Acronyms Used in the Revision Guide:

MEMORY: How does your memory work?

This topic is about how we store and retrieve information in our memory system. We will
explore different explanations of why our memory system is not perfect and why we often
forget things!
 Memory and Information Processing
“Know the structure and process of memory and information processing: Input, processing, output, encoding,
storage, retrieval”

Key terms named in the specification – these can be asked about in the exam. You need to
be able to define these terms for 2 marks. Remember to give examples where possible.
Input Processing Output
Encoding Storage Retrieval

Often, an information processing model is used to explain the memory system, which
compares the brain to a computer:

Input Process Output

e.g. we learn a list of 10 words, these 10 words are stored in our long-term memory, we can
recall these 10 words at a later date

When describing human memory, we use the following key terms to describe the same
process:

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Input Encoding

This is the sensory information we receive from This is turning sensory information into a form
the environment. that can be used and stored in the memory
system.
e.g. the definition above is a form of input you are
reading e.g. short-term store encodes acoustically (based
on sounds)

Processing Storage

The operations (processes) we perform on This is retaining (keeping) the information in our
sensory information in the brain. memory system.

e.g. you might store the definition in your memory e.g. short-term store can store input for up to 30
system seconds

Output Retrieval

The information that we are able to recall This is when we recall a stored memory
(remember).
e.g. you being able to give a definition of a key
e.g. if you can repeat back one of these definitions term in your GCSE exam
at a later date this is the output
 Memory and Information Processing Key Term Glossary
Input The information we receive from the environment
Processing Operation performed on the sensory input
Output The information that we recall (or generally, some behavioural
response)
Encoding Turning sensory information into a form that it can be used by the brain
Storage Retaining (keeping) information in our memory system
Retrieval Recalling stored information (memories)
Visual encoding Storing visual input
Acoustic Storing sound input
encoding
Semantic Storing the meaning of input
encoding

The Features of Short-Term and Long-Term Memory

“Understand the features of short-term and long-term memory, including: duration, capacity”

Key terms named in the specification – these can be asked about in the exam. You need to
be able to define these terms for 2 marks. Remember to give examples where possible.
Short-term memory Long-term memory Duration Capacity

Duration is the amount of time that information can be stored in a

memory system, e.g. the duration of the STM is under 30 seconds.

Capacity is the amount of information that can be stored in a memory

system, e.g. the capacity of the STM is 5-9 pieces of information.

Encoding is the way we transform input so that it can be stored in a

memory system, e.g. the STM encodes acoustically (based on sound).
 Short-Term Memory
The short-term memory store is a temporary store, where input can stay for up to 30
seconds without rehearsal. Here, it is encoded acoustically based upon sound. This store
has a capacity of 5-9 (average of 7) “bits” of information. If rehearsed, information can
transfer from the STM to the LTM. Without rehearsal, new information will displace
existing information in the 5-9 “slots” or it will decay after 30 seconds.

Long-Term Memory
The long-term memory store is a permanent store, where input can stay for up to a
lifetime. Here, it is encoded semantically based upon its meaning. This store has a
potentially unlimited capacity. Although input can stay forever, it might decay over time,
show interference from new information or be unable to be retrieved.

The sensory
Rehearsal
Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory

• Duration: up to 30 seconds • Duration: up to a lifetime

• Capacity: 5-9 • Capacity: unlimited
• Encoding: acoustic • Encoding: semantic
• Forgetting: displacement, • Forgetting: decay,
decay interference, retrieval failure

Short and Long Term Memory Key Term Glossary

Short term Temporary (30 seconds) and limited (5-9 items) memory system that
memory encodes acoustically (based on sounds)
Long term Permanent (up to a lifetime) and unlimited memory system that
memory encodes semantically (based on meaning)
Duration The length of time that information can be stored in a memory system
Capacity The amount of information that can be stored in a memory system
Displacement When new input “pushes out” existing input in a memory system
Interference When new information overwrites older information
Rehearsal Repeating information over and over again to help storage in a memory
system
 Amnesia
“Understand retrograde and anterograde amnesia, including: the term retrograde amnesia, the term
anterograde amnesia, the symptoms of retrograde amnesia and the symptoms of anterograde amnesia”

Key terms named in the specification – these can be asked about in the exam. You need to
be able to define these terms in detail. Remember to give examples where possible.
Retrograde amnesia Anterograde Retrograde Anterograde
amnesia symptoms symptoms

Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall your existing long-term memories from before
the brain injury. The individual may even forget their friends and family in serious cases and
may even forget who they are themselves! In lucky cases, some of their long-term
memories can be regained with time. They are still able to form new long-term memories.

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form

new long-term memories of things that
happen after their brain injury. Their short-
term memory is intact, so they can store
input for up to 30 seconds, but it doesn’t
transfer to their long-term store. They are
still able to recall their old long-term
memories from before their brain injury.

Amnesia Key Term Glossary

Amnesia Severe (serious) memory loss usually caused by a brain injury

Anterograde The inability to form new long-term memories (existing LTMs remain
amnesia and the STM store is usually unaffected)
Retrograde The inability to recall existing long-term memories (but they can form
amnesia new LTMs)
Symptom A behaviour that is likely to be seen from someone with a diagnosis
 Bartlett (1932) Theory of Reconstructive Memory
“Understand the active process of memory through the theory of reconstructive memory (Bartlett, 1932)
including strengths, how schemas are formed and how schemas influence memory”

Key phrases named in the specification – these can be asked about in the exam. You need
to be able to explain these concepts in detail. Remember to give examples where possible.
Reconstructive memory How schemas are formed How schemas influence
memory

Reconstructive memory
Bartlett claimed that memory recall is not an exact replica of what was experienced. Instead, he
claimed that our memories are reconstructions (our own interpretations) of what we experienced.
These reconstructions are based on our schemas.

Schemas
A schema is a mental framework for what we expect of a
person/event/place. Our schemas are based on our unique experiences.
E.g. a schema for a school lesson might involve answering the register,
writing in an exercise book, answering questions, etc.

How schemas are formed

Schemas are formed based on our experiences. They can also be affected by our knowledge and
stereotypes. Our schemas are unique to us. Everyone has different schemas.

How schemas influence memory

Schemas influence our memory by causing reconstructions in the following ways:
Transformation: changing a memory (in one of two ways):
 Familiarisation: changing a memory so that it suits what we are familiar with
 Rationalisation: changing a memory so that is makes sense to us
Omissions: missing out details
Evaluation

S
In Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts experiment, participants recalled a folk tale from 15 minutes
to 10 years after first reading it. They reconstructed the story, making omissions and
transformations, e.g. they changed “canoe” to “boat.” This shows how schemas can make
our memory recall inaccurate.

O
The supporting evidence for this theory lacks validity. Bartlett only tested his theory using
recall of stories and images. It might be that real memories of events or people are not
affected by schemas. This makes the evidence for the theory weak.

D
A better explanation of memory could be the multistore model. This is better than Bartlett’s
theory as it explains the different memory stores (SR, STM, LTM) and is therefore much more
detailed than Bartlett’s theory. Bartlett’s theory is reductionist as it doesn’t consider different
memory stores.

A
The theory shows us how memories are not accurate and are reconstructed. This means we
shouldn’t trust eyewitness testimony (recall) of crimes. Now, the police use a something
called “cognitive interview”, which uses techniques to help to discourage omissions and
transformations in recall.
 Reconstructive Memory Theory Key Term Glossary

Schema A mental framework about an event/person/place for what we expect,

based on our experiences
Reconstruction An interpretation of events, influenced by our schemas
Transformation Where details of a memory are changed (to make sense or to become
familiar)
Familiarisation A type of transformation: changing a memory so that is fits our
expectations/is familiar to us
Rationalisation A type of transformation: changing a memory so that it makes rational
sense to us
Omission Missing out details of a memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1969) Multi-store Model of Memory

“Understand the structure and process of memory through the multistore model of memory (Atkinson and
Shiffrin, 1969), including strengths and weaknesses, sensory register, capacity and duration of short-term
memory, capacity and duration of long-term memory, role of attention in memory, role of rehearsal in
memory”

Key terms named in the specification – these can be asked about in the exam. You need to
be able to define these terms in detail. Remember to give examples where possible.
Sensory register Short-term memory Long-term memory
Capacity Duration Attention
Rehearsal

Multistore Model of Memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin claimed that information passes through three distinct (separate)
sequential memory stores (goes through one after the other). These are the sensory
register, then the short-term memory store (STM) and finally the long-term memory store
(LTM).

Sensory Short-term Long-term

register memory memory

For each store, you should know the capacity, duration and how input can transfer on to the
next store. For short-term and long-term memory, you should also know about encoding.
 The Sensory Register Impress the
This is the first memory store where immediate input goes. It acts examiner…
as a filter for all of the sensory input from the environment (what The sensory register
you see, hear, taste, smell and touch). The sensory register holds can process any
this information very briefly – it has a very short duration. If we form of input, e.g.
pay attention to the information, it transfers to the STM. If we Iconic – visual input
don’t pay attention to it, it decays and is forgotten. Echoic – sound input
Haptic – touch input

Short-Term Memory Store

If we pay attention to input, it transfers to the STM store. Here, information is usually
encoded acoustically (based on sound). The STM has a capacity of 5-9 “chunks” of
information, with an average of 7. New input from the sensory register can displace existing
information in these 5-9 “slots.” The STM has a duration of 18-30 seconds. After this time,
the information decays and is forgotten. But if we rehearse (repeat) the information, it can
transfer to the LTM store.

Long-Term Memory Store

If we rehearse information, it transfers to the LTM store. Here, information is encoded
based on its meaning (semantic encoding). The LTM has an unlimited capacity and an
indefinite duration (information can remain forever). However, some memories can decay
over time, we might struggle to retrieve some memories or new information can interfere
with our existing long-term memories.

Multistore Model of Memory Key Term Glossary

Sensory Our immediate memory of sensory information (any input, very short
register duration)
Short term Our temporary memory store (< 30 seconds, acoustic encoding, 5-9
memory chunks)
Long term Our permanent memory store (up to a lifetime, unlimited capacity,
memory semantic encoding)
Capacity How much information can be processed in a memory store
Encoding The way a input is transformed to be held in a memory store
Duration The amount of time information can be held in a memory store
Attention How we focus on certain sensory input (helps transfer from the SR to
STM)
Rehearsal Repeating information over and over again to help it store in the long-
term memory system (helps transfer from the STM to LTM)
 Evaluation

S
Peterson and Peterson (1959) ran a memory laboratory experiment and asked participants to
remember trigrams (3 letters). Their recall got worse after 18 seconds, showing the short-
term memory store to have a short duration. When given time to rehearse the trigram by
repeating it out loud, their recall got better, showing rehearsal helps transfer information
from short-term to long-term memory.

Murdock: Participants were able to recall more words from the beginning of the list (primacy
effect) and the end of the list (recency effect) but few from the middle. It is thought the
words at the beginning were able to be rehearse and transfer to the LTM. The words at the
end of the list would have displaced words in the middle of the list in the STM store. This
supports the theory’s claim that rehearsal aids transfer to the LTM store, and that new
information displaces existing information in the STM store, which has a limited capacity.

O
The theory is too simplistic (reductionist), as it doesn’t explain that there could be different
types of long-term memory stores. E.g. LTMs for facts, LTMs for experiences, LTMs for skills
etc.

D
A better explanation of memory could be the reconstructive memory theory. This is better
than the multistore model as it explains why our memory recall is often inaccurate (through
reconstructions based on our unique schemas), which this theory doesn’t explain. It shows
this theory to be reductionist (too simplistic) for not considering why we reconstruct
memories.

A
The theory is useful because it shows us ways to improve our memory recall –
e.g. rehearsal to help information go into the LTM store

The Multistore Model of Memory

(Atkinson & Shiffrin)
Rehearsal

Rehearsal

Sensory Attention Short-Term Long-Term

Register Memory Store Memory Store
Retrieval

Unrehearsed Some
Unattended
information information
information
is lost may be lost
is lost
over time
 Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts
“Understand the aims, procedures and findings (results and conclusions), strengths and weaknesses of:
Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts”

Background to the study: Bartlett wanted to test his theory that memory is not always
accurate and our memories are reconstructed based on schemas. He claimed that schemas
are mental frameworks based on experience.

Description: APRC

A
 Bartlett aimed to see if memory recall of a story is affected by schemas, previous
knowledge and culture.
 He wanted to test his theory that memories are reconstructed and not exact
replicas of what we experience.

P
 20 British participants (7 females, 13 males) took part in the study, but they
weren’t told the true aim of the study was about reconstructive memory.
 Bartlett gave participants a Native American story called “The War of the Ghosts”
which was unfamiliar to them. They were allowed to read the story twice.
 Participants were asked to recall the story 15 minutes later.
 Participants were also asked to recall the story again at various later times. This
ranged from 20 hours later, up to almost 10 years later!

R
 Participants changed the story in their recall – they made transformations due to
familiarisation.
- E.g. they recalled the word “canoe” as “boat”.
- E.g. they recalled the activity “seal hunting” as “fishing”.
 17 out of the 20 participants either forgot (omission) or changed (transformation)
the title of the story.
 They also made transformations due to rationalisation – they changed bits of the
story so that it made more sense.

C
 Schemas affect memory recall and lead to omissions and transformations.
 Memory recall is not an exact replica of what is learnt, but is a reconstruction
based on schemas.

The War of the Ghosts: One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt seals and while they were
there it became foggy and calm. Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: "Maybe this is a war-party". They escaped
to the shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and saw one canoe coming
up to them. There were five men in the canoe, and they said: "What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are
going up the river to make war on the people." One of the young men said, "I have no arrows." "Arrows are in the canoe,"
they said. "I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But you," he said, turning to
the other, "may go with them." So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. And the warriors went on
up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people came down to the water and they began to fight, and many
were killed. But presently the young man heard one of the warriors say, "Quick, let us go home: that Indian has been hit."
Now he thought: "Oh, they are ghosts." He did not feel sick, but they said he had been shot. So the canoes went back to
Egulac and the young man went ashore to his house and made a fire. And he told everybody and said: "Behold I
accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed, and many of those who attacked us were
killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel sick." He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose he fell
down. Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried. He was
dead.
 Evaluation: GRAVE

G
 Bartlett used both females and males in his sample, meaning strong
generalisability.
 However, the sample size of 20 is quite small, meaning results might not reflect
typical memory recall.

R
 The study had a standardised procedure (every participant read the same story:
The War of the Ghosts) which means the study can be repeated to check for
consistency of results.
 Bartlett repeated the study with different stories and also pictures – he found that
the result was consistent (same result kept occurring), showing high reliability.

A
 The study is useful as it supports Reconstructive Memory theory – it shows that
memory recall isn’t accurate and is reconstructed based on schemas.
 This suggests we shouldn’t trust eyewitness testimony of crimes, as their recall
may be affected by schemas. Because of studies like Bartlett’s, “cognitive
interview” was created to stop eyewitness testimony being impacted by schemas.

V
 The results have low ecological validity, as it was an artificial memory test of a
story that participants were not familiar with. This doesn’t reflect everyday
memory recall of real events.
 As the participants were asked to recall the story multiple times, they may have
guessed the aim and showed demand characteristics. They may have realised
Bartlett expected them to change the story each time.

E
 There aren’t any ethical issues with the study as it was just a simple memory
experiment, that didn’t cause any harm to participants.

Bartlett (1932) Key Term Glossary

Ecological Whether the behaviours observed in research reflect everyday
validity behaviours
Eyewitness The recall of a crime, given by a witness (someone that saw the event)
testimony
Cognitive An interview technique that aims to improve the accuracy of eyewitness
interview testimony by reducing the impact of schemas on memory
Demand When participants guess the aim of the study and change their
characteristics behaviour to help out the researcher
 Peterson and Peterson (1959) Short-Term Retention of Individual Verbal Items
“Understand the aims, procedures and findings (results and conclusions), strengths and weaknesses of:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) Short-term retention of individual verbal items”

Background to the study: The Petersons wanted to test the duration of the short-term
memory store. The did this by preventing participants from rehearsing, by giving them an
interference task: counting backwards in threes.

New term: A trigram is a set of three consonants, e.g. DVM.

Description: APRC

A
 The Petersons aimed to test the duration of the short-term memory store.

P
 24 Psychology students from an American University were used as participants in
the study.
 Each student was read a set of letters (a trigram: 3 consonants, e.g. FNL) to
remember.
 Then, they were read a three-digit number. The participant then had to count
backwards from this number, in threes or fours. E.g. 709, 706, 703… to stop them
rehearsing the trigram. This is called an interference task.
 When signalled by a red light, the participant was asked to recall the trigram. This
was after either 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds of counting backwards.
 Each participant had 8 goes at each time delay, meaning they did the procedure 48
times in total with different trigrams!

R
 When counting backwards for 3 seconds, 80% got the trigram correct.
 When counting backwards for 18 seconds, less than 10% got the trigram correct.

C
 The short-term memory store has a short duration of about 18 seconds, without
rehearsal.

The Petersons did a second experiment, using 48 students from the same University. This
time, half of the participants were allowed to repeat the trigram out loud, using vocal
rehearsal. The other half of the participants had to stay in silence, so they could only
rehearse the trigram in their head. They then had to do the counting backwards in threes
task, as in the first experiment. Those given the chance to vocally rehearse the trigram were
more likely to correctly recall the trigram, showing that rehearsal helps transfer information
from the short-term store to the long-term store.
 Evaluation: GRAVE

G
 They only used 24 students, therefore the results may not reflect other people’s
memory.
 Students should have good memory, whereas older adults may have a worse
memory.

R
 The study had a standardised procedure (fixed timings for counting backwards) so
the study can be repeated to check consistency.

A
 The study is useful as it supports multistore model of memory’s claim that the
short term memory store has a short duration.
 It shows us that we have to rehearse information if we want to remember it for
longer than about 18 seconds.

V
 The results have low ecological validity, as it was an artificial memory test of
trigrams. So it doesn’t reflect everyday memory recall of real events.

E
 There aren’t any ethical issues with the study as it was just a simple memory
experiment, that didn’t cause any harm to participants.

Peterson and Peterson (1959) Key Term Glossary

Short term Our temporary memory store (< 30 seconds, acoustic encoding, 5-9
memory chunks)
Duration The amount of time information can be held in a memory store
Trigram Three consonant letters, e.g. GKL
Rehearsal Repeating information over and over again to help it store in the long-
term memory system (helps transfer from the STM to LTM)
Interference A task that interferes with your ability to rehearse information
task
 Reductionism and Holism Debate
“Understand the reductionism and holism debate, including: the terms reductionism and reductionist, the
terms holism and holistic, and the use of content, theories and research drawn from human memory to
explain the reductionism and holism debate”

Key terms named in the specification – these can be asked about in the exam. You need to
be able to define these terms for 2 marks. Remember to give examples where possible.
Reductionism Reductionist Holism Holistic

What do these terms mean?

Reductionism Reductionist Holism Holistic

This is when you This is the practice This is when you This is the practice
explain something of reductionism. explain something as of holism.
by breaking it down a whole, taking into
into just a few If a theory breaks account lots of If a theory explains
simple parts. something down contributing something as a
into smaller parts factors/parts. whole, and takes
- This makes a and doesn’t consider into account lots of
theory lack detail. the whole issue, it + This makes a factors, it would be
would be called a theory very detailed called a holistic
+ But it does make reductionist theory. theory.
the theory scientific - But it does make
as it can easily be The multistore the theory Reconstructive
tested to see if there model of memory is unscientific and hard memory theory is
is a cause and effect reductionism as it to test, as it doesn’t holistic as it
relationship. breaks memory break down the considers the role of
down into three topic into parts that experiences and
simple stores. can be tested stereotypes.

Simple parts Simple Whole picture Detailed

Looking at the ingredients of a cake is reductionist Looking at the baked cake is holistic
 Where can we see reductionism and holism in the memory topic?
Reductionist Holistic

Atkinson and Shiffrin – Multistore model of Bartlett – reconstructive memory theory and war
memory of the ghosts study

It claims that memory is a series of three separate He looked at participants’ backgrounds and jobs to
stores with specific functions. see how that influenced how they remembered
things
It used experiments, trying to isolate variables to
look at (e.g. rehearsal time) without thinking about He spent lots of time with his participants to work
other factors out their characters

He used qualitative (descriptive) analysis to

understand how an individual’s schema influenced
their recall of stories

Reductionism and Holism Debate Key Term Glossary

Reductionism Explaining something by breaking it down into its simple parts
(simplifying something)
Reductionist The practice of reductionism
Holism Explaining something as a whole (considering lots of parts)
Holistic The practice of holism
Debate Something that can be argued from two different points of view