RGPVCONNECT

Program : B.Tech
Subject Name : Mathematics
Subject Code : BT-102
Semester : 1

Unit : 4

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Subject: Mathematics-I Subject Code: BT-102

Module 4: Vector Spaces

Vector Space, Vector Sub Space, Linear Combination of Vectors, Linearly Dependent, Linearly
Independent, Basis of a Vector Space, Linear Transformations

1-Space (  ) = {x | x is a real number};

Notation:

2-Space(  2 ) = {(x, y) | x, yare real numbers};

3-Space (  3 ) = {(x, y, z) | x, y, z are real numbers};
4-Space (  4 )={ ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) | x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 are real numbers};
…
n-Space (  n ) ={ ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) | x1 , x2 ,..., xn are real numbers}

The elements of  n are called points or vectors. They are usually denoted by boldface letters
as
 x1 
x 
 2
. 
x  ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) =    n  tuple of real numbers
. 
. 
 
 x n  nx1

The ith entry of the vector x  ( x1 , x2 ,...xi ,..., xn ) is called its ith coordinate or its ith
component.

The zero vector in  n is

0= , ,…, .

If x  ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) and y  ( y1 , y 2 ,..., y n ) are vectors in  n , then their sum is defined as the

x + y = ( x1  y1 , x2  y 2 ,..., xn  y n ) .
vector

If c is a scalar (a real number), then the scalar multiple of the vector x by the scalar c, denoted

cx  (cx1 , cx 2 ,..., cx n )
by cx, isthe vector

(-1)x = -x = ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )
Note:

Vector Space: Let V be a set vectors in which the operations of sum of vectors and of scalar
multiplication are defined (that is, given vectors x and y in V and a scalar c, the vectors x + y and

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Subject: Mathematics-I Subject Code: BT-102

cx are also in V - in this case V is said to be closed under vector addition and multiplication by
scalars). Then with these operations V is called a vector space provided that - given any vectors
x, y, and z in V and any scalars a andb - the following properties are true:
a. x + y = y + x (commutativity)
b. x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (associativity)
c. x + 0 = 0 + x = x (zero element)
d. x + (-x) = (-x) + x = 0 (additive inverse)
e. a(x + y) = ax + ay (distributivity)
f. (a + b)x = ax + by
g. a(bx) = (ab)x
h. (1)x = x

Theorem: The n-space  n is a vector space.

Let W be a nonempty subset of the vector space V. If W is a vector space with the operations
of addition and scalar multiplication as defined in V, then W is a subspace of V.
Examples:
1. W = {0} is a subspace of  n (called the zero subspace).
2. W =  n is a subspace of  n (also called the improper subspace).
(all other subspaces of  n are called proper subspaces)

Theorem: (Conditions for a subspace)

The nonempty subset W of the vector space V is a subspace of V if and only if it satisfies the
following conditions:
a. 0 is in W;
a. If x and y are vectors in W, then x + y is also in W;
b. If xis in W and c is a scalar, then the vector cx is also in W.

Theorem: (Solution subspaces)

If A is an m x n matrix of constants, then the solution set of the homogeneous linear system
Ax = 0
is a subspace of  .n

Example 3: Find two solution vectors u and v for the following homogeneous system such that
the solution space is the set of all linear combinations of the form au +bv:

2 x  4 y  5 z  3w  0
3x  6 y  7 z  4w  0
5 x  10 y  11z  6w  0

 3R1  2R2 ,  5R1  2R3 ,  3R2  R3 .

We reduce the coefficient matrix to echelon form by applying the following sequence of EROs:

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2 4  5 3 
The echelon matrix we obtain is

0 0 1  1

0 0 0 0
Hence x and z are the leading variables, and y and w are the free variables. Back substitution
yields the general solution

y = a, w = b, z = b, x = -2a + b

Thus the general solution vector of the system has the form

 x    2a  b    2 1 
 y  a  1  0 
     a    b    au  bv
 z  b  0  1 
x=
       
 w b  0  1 

whereu = (-2, 1, 0, 0) and v = (1, 0, 1, 1).

The solution space of the system is completely determined by the vectors u and v by the
formula x = au +bv.

The vector y is called a linear combination of the vectors x1 , x 2 ,..., x n provided that there exists
scalars c1 , c2 ,..., cn such that
y  c1x1  c2 x 2  ...  cn x n

Let S = { x1 , x 2 ,..., x n }be a set of vectors in the vector space V. The set of all linear combinations
of x1 , x 2 ,..., x n is called the span of the set S, denoted by span(S) or span( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ).

Theorem: span(S) is a subspace of V.

The set S = { x1 , x 2 ,..., x n }of vectors in the vector space V is a spanning set for V provided that
every vector in V is a linear combination of the vectors in S.

The set of vectors S = { x1 , x 2 ,..., x n }in a vector space V is said to be linearly independent

c1x1  c2 x 2  ...  cn x n  0
provided that the equation

has only the trivial solution c1  c2  ...  cn  0

Example 4: The standard unit vectorsin  n , viz.,

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1  0  0 
0  1  0 
     
e1  0, e2  0,  en  0,
     
     
0 0 1 
are linearly independent.

Note:
Any subset of a linearly independent set is a linearly independent set.

The coefficients in a linear combination of the vectors in a linearly independent set are unique.

A set of vectors is called linearly dependent if it is not linearly independent.

Example 5: The vectors u = (1, -1, 0), v = (1, 3, -1), and w = (5, 3, -2) are linearly dependent since
3u + 2v - w = 0.

Exercise: Determine whether the following vectors in  4 are linearly dependent or

independent.
(1, 3, -1, 4), (3, 8, -5, 7), (2, 9, 4, 23).

The vectors x1 , x 2 ,..., x n are linearly dependent if and only if at least one of them is a linear
combination of the others.

Theorem: The n vectors x1 , x 2 ,..., x n in  n are linearlyindependentif and only if the

A  [ x1 x 2 ... x n ]
n x n matrix

with the vectors as columns has nonzero determinant.

Theorem: Consider k vectors in  n , with k <n. Let

A  [ x1 x 2 ... x k ]
be the n x k matrix having the k vectors as columns. Then the vectors x 1 , x 2 ,..., x k
are linearly independent if and only if some k x k submatrix of A has nonzero determinant.

A finite set S of vectors in a vector space V is called a basis for V provided that
(a) The vectors in S are linearly independent;
(b) The vectors in S span V.

Example 6: The set of standard unit vectorsin  n , viz.,

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1  0  0 
0  1  0 
     
e1  0, e2  0,  en  0,
     
     
0 0 1 
form the standard basis for  n .

Note: Any set of n linearly independent vectors in  n is a basisfor  n .

Example 7: u = (-2, 1, 0, 0) and v = (1, 0, 1, 1) is a basis of the solution space of the
homogeneous system given in Example 3. The dimension of the solution space is 2.

Theorem: Let S = { x1 , x 2 ,..., x n }be a basis for the vector space V. Then any set of more than n
vectors in V is linearly dependent.

Theorem: Any two bases of a vector space consist of the same number of vectors.

A vector space V is called finite dimensional if it has a basis consisting of a finite number of
vectors. The unique number of vectors in each basis for V is called the dimension of V and is
denoted by dim(V).

A vector space that is not finite dimensional is called infinite-dimensional.

Let A  [aij ]mxn be a matrix. The row vectors of A are the m vectors in  n given by
r1  (a11 , a12 , , a1n )
r2  (a 21 , a 22 , , a 2 n )

rm  (a m1 , a m 2 , , a mn )
The subspace of  n spanned by the m row vectors r1 , r2 ,..., rm is called the row space of the
matrix A and is denoted by Row(A).

The dimension of the row space Row(A) is called the row rank of the matrix A.

Theorem: The nonzero row vectors of an echelon matrix are linearly independent and therefore
form a basis for its row space Row (A).

Theorem: If two matrices are equivalent, then they have the same row space.

Note: To find a basis for the row space of a matrix, reduce the matrix to echelon form. Then
the nonzero row vectors of the echelon matrix form a basis for the row space.

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Let A  [aij ]mxn be a matrix. The column vectors of A are the n vectors in  m given by
a11  a12 , a1n 
a  a  a 
c1   21 
, c2   22 
,  cn   2n 
     
     
a m1  a m 2  a mn 
The subspace of  m spanned by the n column vectors c1 , c 2 ,..., c n is called the column space of
the matrix A and is denoted by Col(A).

The dimension of the row space Col(A) is called the column rank of the matrix A.

Note: To find a basis for the column space of a given matrix, reduce the matrix to echelon
form. Then the column vectors of the given matrix that correspond to the pivot columns of the
echelon matrix form a basis for the column space.

1 x  y  W , where x  W and y  W

2 ax  W , where a  F and x  W

Subspace, W: A subset W of V is subspace of V  
3 0 in V  0  W
4 x  y  0 for x  W  y  W


Theorem: W1 and W2 are subspaces of V, then W1∪W2 is a subspace  W1  W2 or W2  W1.

Theorem: Any intersection of subspaces of a vector space V is a subspace of V.

a x
1-2 Linear Dependence and Linear Independence
Linear dependence & linear independence: For x1, x2, …,xn  S, =0 if  a1, a2, …,an are all
n

i 1
i i

zeros, then S is linearly independent; otherwise, S is linearly dependent.

Eg. (3,2) and (-6,-4) are linearly dependent because of 2(3,2)+1(-6,-
4)=0, but (1,2) and (3,2) are linearly independent because of only
0(1,2)+0(3,2)=0

TheoremV is a vector space, S1  S2  V.

Ȑaȑ If S1 is linearly dependent, then S2 is also linearly dependent.
Ȑbȑ If S2 is linearly independent, then S1 is also linearly independent.

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Basis:A asis β for a ve tor spa e V is a linearly independent subset of V that generates V.
Dimension,dim (V):The unique number of elements in each basis for V.

TheoremIf V=W1⊕W2, then dim (V)=dim(W1)+dim(W2).

a   a  1   0  1   0 
Example.     R2, we have   =a   +b   . Thus {   ,   } is the basis of R2 and
b   b   0  1   0  1 
2
dim(R )=2.
a   a  1   0   0  1   0   0 
Example.  b  R , we have b =a 0 +b 1 +c 0 . Thus { 0  , 1  , 0  } is the basis of R3
         
               
3

 c   c  0  0  1  0  0  1 

3
and dim(R )=3.

Example: For W={(a1,a2,a3,a4,a5)  R5: a1+a3+a5=0, a2=a4}, find a basis of W and dim(W).
Sol. :a1+a3+a5=0. Set a1=r, a3=s, a5=-r-s, and set a2=a4=t.
(a1, a2,a3,a4,a5)=(r,t,s,t,-r-s)=r(1,0,0,0,-1)+t(0,1,0,1,0)+s(0,0,1,0,-1)
Basisof W: {(1,0,0,0,-1),(0,1,0,1,0),(0,0,1,0,-1)} and dim(W)=3.
Example. Show that in case β={x1, x2, x3} be a basis in R3, then β’={x1, x1+x2,x1+x2+x3} is also a
basis in R3.
Proof : Set a1 x1  a2 ( x1  x2 )  a3 ( x1  x2  x3 )  0 … . If a1  a2  a3  0 , then

(1)  (a1  a2  a3 ) x1  (a2  a3 ) x2  a3 x3  0 …

x1,x1+x2,x1+x2+x3 are linearly independent

a1  a2  a3  0 a1  0
 
 a 2  a 3  0  a2  0 , x1,x1+x2,x1+x2+x3 are linearly independent.
a  0 a  0
 3  3
dim(R )=3, β’ is a basis of R3.
3

  1 0 0  x1  1 0 0
 x x   1 1 0  x  det(1 1 0 )
x1
Another method:     2  ,   = ≠ ,
 x1  x2  x3  1 1 1  x3  1 1 1
1 2

β’ is also a basis of R3.

Example . Determine whether the given set of vectors is linearly independent?

(a) {(1,0,0),(1,1,0),(1,1,1)} in R3.
(b) {(1,-2,1),(3,-5,2),(2,-3,6),(1,2,1)} in R3.
(c) {(1,-3,2),(2,-5,3),(4,0,1)} in R3.
1 1 1
(Sol.) (a) det(0 1 1 ) = ≠ , linearly independent. (b) 4 vectors in R3, linearly dependent.
0 0 1

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1 2 4

(c) det( 3  5 0 )  5  36  40  6  5  0 , Linearly independent
 2 3 1

Definition: Let V, W be two vector spaces over F. We call T: V  W a linear transformation

if and only if x, y  V and c  F,

(linear operator)

a) T(x + y) = T(x) + T(y)

b) T(cx) = cT(x)

Example: T: 22
T((a1, a2)) = (a1, –a2)  Reflection Transformation.
Let x = (a1, a2), y = (b1, b2).
T(cx + y) = T(c(a1, a2) + (b1, b2))
= T(ca1 + b1, ca2 + b2)
= (ca1 + b1, –(ca2 + b2))
= c(a1 – a2) + (b1 – b2)
This shows that T is a linear transformation.
Example: Let V = C() = {(x) : (x) is continuous x }.
= cT(x) + T(y)

Consider T() = ba(t) dt.

Let (x), g(x) C() and c  F.
T(c + g) = ba [c(t) + g(t)] dt
= bac(t) dt + ba g(t) dt
= cba(t) dt + bag(t) dt
= cT() + T(g)  This shows that T is a linear transformation.

Definition: IV: V V defined as IV(v) = v vV is called the identity transformation.

T0: V  W defined as T0(v) = 0Wv V is called the zero transformation.

Definition: Let V, W be vector spaces and let T: V  W be linear. The null space (or kernel) is
Both of these are linear transformations.

N(T) = {x  V: T(x) = 0W}.

defined as

The range (or image) is R(T) = {y  W: x  V such that T(x) = y} = {T(x): x  V}.
Theorem: Let V, W be vector spaces and T: V  W be linear.
Then N(T) is vector subspace of V and R(T) is a vector subspace of W.

Let 0V = 0  V, 0W = 0  W.
To show G  V is a vector subspace, need to show (Theorem 1.5)
Proof:

a) 0  G
b) x + y  G x, y  G

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c) cx  G x  G c  F

Hence 0VN(T) and 0W R(T).

a) T(0V) = 0W

b) Let x, y N(T).
T(x) = T(y) = 0W

Hence x + y N(T).
T(x + y) = T(x) + T(y) = 0W + 0W = 0W

Let x, y R(T).
Then  ’, ’  V su h that T ’ = and T ’ = .
Set z = ’ + ’. Then z  V.
T z =T ’+ ’ =T ’ +T ’ = +
z such that T(z) = x + y.
Hence x + y R(T).
c) Let c  F and x N(T).
Then T(x) = 0W

Hence cx N(T).
T (cx) = cT(x) = c0W = 0W

Let c  F and y R(T).

x V such that T(x) = y.
T(cx) = cT(x) = cy.

z V such that T(z) = T(cx) = cy.

Set cx = z.

Hence cy R(T).

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