When a vehicle turns,
lateral acceleration
produces a shift in W*a
load/weight from the
inside tires to the W*g
outside tires.
Vertical loads are
increased on the outer
tires and reduced on
the inner tires.
10-94
 What is lateral load transfer?
• Since the CG height and track width are fixed
early in the program, the total weight transfer is
also fixed for a given lateral acceleration.
• The amount of weight transferred between the
front and rear tires, however is not fixed.

10-95
 Effects of lateral load transfer
• Recall that tires are load sensitive and less
efficient at higher loads.
• By changing how much load is transferred by the
front and rear tires, the vehicle’s handling
balance is affected.
– More weight transfer in the front increases
understeer
– More weight transfer in the rear decreases
understeer

10-96
 Weight Transfer Distribution

The Neon, like most FWD cars The rear-engine, RWD

tends to understeer. To reduce Porsche 911 tends to
the understeer, rear weight oversteer. To reduce this,
transfer has been maximized front weight transfer is
to the point that 100% of the increased to the point that all
rear axle load can be been the front axle load can be
shifted to the outer tire. shifted to the outer tire.
10-97
 Calculating Weight Transfer
Front Weight Transfer W = total vehicle weight (lb)
AY = Lateral Acceleration (g)
 HKf b 
deltaWF / AY = (W / tF )  + Zrf  WF and WR = front and rear weight (lb)
 Kf + Kr L  delta WF and delta WR (units of lb/g)
H = height of CG above roll axis (ft)
tF and tR = front and rear track (ft)
Kf and Kr = front and rear roll stiffness (lb-ft/radian)
Rear Weight Transfer a = distance CG to front wheels (ft)
 HKr a  b = distance CG to rear wheels (ft)
deltaWR / AY = (W / t R)  + Zrr 
 Kf + Kr L 
L = wheelbase (ft)
Zrf and Zrr = front and rear roll center height (ft)
Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, Milliken & Milliken, SAE 1995, p 682

Front & rear weight transfer is often referred to in terms of

percentage of total weight transfer:

% Front Weight Transfer = deltaWF/W

% Rear Weight Transfer = deltaWR/W 10-98
 F R
H = height of CG above roll axis (ft)
Roll Stiffness
tF and tR = front and rear track (ft)
Kf and Kr = front and rear roll stiffness (lb-ft/radian)
aRoll
= distance
stiffnessCG to front wheels
is determined by: (ft)
b = distance CG to design
• Suspension rear wheels (ft)
L = ••wheelbase
Suspension springs
(ft)
Anti-roll bar (stabilizer bar)
Zrf and Zrr = front and rear roll center height (ft)
Suspension spring rates are usually chosen to meet ride
targets, so stabilizer bars are used to tune roll stiffness.
The stabilizer bars can be used to tune both total roll
stiffness and roll stiffness distribution.

10-99
 Roll Stiffness
Suspension design can affect roll stiffness by the
contributions of bushing stiffness and geometry.

10-100
 Roll Stiffness
Suspension spring rates are typically chosen based on ride
targets. Their contribution to vehicle roll stiffness depends
on the spring rate and motion ratio.
In some cases, the motion ratio for ride may be different
than the motion ratio in roll:

• Motion ratio in bounce (ride) = 100% • Motion ratio in bounce (ride) = 100%
• Motion ratio in roll is much lower. • Motion ratio in roll is  100%.
10-101
 Roll Stiffness Twisting of the bar during roll generates
forces acting on the body that resist roll
The anti-roll bar (stabilizer bar)
increases roll stiffness by producing
forces that oppose body roll.
Stabilizer bar stiffness (diameter),
geometry, and motion ratio determine
Stabilizer
its contribution to vehicle roll stiffness. bar

Suspension Geometry & Design, John Heimbecher

Motion Ratio
~40% Motion Ratio
100%
Optimization of vehicle handling performance by increasing the ARB effectiveness, Dr. A K Jindal,
M.G. Belsare and T. M. Arun Prakash, Vehicle Dynamics Expo 2010 10-102
 Roll Stiffness
The 2010 Mercedes Benz ML SUV used a 30mm front stabilizer bar
attached to the coil-over front shock/spring. For 2012, the attachment was
moved to the knuckle. With the same 30mm stabilizer bar, the front roll
stiffness increased from 1574 N-m/deg for the 2010 model to 1773 N-m/deg
for the 2012 model due to the improved motion ratio. (SPMM test 431)

2010 ML350 2012 ML350

30mm bar attached to coil-over 30mm bar attached to knuckle
Roll Stiffness: 1574 N-m/deg Roll Stiffness: 1773 N-m/deg
10-103
 Roll Stiffness
Shock absorbers and struts can also affect roll stiffness.
Some shock and struts are equipped with rebound springs
that resist extension (rebound travel) of the damper,
causing the unsprung weight of the vehicle to move along
with body roll, which acts to reduce roll angles.
High rebound damping forces have a similar effect, but
only in transient maneuvers.

10-104
What is the relationship between weight
distribution and weight transfer distribution?
In order to “normalize” the weight transfer effect on different
weight distributions due to vehicle configuration differences
or vehicle loading conditions, the Cooper Factor was
created by Geoff Bossio

 %Front Weight Transfer 

Cooper Factor =  %Rear Weight Distribution − 1  *100
 

Example (55/45)-1)*100 = 22.2

Higher positive value indicates tendency toward understeer

10-105
 What is the relationship between weight
distribution and weight transfer distribution?
Cooper Factor assumptions/limitations
• 4 wheels, same tires front and rear (can be adapted to
different tires/dual rear tires)
• No transient effects, only a steady state analysis
• No consideration of suspension rate non-linearities
• The formula is more effective for vehicles with closer to a
50% front / 50% rear weight distribution
• Most effective if you have a master or target vehicle and
need to transfer that performance to a different
configuration of the same vehicle

10-106
 What is the relationship between weight
distribution and weight transfer distribution?

Cooper Factor at Curb

(higher is more limit understeer)
100 * ((frt wt trans/rr wt dist)-1)

80
69.9
70 66.0
60 56.1
PM SDC
48.5 PM SDE
50 45.1 44.6
38.6 Neon
40 Cobalt 4dr
30 Rabbit
Caliber SRT4
20 Mazdaspeed 3
10
0

10-107
 Summary

• Steering Sensitivity, Sideslip and Understeer are primary

measures of linear range steady state handling.
• “Understeer” does not necessarily mean running off the
road headfirst! It’s a desirable handling characteristic (in
the right amount).
• Static & Dynamic alignment, tires and tire loads are the
primary factors affecting handling (although there are
many more).
• Linear range handling can be estimated with simple
calculations (understeer budget).

10-108
 References

• Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Thomas D. Gillespie, SAE 1992

• Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, W.F. Milliken and D.L. Milliken, SAE
1995
• Chassis Design: Principles and Analysis Based on previously
unpublished technical notes by Maurice Olley, W.F. Milliken and D.L.
Milliken, SAE 2002
• Understeer Budget:
https://teamsites.nafta.fcagroup.com/sites/vehdyn/Lists/Vehicle%20D
ynamics%20Database/DispForm.aspx?ID=1947
• Morse Measurements: http://www.morsemeasurements.com/

10-109
Basic Vehicle Dynamics--Summary
Vehicle Dynamics is a combination of science, engineering,
and art. Because many important characteristics of vehicle
performance are perceived subjectively by drivers, they are
not readily quantified, measured, analyzed or simulated—
this is the “art” part of vehicle dynamics.
There are many analyses, calculations, measurements,
models and simulations that can be used to get a vehicle
“in the box” for vehicle dynamics, but “the box” is partly
defined by customer wants and expectations for the vehicle
market segment.

“There are too many parameters (car, driver, track,

environmental conditions…) to be spot on in your
calculation; you work in delta, trend and sensitivities.”
Claude Rouelle
11-2
Tires
Steering and handling are all about tires. Tires are also an
important part of ride.
Tires are highly non-linear complex composite structures.
They are a compromise of many conflicting requirements.
There are many different tires with different solutions to the
conflicting requirements.

“You load a tire, you camber a tire, you steer a tire”—that

and the tire itself are pretty much it for steering and
handling.

11-3
Alignment
Alignment is more than just what was set or audited at the
end of the assembly line.
Alignment determines the orientation of the tires relative to
the road and the vehicle as it is driven, and this orientation
of the tires determines the forces they generate.
Kinematics & Compliance
K&C determines how the alignment of the vehicle changes
as the suspension moves and reacts to applied forces.
Many important steering & handling parameters are
measured in K&C testing. Ride characteristics are also
measured. Most of the basic “in the box” calculations for
ride, steering and handling are based on K&C results.
“If you control your K&C, you control your destiny.”
Jack Cooper
11-4
Weight & Weight Transfer
The weight, weight distribution and CG height of a vehicle
in conjunction with its tires determine basic handling
characteristics.
Tire performance is highly load dependent, so the weight
and weight distribution of the vehicle directly impact its
handling capability. There is no “tuning out” of weight
effects.
The CG height of a vehicle determines the weight transfer
when cornering, which in turn affects the load on the tires.
Weight transfer always reduces tire cornering capability.

“If you get the physics right, everything else falls into
place. A low center of gravity is key.”
Franco Cimatti, Ferrari
Car and Driver, Vol. 60 No. 2, August 2014

11-5
Vehicle Evaluation
Both subjective and objective evaluations are a critical to
developing a vehicle.
Both types of evaluations have pros and cons. Both must
be planned and executed properly, and the results
analyzed correctly to get useful information.
Subjective evaluations are important, since they represent
the customer’s evaluation of his vehicle. Many important
vehicle/driver system characteristics cannot be quantified,
so subjective evaluations are needed to produce a
satisfying vehicle.
Subjective ratings are different from measured data and
must be analyzed accordingly. Use RIDIT analysis to
analyze large sets of subjective evaluation results.

11-6
Dampers
Dampers are critical to controlling suspension and body
motion to provide a good ride, and they also contribute to
handling performance.
There are many characteristics of damper performance that
are not reflected in a simple peak force-peak velocity curve.
The specification for a damper is the valve code, not the
force-velocity curve.

11-7
Ride
Ride is a difficult to define and quantify characteristic of a
vehicle’s response to road inputs. It is a result of many
different vehicle components and their characteristics—
tires, dampers, suspension, springs, structure, seats, etc.
Basic ride parameters can be calculated, but the final ride
of the vehicle is developed subjectively.

“In any passenger vehicle segment, the vehicle with the

most suspension travel generally offers the best vehicle
dynamics performance. Not every evaluator agrees with
the final tuning created by the development team, but all
would agree the tuning ‘envelope’ is larger on the vehicle
with the most travel.”
John Heider in Vehicle Dynamics International
11-8
Steering
The steering system consists of everything from the
steering wheel to the tires.
A vehicle only responds to the steer angles of the front
wheels. The driver responds to steering wheel effort and
displacement, as well as the environment and vehicle
response.
Steering effort and response are developed to suit the (very
difficult to quantify) subjective wants & needs of the driver.
Most drivers judge the “handling” of their vehicles by how
they behave at 0.1G and below—small steering inputs.

11-9
Handling
Understeer is not bad—it is a necessary and desirable
characteristic for driver-vehicle interaction.
Tires, tire loading, and dynamic alignment (K&C) are the
most important factors in handling. It is critical to get all
three factors right--you can’t “tune around” an inadequate
tire, an “out of the box” CG height, or poor K&C
characteristics.
Linear range handling performance can be calculated from
tire data and K&C results. Comparison to other vehicles in
the segment will help get these parameters “in the box.”

11-10
There are many more aspects of vehicle dynamics not
covered here; off-road, aerodynamics, trailer towing, snow
handling, rollover, braking, electronic stability control,
lead/drift/pull, shake sensitivity, etc.
Optimizing all these areas of performance and their
interactions is a complicated, iterative and inexact process
of finding the best compromise between many conflicting
requirements which are often subjective in nature.

“It is not the team that achieves the most horsepower or

downforce that wins the race. It is the team with the best
compromise of all the systems on that day that wins.”
Patrick Head
Williams Formula 1 Director of Engineering

11-11
"If there were a perfect way to construct a car, we would have figured it
out by now. In 129 years of automotive development, though, the only
consensus in the industry seems to be that four wheels are better than
three. The perpetual evolution of the automobile, along with a few
steadfast traditions, suggest that a great car is more a matter of
practical application than scientific theory."
Eric Tingwall
Car and Driver, Vol. 60 No. 2, August 2014

“The answer is always ‘it depends.’ ”

“Everything’s a compromise.”

“…as with everything in automotive engineering, the art

is in finding the best compromise”
Aaron Robinson
Car and Driver, Vol 62, No. 6, December 2016
11-12