1. Natural units: M ev.

f m ≈ 197 1
: energy scales decrease as length scales increase: this is because of the
quantum-mechanical relation l = ℏc E . In natural units, ℏ = c = 1 where ℏ is the reduced Planck constant,
ℏc
and c is the speed of light. l = E
l ∗ E = ℏc
N ow, ℏc ≈ 197M ev.f m
ℏc 197
1
= 1M ev.f m
So, 1 M ev.f m ≈ 197
1
[Note: ℏ = C = 1]

qR
2. Rc(Z, N ) = < r2 > ρ(r)dr :
Mean squre radius: The mean square radius ⟨r2 ⟩ is the expectation value of r2 , average squared distance
of the charge distribution from the center of the nucleus. Mathematically, it is defined as:

Z
⟨r2 ⟩ = r2 ρ(r)d3 r

where, d3 r =r2 sin θdrdθdϕ

Z ∞ Z π Z 2π
So, ⟨r2 ⟩ = r2 ρ(r)r2 sin θdθdϕdr
0 0 0

The ϕ-integral is:

Z 2π
dϕ = 2π
0

The θ integral is:

Z π
sin θ dθ = 2
0

Multiplying these two results:

Z 2π Z π
dϕ sin θ dθ = 4π
0 0

so, we can write Z ∞

⟨r2 ⟩ = 4π r4 ρ(r)dr
0
Simplifying the Radial Integration
First: 4π indicates integrating over all directions in a spherically symmetric system.
Second: The charge density depends only on radial distance in a spherical system. So we only consider
the radial integration and simplify it to
Z ∞
⟨r2 ⟩ = r2 ρ(r)dr
0

So we know, p
Rc(Z, N ) = ⟨r2 ⟩
sZ
∞
Rc(Z, N ) = r2 ρ(r)dr
0

3. Two-Parameter Fermi Model: The model assumes that the nuclear density is roughly constant in the
interior of the nucleus but drops off rapidly near the surface.
ρ0
ρ(r) = r−R
1 + exp( a )
where:

• ρ(r): Nuclear density at a distance r from the center of the nucleus.

 • ρ0 : Central density of the nucleus, a constant representing the density at the core.
• R: The radius parameter, which describes the effective radius where the density begins to fall off
significantly (surface region).
• a : The diffuseness parameter, represents the edge of a nucleus describing how ”fuzzy” it is. A larger
a value means a more gradual fall-off.
• r: r is the radial distance from the center of the nucleus. It measures how far you are from the
nucleus’s core.

4. isotropic: a physical property which has the same value when measured in different directions.
5. isotropic charge distribution: An isotropic charge distribution refers to a configuration where the charge
is uniformly distributed in all directions, meaning that the charge density depends only on the distance
from a central point and not on the direction
if r=R then we will get
r−R
=0
a
so,
ρ0 ρ0
ρ(R) = = = ρ0 /2
1 + exp(0) 1+1
1
6. ρ0 = ∫ 4πr 2 dr
r−R
1+exp( a )

for spherical coordinates: Z

ρ(r).dπr 2 dr = 1

substituting
ρ0
ρ(r) = r−R
1 + exp( a )
then Z
ρ0 .4πr2 dr
r−R =1
1 + exp( a )
so,
1
ρ0 = R ρ0 .4πr 2 dr
(1)
r−R
1+exp( a )

7. Isospin: Isospin, or isobaric spin, is a quantum number used to describe the symmetry between protons
and neutrons in the nucleus.
An isospin-symmetric system has an equal number of protons and neutrons ,whereas an isospin-asymmetric
system has different numbers of protons and neutrons.
N −Z N −Z
α= =
A N +Z

Explanation
v
u5 R∞
u x4 dx
u3 0 1+exp( x−1
t )
f (t) = t R ∞ x2 dx
(2)
0 1+exp( x−1
t )

Case 1: x > 1


When x is greater than 1, the numerator x − 1 is positive. As t approaches 0, the exp x−1 t becomes very large
because we are dividing by a very small positive number close to 0.
2−1
For example: if x = 2 and t = 0.01 then 0.01 = 100 and exp(100) would be a very large number. In this way, we
will go to near infinity if we divide t = 0.
Case 2: x < 1


If x < 1 then x − 1 would be a negative number. As t approaches 0, exp x−1
t would be a very large negative
number because we are dividing a negative number by a small positive number. The exponential function would
be 0 because exp(−∞) = 0.
0.01 = −50. Now exp(−50) is a very small number, approaching
For example: if x = 0.5 and t = 0.01 then 0.5−1
zero.

Case 3: x = 1
If x = 1 then x − 1 = 0 and exp(0) = 1.

Calculation
For t → 0 and x < 1: Z Z
∞ 1
x4 dx 1

≈ x4 dx = (3)
0 1 + exp x−1
t 0 5
Z ∞ Z 1
x2 dx 1

≈ x2 dx = (4)
0 1 + exp x−1
t 0 3
So, s r
5
3 · 1
5 1
f (0) = 1 = =1 (5)
3
1

RMS Charge radius

sZ
ρ0 × 4πr4 dr
Rc = r−R (6)
1 + exp( a )

Now,
r
3 a
Rc = Rf ( )
5 R
So if, t = a/R v
u5R
u x4 dx
u3 1+exp( x−1
t )
f (t) = t R x2 dx
1+exp( x−1
t )

v
u5R
r u3 x4 dx
3 u 1+exp( x−1
a )
Rc = Ru R R

5 t x2 dx
1+exp( x−1
a )
R

vR
u
u 4πx4 dx
u 1+exp(
R(x−1)
)
= Rt R a
4πx2 dx
R(x−1)
1+exp( a )
v
uR
u 4πr 4 dx
u 1+exp( Rr−R )
= Rt R a
4πr 2 dx
1+exp( Rr−R
a )

from eqution (1) sZ

ρ0 × 4πr4 dr
Rc = R Rr−R
1 + exp( a )
I can’t remove the R
Direct Term
0.1 Electric field on Fermi model charge density
Electric flux measures how much the electric field ’flows’ through an area.
Electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the charge enclosed by that surface:
I
Qenc
E · dA =
ϵ0
(7)
Qenc
EA =
ϵ0
Qenc
E(r)4πr2 = (8)
ϵ0
Now the charge enclosed within a sphere of radius r can be found by integrating the charge density over the
volume: Z r
Qenc (r) = ρ(r′ ) · 4πr′2 dr′ (9)
0

Then from Eq.(6) and (7)

Z r
1
E(r)4πr2 = ρ(r′ )4πr′2 dr′
ϵ0 0

Rr
1 0
ρ(r′ )4πr′2 dr′ Ze r
E(r) = = (10)
4πϵ0 r2 4πϵ R3

0.2 Derivation of equation 9 to 10

Chage density:

totalcharge
ρ=
volume
4 3
V = πR and total charege Q = Ze then
3
Ze 3 Ze
ρ=4 3 = electric field inside the Sphere is Equation 8. from Eq. (7)
3 πR
4 πR3
Z r
Qenc (r) = ρ(r′ ) · 4πr′2 dr′
Z0 r
3 Ze
= 3
· 4πr′2 dr
0 4 πR
Z r
3 Ze
= · 4π r′2 dr
4 πR3 0
 ′3 r
3 Ze r
= 3
4π ·
4 πR 3 0
r3
So, Qenc (r) =Ze
R3
from equation 8
3
1 Ze Rr 3
E(r) =
4πϵ0 r2

Ze r
So, E(r) = (11)
4πϵ R3
Direct energy:corresponds to the total electrostatic potential energy (Coulomb energy) stored in a uniformly charged sphere.

energy density UE of an electric field E is given by:

1
UE = ϵ0 E 2
2
total energy stored in the electric field
Z
1
Bdir = ϵ0 E 2 · 4πr2 dr
2
Z
1 Z 2 e2 r 2
= ϵ0 · 4πr2 dr
2 16π 2 ϵ2 R6
Z R
1 Z 2 e2 r 2
= 4 · r4 dr
2 16πϵ R6 0
 5 R
1 Z 2 e2 1 r
= 4 6·
2 16πϵ R 5 0
2 2
 5 R
1Z e 1 r
= 4 6·
2 16πϵ R 5 0
1 Z 2 e2
=
40 πϵ0 R
1 5 Z 2 e2
=
40 5 πϵ0 R

3 2 e2 1
So, Bdir = Z (12)
5 4πϵ0 R
We have introduced,
"∫x y 2 dy
#2
0 y−1
1+exp( )
Z ∫ x2 dx
t

5 1+exp( x−1
t
)
h(t) = dx
6 x2
Now,
3 2 e2 1 a
Bdir = Z h( )
5 4πϵ0 R R
∫x y 2 dy
2
0 y−1
1+exp( a )
 ∫ R 
2 Z 2
x dx
1+exp( x−1
3 2 e 1 5 a )
Bdir = Z × R
dx
5 4πϵ0 R 6 x2
"∫x y 2 dy
#2
0 Ry−R
1+exp( )
Z ∫ x2 dx
a

3 e2 1 5 1+exp( Rx−R )
Bdir = Z2 × a
dx
5 4πϵ0 R 6 x2
I am confused Because of x and Y, why two variables and how to solve it
Again,
B(Z, N ) − B(N, Z)
∆ϵ =
A
3 2 e2 1 2

5 Z 4πϵ0 R − 35 N 2 4πϵ
e 1
0 R
∆ϵ =
A
3 e2 1
5 4πϵ0 R (Z
2
− N 2)
∆ϵ =
A
3 e2 1
5 4πϵ0 R (Z + N )(Z − N )
∆ϵ =
(Z + N )
as (Z − N ) = small number. we ignore it.
So,
3 e2 1
∆ϵ =
5 4πϵ0 R
we know the equation,

η(Z, N ) = ∆ϵ(Z, N ) × Rc (Z, N )

so the η of the direct term reads
r  
3 e2 1 a 3  a N −Z  a
ηdir = h( ) × R f( ) + θ q h
5 4πϵ0 R R 5 R 3
AR R
5

So,  
r
3 3 e  a 2
N −Z  a
ηdir = f( ) + θ q h
5 5 4πϵ0 R 3
AR R
5

for a = 0, unified charged spherical distribution, we will get,

r
3 3 e2
η0 =
5 5 4πϵ0
so,  
a N −Z  a
ηdir = η0 f ( ) + θq h
R 3
AR R
5

Exchange Term
  13 4 Z h i
3 3 Z 3 e2 4
Bexch = − ρ(r) 3 4πr2 dr
2 8π 4πϵ0
We introduce ,
x2 dx
[ ]4
Z 1+e
x−1
t
3

− 31
k(t) = 3   43
x2 dx
x−1
1+e t

then   32
e2 Z 3  a 
4
3 3
Bexch =− k
4 2π 4πϵ0 R R
x2 dx
[ ]4
  23 2 4 Z 1+e
Rx−R
a
3
3 3 e Z −1 3
Bexch =− 3 3   43
4 2π 4πϵ0 R
x2 dx
Rx−R
1+e a

4πx2 dx
! [ ]4
Z Rx−R 3
3 3 3− 3
2 1 4
1+e
3 e2 Z 3 1
a

Bexch =− 2 2 (4π) 3   34
4 23 π3 4πϵ0 R
4πx2 dx
Rx−R
1+e a

  13 4 Z 4
3 3 e2 Z 3 ρ(r) 3 × 4πr2 dr
Bexch =− h i 43
2 8π 4πϵ0 R Rx−R
1+e a

Then what?
Now,
B(Z, N ) − B(N, Z)
∆ϵ =
A

23 e2 Z 3
4

32 4
e2 N 3


− 34 3
2π 4πϵ0 R k a
R + 3
4
3
2π 4πϵ0 R k a
R
∆ϵ =
A
  23
e2 1  a  N 3 − Z 3
4 4
3 3
∆ϵ = − k
4 2π 4πϵ0 R R A
Then I don’t understand