Supplementary Materials for

Linear-viscous flow of temperate ice

Collin M. Schohn et al.

Corresponding author: Neal R. Iverson, niverson@iastate.edu

Science 387, 182 (2024)

DOI: 10.1126/science.adp7708

The PDF file includes:

Materials and Methods

Figs. S1 to S9
Table S1
References
Materials and Methods
Apparatus
A large ring-shear device (fig. S1) (30) is used to slowly deform lab-made polycrystalline ice at its pressure-
melting temperature (PMT). An aluminum, annular ice chamber that is U-shaped in cross section contains an ice
ring with an outer diameter of 0.9 m, a width of 0.2 m, and a thickness of ~0.17 m. Matching PVC platens, with
teeth designed to minimize slip of ice along them, grip the top and the bottom of the ice ring. To shear the ice, the
upper platen rotates at either a constant speed, so that shear stress varies with time, or at a constant shear stress, so
that the rotation rate of the platen and hence the strain rate of the ice varies with time. The lower platen cannot
rotate, while two geared-down, servo-controlled electric motors drive the rotation of the upper platen. The walls of
the ice chamber confine the ice laterally during shear while confining pressure is applied with a servo-controlled
hydraulic ram that pushes upward on the ice ring, exerting a steady (fluctuations < 2%) vertical stress normal to the
plane of shear. As the ice ring melts during shear—an inevitable consequence of keeping the ice at its PMT—
meltwater escapes through drains in the base of the ice chamber to atmospheric pressure. As the ice ring thins by
melting and water drainage, the hydraulic ram extends upward to maintain a constant normal stress on the ice.
Deforming ice at its PMT simplifies the stress state in the ice and its measurement but complicates measuring
strain rate. Owing to the ice melting, the smooth walls of the ice chamber (fig. S1) are separated from the edges of
the ice ring by a water film that is of order 1.0 m thick. Experiments with a smooth, polished lower platen in the
device (53) indicate that this film results in negligibly small friction between the ice and walls during shear of the
ice. Thus, the shear stress that drives deformation of the ice ring, averaged over its upper surface, can be determined
from the resistance to rotation of the upper platen, which is measured in its drive assembly with a torque sensor. The
rotation of the upper platen is measured with a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) that presses on a
radial gusset plate of the upper platen (fig. S1). If the ice were at a subfreezing temperature, the rate of platen
rotation could be used to compute shear strain rate because the upper and lower platens would fully grip the ice.
However, with ice at the PMT slip at platen surfaces cannot be eliminated—a problem that partly explains why
experimentalists studying shear deformation of ice have worked almost exclusively at subfreezing temperatures
(e.g., 39, 54-56). To avoid this problem shear strain is measured from the rotation of a tiltmeter (Jewell Instruments
02550322-0141-ATP), potted in epoxy and frozen into the ice along the ice ring centerline (fig. S1). Although the
tiltmeter is a rigid body, comparison of its rotation at the ends of experiments with that of initially vertical and fully
passive threads in the ice (fig. S1) demonstrate that for the shear strains of the experiments (<0.22) the tiltmeter
adequately records shear strain and that it is uniform across the ice ring thickness.
In five of the experimental phases, the rotation of the tiltmeter was affected by it contacting the upper or lower
platen, so the tiltmeter data from those shearing phases were corrupted and could not be used to estimate strain rate
(table S1). In those cases the rotation rate of the upper platen is used to calculate shear strain rate, with slip at the
surfaces of the upper and lower platens accounted for by using the average slip from the other shearing phases to
estimate the fraction of platen movement that caused ice deformation. The average slip from the other shearing
phases, when ice deformation from the tiltmeter record could be compared with rotational displacement of the upper
platen, was 38% of the platen rotation, such that, on average, 62% of displacement was by ice deformation.
The apparatus is housed in a cold room, but additional temperature control is needed to keep the ice at its PMT
without melting it too rapidly or unsteadily. Thus, the ice chamber is submerged in a tub filled with an ethylene
glycol-water mixture (fig. S1). This fluid flows around the base and sides of the ice chamber. The fluid temperature
is maintained within 0.01 °C of a set value using an external temperature bath and circulator (Lauda Proline model
RP1840). The fluid temperature is kept at less than 0.01 °C to minimize heat flow to the ice ring but above 0 °C to
keep water unfrozen in the plumbing that drains the ice chamber. To further minimize heat flow to the ice chamber,
its base and sides are insulated with closed-cell foam. Rates of ice ring thinning by melting during experiments are
generally 2-3 mm d-1, as measured by an LVDT connected to the hydraulic ram.
The temperature of the ice is recorded with epoxy-potted, glass-bead thermistors frozen in the ice and ten
thermistors embedded in the walls of the ice chamber. The thermistors are first calibrated in ice-water baths of
different temperature using a high-precision reference thermistor (± 0.001 °C). Calibrated thermistors have a
precision of ±0.01 °C. Thermistors in the ice are installed in two diametrically-opposed, radial transects that span the
width of the ice chamber. Each of the two thermistor transects allows two measurements of the liquid water content
of the ice, as described hereinafter.

2
Procedure
Ice rings are built by adding chilled, deionized water in ~10 mm thick layers to the ice chamber and seeding the
water with snow made from deionized crushed ice that is passed through a 2 mm sieve. Freezing the resultant slush
creates ice with mean grain diameters of 2.6 ± 1.1 mm and minimal LPO (57). The process is repeated until the ice
ring is about 170 mm thick, with the tiltmeter and thermistors frozen in at mid-height and their locations measured.
The four weighted threads that serve as strain markers are suspended in vertical holes drilled through the ice and
frozen into position. A final slush layer is then added to the ring’s upper surface before jacking the ice chamber
upward so the ice ring is pressed against the upper platen under a low normal stress (0.3 MPa). Over 1-2 days the
platen freezes into place at a temperature of -7 °C. The ice ring is then warmed to the PMT by warming the cold
room to 1 ± 0.8 °C and adjusting the external bath and circulator so that the coolant in the tub is at ~0.01 °C. The ice
ring warms for three days while thermistors record the temperature increase in the ice. By the end of this period, the
ice is at its PMT, as indicated by the ice temperature, meltwater continuously draining from the ice chamber, and the
thinning of the ice ring. Normal stress on the ice is then increased to the value applied during ice shear, 1.5 MPa.
This increased pressure lowers the PMT by causing melting that consumes sensible heat and increases the liquid
water content of the ice to the working range of the experiments, 0.74-1.84%. This normal-stress increase is always
accompanied by a decrease in the temperature recorded by thermistors that span the ice ring, indicating that the ice
is indeed fully at the PMT. No attempt is made to vary the normal stress to systematically vary the liquid water
content, unlike in previous experiments conducted to secondary creep with this device (30).
The first shearing phase of experiments is usually conducted at a high, constant shear stress (0.19-0.24 MPa) to
drive the ice to tertiary creep as quickly as possible (the exceptions were Experiments 2 and 6, in which all shearing
phases were strain-rate controlled) (table S1). Deformation proceeds until the tiltmeter records little or no net change
in shear-strain rate (or stress in Experiments 2 and 6) for ~20 hours or more. The ice is then presumed to be in
tertiary creep, which usually occurs at a strain > 0.1. This procedure is in contrast to experiments conducted to
secondary creep with the same apparatus and ice preparation technique (30); in each of those experiments there was
only one shearing phase, and strain rate was kept steady until stress became steady or started to decrease, usually at
a strain < 0.06. In the absence of a component of shear directed vertically, as in the experiments, shear strain, 𝜀, is
1
defined as 𝜀 = tan θ, where θ is the tilt angle in the direction of shear recorded by the tiltmeter and checked at the
2
ends of experiments against the tilts of the initially vertical weighted threads. The tiltmeter signal contains high-
frequency noise at sub-hourly time scales, so the raw signal is smoothed using a LOESS filter. Shear stress and
strain rate are averaged over the period of quasi-steady creep, with error reported as plus or minus one standard
deviation of the higher frequency variability.
After the first shearing phase is complete, water content is measured using the calorimetric method previously
described in detail (30). To do so, the drive motors are turned off and the temperature of the glycol-water mixture in
the cooling tub is reduced by 0.5 °C. This cooling induces a freezing front in the ice that travels horizontally from
the inner and outer walls of the ice chamber toward the centerline of the ice ring. The insulation provided by the
thick PVC of the upper and lower platens causes the freezing front to propagate largely radially, reducing heat flow
to one dimension. Each thermistor of a half-transect, extending from a wall to the ice ring centerline, records at a
different time the arrival of the freezing front. Arrival times are sensitive to the liquid water content of the ice owing
to the high latent heat of fusion of water. Numerical solutions of the relevant Stefan heat-conduction problem are fit
to arrival times in the four half-transects of thermistors to determine the water content at four locations (30). Error
for a shearing phase is reported as plus or minus the standard deviation of these measurements. The method
improves upon that of Duval (23) who used a single thermistor and arrival time to estimate water content. Measured
water contents ranged from 0.74% to 1.84% (table S1). After cold fronts have reached the center of the ice ring (<
24 hours), the ice is warmed back to the melting temperature.
In the next shearing phase, ice is deformed at a controlled rate or at different controlled stress, until tertiary creep
is again attained, followed by another measurement of water content. A new strain rate or stress is then chosen for
the next shearing phase, and this process is repeated until the ice ring becomes too thin for the hydraulic ram, with
its finite reach, to maintain the normal stress. Figure S2 shows stress and strain time series of the shearing phases of
the six experiments, and table S1 contains values of the stresses and strain rates in tertiary creep that are plotted in
Figures 1 and 2 of the article. Three additional shearing phases (57) have not been included because they were not of

3
sufficient duration to reach a quasi-steady state. Shear stress during the last shearing phase of each experiment and
hence most relevant to the ice microstructure studied after experiments never exceeds 0.18 MPa.

Ice Characterization
After an experiment, ice is removed from the ice chamber and sectioned for analysis. The tilt of initially vertical
threads is measured for comparison with the total tilt recorded by the tiltmeter. To study the ice texture and fabric,
thin sections are cut so they lie either in the longitudinal flow plane (vertical and parallel to the shearing direction)
or in the shear plane (horizontal). The thin sections are photographed under cross-polarized light. Images are then
computer-processed with a binarization and color thresholding technique that determines the shape and area of each
grain (41). Measured grain sizes are adjusted for the bias of viewing them in a plane with the correction scheme of
Durand (58).
To measure SPO an ellipse is fit to each grain that determines its major and minor axis. Grains that are
insufficiently elongate, with an axial ratio smaller than 1.5, are not used to compute SPO. Principal component
analysis on the long-axis, SPO data is performed with a MATLAB script that converts long-axis orientations
into Cartesian coordinates, computes the covariance matrix of these coordinates, and determines eigenvalues
and eigenvectors.
Lack of ready access to either an automated ice fabric analyzer or a scanning electron microscope
equipped for cryospheric electron backscattering diffraction required that LPO based on c-axis orientations be
measured manually with a universal Rigsby stage (59). To prepare thin sections for LPO measurements, an
oriented section of ice is cut from the ice ring parallel to the shear plane (horizontal), and the shear direction (e.g.,
the rotation direction of the upper platen) is marked. The ice section is collected from a region at the center of the ice
ring, a minimum of 50 mm away from the teeth of the top and bottom platens to avoid possible complications from
ice slipping along the platens. The ice section is trimmed to a slab that is ~50 x 50 x 30 mm and mounted atop a
glass slide, with the shear direction denoted. The mounted slab is then shaved using a Leica microtome (model SM
2400) to a thickness of ~300 microns for analysis on the Rigsby stage. Extinction angles and directions are visually
determined following the methods described in Langway (59) to determine orientations of c-axes.

4
Fig. S1. Cutaway views of the apparatus (left) and its ice chamber (right). The ice ring, which is made in layers
from deionized water seeded with ice particles passed through a 2 mm sieve, is sheared horizontally by rotating the
upper platen. A hydraulic ram exerts a vertical stress on the ice ring (1.5 MPa in these experiments). A dilute
ethylene glycol mixture (not shown), with its temperature controlled externally, circulates in the green tub and
around the ice chamber to keep the ice ring at the pressure-melting temperature but without melting it too quickly.
Meltwater drains from the base of the ice chamber. A tiltmeter in the ice continuously records its shear deformation
while initially vertical threads record the total shear strain at the ends of experiments (modified from (30)).

5
6
Fig. S2. Stress and strain time series. Shear strain in stress-controlled shearing phases and shear stress in rate-
controlled shearing phases for the 19 shearing phases of the six experiments. For strain time series, the applied shear
stress, 𝜏, is listed, as well as the average shear strain rate, 𝜀, near the ends of shearing phases when strain accrued
relatively steadily. For stress time series, the strain rate is listed, as well as the variation in shear strain, 𝜀, across the
duration of the time series.

7
 5 x 1012

Tertiary
Tertiarycreep, from (23)
creep (Duval, 1977)
Secondarycreep,
Secondary creep (Adams et al., 2021
from (30)
4 x 1012
Effective viscosity, Pa s

3 x 1012

2 x 1012

1 x 1012

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Water content, %

Fig. S3. Effective ice viscosity with variable water content in secondary and tertiary creep. Effective ice
viscosity is 𝜂 𝜏/2𝜀, where 𝜏 is stress and 𝜀 is strain rate. The secondary-creep data are from (30), who used the
apparatus and ice-preparation technique of the current study to shear temperate ice while varying the ice water
content among experiments. The tertiary-creep data are from Duval (23), who used a rotary device that was about an
order of magnitude smaller to shear temperate glacier ice. Grain sizes of ice in the two studies were comparable,
with mean grain diameters of order 10 mm (modified from (30)).

8
Fig. S4. Ice texture before and after shear. (A) Ice grains before shearing viewed with cross-polarized light. (B-
D) Ice texture after shearing indicating grain growth and development of irregular and interlobate grain boundaries.
Some grains exhibit undulose extinction indicative of lattice distortion. Squares are 10 mm on a side.

9
Fig. S5. Ice grain-size distribution before and after deformation, aggregated from the six experiments. The
grain sizes after deformation are broadly typical of temperate ice in glaciers (14, 25).

10
Fig. S6. Grain size at the ends of experiments carried out to different strains. Error bars indicate ± one standard
deviation of the grain size distribution.

11
Fig. S7. Air-bubble content of ice before and after an experiment. (A) Upper surface of the ice ring before an
experiment, illustrating ice made white and opaque by air bubbles. (B) Upper surface of the ice ring after an
experiment illustrating transparent ice largely devoid of air bubbles. Radially trending steps in the ice surface reflect
the geometry of the teeth on the upper platen that gripped the ice ring during its deformation. The width of the ice
chamber is 0.2 m.

12
Fig. S8. Orientations of c-axes at two positions along the lateral margin of Tasman Glacier, a temperate valley
glacier in New Zealand. The plane of these lower-hemisphere stereonets is oriented in the x-z plane of the
experiments (Fig. 3 of the article). These are fabric-analyzer data based on an unreported number of grains in (42);
stereoplots of individual c-axis orientations from that study, however, indicate that more than 1000 grains were
measured (modified from (42)).

13
Fig. S9. Comparison of the shape-preferred orientations (SPO) of deformed ice measured in the experiments
with that of a temperate glacier. (A) Aggregated orientation distribution of the long axes of grains with aspect
ratios larger than 1.5. The plane of shear is 0°, and the red arrow is the eigenvector that indicates the orientation of
maximum clustering. Based on 3528 grains. (B, C) SPO data, plotted in the same way, from two positions along the
lateral margin of Tasman Glacier (modified from (42)).

14
Table S1. Data from the 19 shearing phases of the six experiments
Water content
Experiment/ Controlled Strain rate Shear stress
Strain* (%)
phase variable (10-8 s-1) (MPa)
1A Stress 0.094 27.2 ± 0.7 0.24 ± <0.01 1.55 ± 0.40
1B Stress 0.112 9.9 ± 0.3 0.15 ± <0.01 1.53 ± 0.26
1C Stress 0.137 14.6 ± 1.2 0.21 ± <0.01 1.65 ± 0.33
1D Stress 0.145 8.8 ± 0.4 0.18 ± <0.01 1.48 ± 0.29
2A Strain rate 0.069 11.7 ± 0.3 0.19 ± <0.01 1.54 ± 0.13
2B Strain rate 0.075 2.6 ± <0.1 0.05 ± <0.01 1.62 ± 0.08
†
2C Strain rate 0.103 8.9 ± 1.9 0.16 ± <0.01 1.28 ± 0.18
3A Stress 0.126 21.1 ± 0.7 0.24 ± <0.01 1.57 ± 0.13
†
3B Strain rate 0.174 4.6 ± 0.9 0.09 ± <0.01 1.49 ± 0.16
4A Stress 0.119 13.7 ± 1.0 0.22 ± <0.01 1.47 ± 0.19
4B Strain rate 0.141 7.3 ± 0.4 0.15 ± <0.01 1.35 ± 0.11
4C Strain rate 0.189 5.8 ± 0.4 0.11 ± <0.01 1.27 ± 0.36
4D Strain rate 0.214 3.9 ± 0.3 0.12 ± <0.01 1.16 ± 0.25
5A Stress 0.114 13.6 ± 1.5 0.19 ± <0.01 0.74 ± 0.08
†
5B Strain rate 0.145 6.2 ± 1.3 0.11 ± <0.01 0.77 ± 0.08
†
5C Strain rate 0.162 4.7 ± 1.0 0.08 ± <0.01 0.80 ± 0.10
5D Strain rate 0.190 5.3 ± 0.5 0.09 ± <0.01 0.76 ± 0.14
6A Strain rate 0.161 7.7 ± 0.5 0.13 ± <0.01 1.84 ± 0.17
†
6B Strain rate 0.177 4.2 ± 1.0 0.09 ± <0.01 1.64 ± 0.17
*Values are from the ends of the shearing phases.
†
Owing to corrupted tiltmeter data, values have been calculated from the rotational displacement of the upper
platen, adjusted using the fraction of platen motion accommodated by ice deformation during shearing phases when
the tiltmeter recorded reliable data.

15
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