LINEAR MOTION

Newton's equations of motion

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
2 2
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠

Deriving the equations of motion.

Consider a body moving with a velocity, u. if this body is accelerated uniformly at a rate 𝑎 𝑚𝑠 −2 . If the body
acquire a velocity, v, in t s after covering a distance, s.

From definition of acceleration (the rate of change of velocity with time)

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣−𝑢
𝑎= =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑡
𝑎𝑡 + 𝑢 = 𝑣
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 … … … … (𝑖)
From definition of average velocity;
𝑣 + 𝑢 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = =
2 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡
𝑡(𝑢 + 𝑣)
𝑠=
2
From (i) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑡(𝑢 + 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)
𝑠=
2

2𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑠=
2
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 ………….. (ii)

𝑣−𝑢
Substituting for t = into (ii)
𝑎
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠……………(iii)
Example 1
A car moving with a velocity of 10m𝑠 −1 accelerates uniformly at 1m 𝑠 −2 until it reaches a velocity of 15m 𝑠 −1 .
Calculate,
i) Time taken
ii) ii) Distance traveled during the acceleration iii) The velocity reached 100m from the place where acceleration
began.

Example 2
A Travelling car A at a constant velocity of 25m/s overtake a stationery car B. 2s later car B sets off in pursuit ,
accelerating at a uniform rate of 6m 𝑠 −2 . How far does B travel before catching up with A

Example 3
A particle x travels with a constant velocity of 6m/s along straight line. It passes a particle y which is stationery.
One second later y accelerates at 2m 𝑠 −2 . how long after being passed does it take for y to draw level with x?
 Motion graphs
Displacement-time graphs

Displacement Displacement Displacement

∆𝑠
Slope, 𝑆 = ∆𝑡

Time Time Time

The body is at rest. The body is moving with Uniform deceleration
uniform/constant velocity

Displacement
Displacement

Uniform deceleration in an
Uniform acceleration opposite direction

Time
Time
Constant/ uniform negative velocity Uniform acceleration say downwards

Displacement Displacement

Time Time

Displacement
Maximum height

Time
Body projected vertically upwards and returns to its
point of projection
 Velocity- time graphs
Velocity Velocity Velocity

Time Time Time

Constant velocity Constant/ uniform Constant/ uniform
acceleration deceleration
Velocity

NB
Area under a velocity time graph is displacement

Time
A body projected
vertically upwards
 Proof that area under the v-t graph is displacement

Area under the strip

Velocity
1
𝐴= 𝑎+𝑏 ℎ
2

𝑣 + ∆𝑣 1
𝑣 𝐴= 𝑣 + 𝑣 + ∆𝑣 ∆𝑡
2

1
∆𝑡 Time 𝐴 = 𝑣∆𝑡 + ∆𝑣∆𝑡
2
But ∆𝑣∆𝑡 ≈ 0

𝐴 = 𝑣∆𝑡 = displacement (s)

Motion under gravity

This is motion of a body in a gravitational field
a) Vertical projection

This can be vertically upwards or vertically downwards

 A body projected vertically upwards

H is maximum height The equations of motion apply with simple

𝑣 modifications where
𝑢 is initial velocity
W=mg s=h
𝑣 is final velocity a = -g

H NB; Thus
𝑢 Due to the its weight, the 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡
body experiences an
deceleration due to gravity. 1
ℎ = 𝑢𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
(g ≈ 9.81) 2
NB In short the motion is 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔ℎ
At maximum height the against gravity thus we use
body momentarily comes g, as negative NB
to rest. ie No need to cram any of these ones just take in the
𝑣=0 equations of motion
A body projected vertically upwards

H is maximum height The equations of motion apply with simple

𝑢 modifications where
𝑢 is initial velocity
W=mg s=h
𝑣 is final velocity a=g

H NB; Thus
Due to the its weight, the 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡
body experiences an
𝑣 deceleration due to gravity. 1
ℎ = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
(g ≈ 9.81) 2

In short the motion is pro 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔ℎ

gravity thus we use g, as
positive NB
No need to cram any of these ones just take in the
equations of motion
Example 1
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial speed of 20𝑚𝑠 −1 . Calculate.
i) Time taken to return to the thrower
ii) Maximum height reached

Example 2
A particle is projected vertically upwards with velocity of 19.6 𝑚𝑠 −1 . Find
i) The greatest height attained
ii) Time taken by the particle to reach maximum height

Example 3
A man stands on the edge of a cliff and throws a stone vertically upwards at 15 𝑚𝑠 −1 . After what time will
the stone hit the ground 20m below the point of projection

Example 4
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 10 𝑚𝑠 −1 from a point 50m above the ground.
Describe with the aid of a velocity - time graph, the subsequent motion of the ball.
 Example 3
A man stands on the edge of a cliff and throws a stone vertically upwards at 15 𝑚𝑠 −1 . After what time will
the stone hit the ground 20m below the point of projection.

𝑣=0 Time taken to cover ℎ1 upwards −𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐

𝑡=
2𝑎
𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡 −30 ± 302 − 4 × 9.81 × −40
0 = 15 − 9.81𝑡1 𝑡=
2 × 9.81
𝑡1 = 1.5291𝑠 𝑡 = 1.0038𝑠
ℎ1 ℎ1
Time taken to return to the cliff top Total time = T + t
𝑇 = 2 × 1.5291 = 3.0582𝑠 = 3.0582 + 1.0038
𝑢 = 15 𝑚𝑠 −1
= 4.062s
Time taken to cover 20 m below
1 2
20 m ℎ = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡
2
1 Assignment
𝑣 =? ? 20 = 15𝑡 + × 9.81𝑡 2
2 Define acceleration due to gravity
40 = 30𝑡 + 9.81𝑡 2
9.81𝑡 2 + 30𝑡 − 40 = 0
 PROJECTILE MOTION

This is the motion where after the body has been given an initial velocity, it moves under the
influence of gravity only.
Trajectory (this is the path taken by a projectile in air)

The range (R) is the distance from the point

−1
𝑢 𝑚𝑠 of projection to the point where the
projectile meets the horizontal plane
H containing the point of projection.

Time of flight (T)

Range (R)
This is the time taken to cover the range.
Or
Horizontal range
Maximum height (H)
This is maximum vertical distance from the
horizontal plane containing the point of
projection attained by the projectile.
 Components of velocity. Velocity “v” at any instant.

𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin θ
𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin θ 𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑣𝑥

θ 𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑣𝑦
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos θ
θ
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 cos θ

𝑣= 𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2
𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1
(𝑥, 𝑦)
We can apply 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 to find 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑣𝑦
H 𝑦

𝑥
Equation for maximum height (H) Equation for the time to reach
𝑣𝑦 = 0 maximum height (t)
𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥
Consider vertical motion
𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡
H
0 = 𝑢 sin θ − 𝑔𝑡
𝑢 sin θ
𝑡=
𝑔
R
Consider vertical motion Equation for the time of flight (T)
Equation for the range (R)
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔ℎ 𝑇 = 2𝑡
Consider horizontal motion (a =0) 2𝑢 sin θ
02 = (𝑢 sin θ )2 −2𝑔𝐻 𝑇=
1 𝑔
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2𝑔𝐻 = 𝑢2 sin2 θ 2

𝑅 = 𝑢 cos θ T
𝑢2 sin2 θ
𝐻=
2𝑔 2𝑢 sin θ
𝑅 = 𝑢 cos θ
𝑔
2
𝑢 sin 2θ
𝑅=
𝑔
Equation of trajectory

This is an equation which combine the horizontal distance (x) and the vertical distance (y) covered by
a projectile at any instant in time (t)

𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1
(𝑥, 𝑦) Horizontally
1
𝑦 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑥 = 𝑢 cos θ 𝑡
𝑥
𝑡 = 𝑢 cos θ ……..(ii)
𝑥
Putting (ii)in (i)
Vertically 𝑥 1 𝑥 2
1 2 𝑦 = 𝑢 sin θ − 𝑔
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑢 cos θ 2 𝑢 cos θ
2
1
𝑦 = 𝑢 sin θ 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 …….. (i) 1 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan θ − 𝑔
2 𝑢 cos θ

𝑔𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan θ − 2 (1 + ta𝑛2 θ)
2𝑢
 A Travelling car A at a constant velocity of 25m/s overtakes a stationery car B. 2s later car B sets off in pursuit ,
accelerating at a uniform rate of 6m 𝑠 −2 . How far does B travel before catching up with A
25m/s
A

B
0 m/s Meeting
point
At the meeting point 25𝑡 = 3𝑡 2 − 12𝑡 + 12
𝑠𝐴 = 𝑠𝐵 …….. (i) 3𝑡 2 − 37𝑡 + 12 = 0

If A has travelled for 𝑡 𝑠, B has travelled for 𝑡 − 2 𝑠 −𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐

1 𝑡=
Form 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 2𝑎
− −37 ± 372 − 4 × 3 × 12
𝑡=
𝑠𝐴 = 25𝑡……. (ii) 2×3
1 𝑡 = 12𝑠 or 𝑡 = 0.3333𝑠
𝑠𝐵 = × 6(𝑡 − 2)2 = 3𝑡 2 − 12𝑡 + 12………. (iii)
2 We shall take 𝑡 = 12𝑠 because if its 0.3333 then B
travelled for negative time which is practically
Put (ii) and (iii) impossible
25𝑡 = 3𝑡 2 − 12𝑡 + 12
How far B travelled = 25𝑡 = 25 × 12 = 300𝑚
Examples on projectile motion
Time for maximum height
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
Example 1 0 = 30 sin 30 − 9.81𝑡
A Particle is projected with a velocity of 30m/s at an angle of elevation of 30°. Find 𝑡 = 1.5291𝑠
i) The greatest height reached
ii) The time of flight Time of flight
iii) The velocity and direction of motion at a height of 4m on its way downwards 𝑇 = 2𝑡 = 2 × 1.5291 = 3.0582𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢 sin θ − 𝑔𝑡
30 𝑚𝑠 −1 (t is time at a height of 4m on its way down)
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin θ 𝑣𝑥 We can simply apply the 3rd eqn
𝑣𝑦 2 = (30 sin 30 )2 −2 × 9.81 × 4
𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑣𝑦 = −12.1045𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑦
Then
30°
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos θ 𝑣 = 25.98082 + 12.10452
𝑣= 𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2 𝑣 = 28.6622𝑚/𝑠
Considering vertical motion Direction (∝)
𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑣𝑦
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔ℎ 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 tan ∝= 𝑣
02 = (30 sin 30 )2 −2 × 9.81𝐻 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢 cos θ + 0
𝑥
∝= −24.98°
𝐻 = 11.4679m
𝑣𝑥 = 30 cos 30 The velocity is 28.6622𝑚/𝑠 at an angle of −24.98°
𝑣𝑥 = 25.9808𝑚/𝑠 To the horizontal
 𝑣= 𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2
Example 2
A projectile fired at an angle of 60° above the horizontal strikes a building 30m away 𝑎𝑥 = 0
at a point 15m above the point of projection. Find 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
(i) Speed of projection 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢 cos θ + 0
(ii) Velocity when it strikes a building 𝑣𝑥 = 21.8573 cos 60
𝑣𝑥 = 10.9287𝑚/𝑠
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin θ 𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑣𝑥

𝑣𝑦 15 m 𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1 We can simply apply the 3rd eqn

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔ℎ
60° 𝑣𝑦 2 = (21.8573 sin 60 )2 −2 × 9.81 × 15
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos θ
𝑣𝑦 = 8.0004𝑚/𝑠
30 m Then
1 𝑣 = 10.92872 + 8.00042
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 Put (ii) into (i)
2 2 𝑣 = 13.5441𝑚/𝑠
Consider vertical motion 60 1 60
1 15 = 𝑢 sin 60 − × 9.81 Direction (∝)
15 = 𝑢 sin 60 𝑡 − 2 × 9.81𝑡 2 … (i) 𝑢 2 𝑢 𝑣𝑦
tan ∝= 𝑣
Consider horizontal motion 1 3600 𝑥
15 = 60sin 60 − × 9.81 × 2 ∝= 34.21°
30 = 𝑢 cos 60 𝑡 2 𝑢
30 60 𝑢 = 21.8573𝑚/𝑠 The velocity is 13.5441𝑚/𝑠 at an angle of 34.21°
𝑡 = 𝑢 cos 60 = 𝑢 …….. (ii) to the horizontal
Exercise 1
A body is projected at an angle of 600 above horizontal and passes through a net after 10s. Find the horizontal
and vertical distance moved by the body after it, was projected at a speed of 20m/s

Exercise 2
A ball is kicked from the spot 30m from the goal post with a velocity of 20m/s at 300 to the horizontal. The ball
just clears the horizontal bar of a goal post. Find;
(i) Height of the goal post
(ii) How far behind the goal post does the ball land

Exercise 3
A particle is projected from level ground towards a vertical pole, 4m high and 30m away from the point of
projection. It just passes the pole in one second. Find
i) Its initial speed and angle of projection
ii) The distance beyond the pole where the particle will fall. Ans [39.29m/s, 16.50]

Exercise 4
A stone thrown upwards at an angle θ to the horizontal with speed u m/s just clears a vertical wall 4m high
and 10m from the point of projection when travelling horizontally. Find the angle of projection Ans[38.660]
Exercise 3
A particle is projected from level ground towards a vertical pole, 4m high and 30m away from the point of
projection. It just passes the pole in one second. Find
i) Its initial speed and angle of projection
ii) The distance beyond the pole where the particle will fall. Ans [39.29m/s, 16.5°]

Consider horizontal motion

𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin θ 𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1 1
𝑣𝑥 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
4m 𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1 1
𝑣𝑦 30 = 𝑢 cos θ × 1 + × 0 × 12
2
60° 𝑢 cos θ = 30……… (ii)
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos θ
30 m (i) / (ii)
tan θ = 0.2968
Consider vertical motion θ = 16.53°
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 From (ii)
2
1 𝑢 cos 16.53 = 30
4 = 𝑢 sin θ × 1 − × 9.81 × 12 𝑢 = 31.29
2
𝑢 sin θ = 8.905……… (i)
Exercise 4
A stone thrown upwards at an angle θ to the horizontal with speed u m/s just clears a vertical wall 4m high
and 10m from the point of projection when travelling horizontally. Find the angle of projection Ans[38.660]

(i)/(ii)
Considering horizontal motion
Considering vertical motion tan θ = 0.88589𝑡……. (v)
1
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔ℎ 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (iv)=(v)
0 = 𝑢 sin θ 2 − 2 × 9.81 × 4 2
𝑢 cos θ 𝑡 = 10……… (ii) 0.981𝑡 2 = 0.88589𝑡
𝑢 sin θ = 8.8589…… (i) 0.981𝑡 2 − 0.88589𝑡 = 0
(iii)/(ii) 𝑡 0.981𝑡 − 0.88589 = 0
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 tan θ 0.981𝑡 = 0.88589
0 = 𝑢 sin θ − 9.81𝑡 = 0.981𝑡 𝑡 = 0.9030𝑠
𝑡
𝑢 sin θ = 9.81𝑡…….. (iii) tan θ = 0.981𝑡 2 ………. (iv)
From (v)
tan θ = 0.88589 × 0.9030
θ = 38.66°
 Horizontal projection

Example 1
𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔 A ball rolls off the edge of a table top 1m high
above the floor with a horizontal velocity 1m/s.
𝑢𝑦 = 0
Find;
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑥 i) The time it takes to hit the floor
𝑎𝑥 = 0 ii) The horizontal distance it covered
iii) The velocity when it hits the floor

𝑠𝑦 = −ℎ
𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔
𝑢𝑦 = 0
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑥 = 1𝑚/𝑠
𝑎𝑥 = 0
Consider vertical motion
Consider horizontal motion 1
1 𝑠𝑦 = 1𝑚 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 2
2 1
𝑠 = 1 × 0.4515 −1 = − × 9.81𝑡 2
2
𝑠 = 0.4515𝑚 𝑡 = 0.4515𝑠
Consider horizontal motion
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 = 1𝑚/𝑠 𝑣= 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2

Consider vertical motion

𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑣𝑦 = 0 − 9.81 × 0.4515
𝑣𝑦 = −4.4292𝑚/𝑠

Assignment 1
A ball is thrown forward horizontally from the top of a cliff with a velocity of 10m/s. the height of a cliff
above the ground is 45m. calculate
i) Time to reach the ground
ii) Distance from the cliff where the ball hits the ground
iii) Direction of the ball just before it hits the ground.
Assignment 2
A bullet is fired from a gun placed at a height of 200m with a velocity of 150m/s at an angle of 30° to
the horizontal find
i) Maximum height attained.
ii) Time taken for the bullet to hit the ground.
Assignment 3
A particle is projected at an angle of elevation of 300 with a speed of 21m/s. If the point of projection is 5m
above the horizontal ground, find the horizontal distance that the particle travels before striking the ground.

Assignment 4
A pencil is accidentally knocked off the edge of a horizontal desktop. The height of the desk is 64.8cm and
the pencil hits the floor a horizontal distance of 32.4cm from the edge of the desk, What was the speed of
the pencil as it left the desk.

Assignment 5
A pebble is thrown from the top of a cliff at a speed of 10m/s and at 300 above the horizontal. it hits the sea
below the cliff 6.0s later , find;
a) The height of the cliff .
b) The distance from the base of the cliff at which the pebble falls into the sea. An[150m, 52m]
Assignment 6
A bomb is dropped from an aero plane when it is directly above a target at a height of 1402.5m. the aero plane is
moving horizontally with a speed of 500km . Determine whether the bomb will hit the target. (misses target by
2347.2m)

Assignment 2
A bullet is fired from a gun placed at a height of 200m with a velocity of 150m/s at an angle of 30° to
the horizontal find
i) Maximum height attained
ii) Time taken for the bullet to hit the ground

𝑢𝑦 = 150 sin 30 150 𝑚𝑠 −1

𝑣𝑥
Consider vertical motion
𝐻 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣𝑦 𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1
02 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔𝐻
30°
𝑢𝑥 = 150 cos 30 Consider vertical motion
1 2
200m 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
1
−200 = 150 sin 30 𝑡 − × 9.81𝑡 2
2
 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

Forces of 2N, 3N, 4N, 5N, and 6N act on a particle in the direction 030°, 090°, 120°, 210°, and 330°
respectively. Find the resultant force.

Newton’s Laws of motion

Stating the laws
Law 1
A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external
force. (inertia law)
Definition;
Inertia is the unwillingness of a body to start or stop motion.

Question
Explain why passengers in a fast moving vehicle jerk forwards when the vehicle is suddenly brought to
rest.
Explanation
The vehicle and the passengers are in a state of uniform motion. When the vehicle is brought to rest, the
bodies of the passengers are reluctant to stop moving because of their inertia. Thus they continue in their
state of uniform motion hence jerk forwards.
Law 2
The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and take place in the
direction of the force.
Definition
Linear momentum (p) is the product of a body’s mass and its velocity. (𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣)
S.I units are 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1.

Principle of conservation of linear momentum.

It states that when two or more bodies collide, the sum of their initial momentum is equal to the sum of
their final momentum provided no external force acts on them.
OR
In an isolated system of colliding bodies, the total momentum remains constant.

Relationship between F=ma and linear momentum.

Form law 2
∆𝑝
∝𝐹
∆𝑡

Consider a body of mass, m, moving with a velocity, u 𝑚𝑠 −1 . if the body is accelerated uniformly at a rate
𝑎 𝑚𝑠 −2 , to a velocity v 𝑚𝑠 −1 in t s.
∆𝑝 From (i)
∝𝐹 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
∆𝑡 𝐹=
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 𝑡
∝ 𝐹 … … … . . (i) ∆𝑝
𝑡
𝐹=
𝑡
(𝑣 − 𝑢) ∆𝑝 = 𝐹𝑡 =impulse(I)
𝑚 ∝𝐹
𝑡
But Definition
(𝑣 − 𝑢) Impulse is the product of force and its time of action.
=𝑎
𝑡
NB;
Therefore; It can be seen that increasing the time action, reduces the
𝐹 ∝ 𝑚𝑎 reaction force.
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑚𝑎
Where, k, is a constant of proportionality; Thus when high jumpers bend their knees on landing, when
After experimental analysis, k, was found to a goal keeper recedes his/her palms on catching the ball,
be 1 when sand is put as floor for high jumpers, we are trying to
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, this is the basic Newtonian increase the time of action of the reaction force such that
equation of mechanics less damage and pain is induced/ felt/ caused.
 Third law

For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.

Using the 2nd and 3rd law to derive the principle of conservation of linear momentum.

In collision After collision

Put (ii) into (i)
𝑢𝐴 𝑢𝐵 𝑣𝐴 𝑣𝐵 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑚𝐴 𝑢𝐴
B B =−
A A 𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝐵
𝐹𝐴 𝐹𝐵 =-𝐹𝐴 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵 = −𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑚𝐴 𝑢𝐴
𝑚𝐴

∆𝑝 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑚𝐴 𝑢𝐴 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵 +𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵 + 𝑚𝐴 𝑢𝐴
Applying the 3rd law. = … … (ii) Sum of final momentum = sum initial
𝐹𝐵 =-𝐹𝐴 ∆𝑡 𝐴 𝑡
momentum
Which id the principle of conservation
∆𝑝 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵
Applying the 2nd
law. = … … (ii) of linear momentum.
∆𝑝 ∆𝑝
∆𝑡 𝐵 𝑡
=- …….. (i)
∆𝑡𝐵 ∆𝑡 𝐴
 COLLISIONS

Types of collisions

Elastic collision Inelastic collision Perfectly inelastic

Bodies separate after Bodies separate after Bodies stick together after
collision ie they move with collision ie they move with collision ie they move with
different velocities different velocities a common velocity
Linear momentum is Linear momentum is Linear momentum is
conserved. conserved. conserved.
Kinetic energy is conserved Kinetic energy is not Kinetic energy is not
conserved conserved
Coefficient of restitution, e 𝑒<1 𝑒=0
(the ratio of the relative
velocity after collision to
relative velocity before
(𝑣 −𝑣 )
collision) ,𝑒 = − (𝑢2−𝑢1 )
2 1
𝑒=1
Question
Show that for an elastic collision (where the coefficient of restitution, e = 1 (the ratio of the
relative velocity after collision to relative velocity before collision) , 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = −(𝑢2 −𝑢1 )
Consider two bodies 1 and 2 of masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 moving with velocities 𝑢1 and 𝑢2 .If they
collide elastically and after collision they move with velocities 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 .

Conservation of linear momentum Equating (i) and (ii)

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 +𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 𝑣22 − 𝑢22
𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2 − 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 2
𝑢1 − 𝑣1 𝑢1 − 𝑣12
𝑚1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 (𝑣2 −𝑢2 )(𝑣2 + 𝑢2 )
𝑚1 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 =
= … … . . (𝑖) 𝑢1 − 𝑣1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 )(𝑢1 + 𝑣1 )
𝑚2 𝑢1 − 𝑣1
𝑣2 + 𝑢2
1=
For an elastic collision kinetic energy is conserved 𝑢1 + 𝑣1
1 1 1 1 𝑢1 + 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 + 𝑢2
𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 𝑢2 - 𝑢1
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 +𝑚2 𝑣2 2 − 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = 𝑢2 - 𝑢1
𝑚1 𝑢12 − 𝑚1 𝑣12 = 𝑚2 𝑣22 - 𝑚2 𝑢22 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = − 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝑚1 (𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣22 - 𝑢22 )
𝑚1 𝑣22 − 𝑢22
= … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑚2 𝑢12 − 𝑣12
Example 1
A 0.2kg block moves to the right at a speed of 1m/s and meets a 0.4kg block moving to the left with a speed of
0.8m/s. Find the find velocity of each block if the collision is elastic.

Conserving linear momentum 𝑣2 = 0.2 + 𝑣1

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 +𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑣2 = 0.2 − 0.33333
𝑣2 = −0.1333𝑚𝑠 −1
0.2× 1 − 0.4 × 0.8 = 0.2𝑣1 + 0.4𝑣2
−0.12 = 0.2𝑣1 + 0.4𝑣2 … … … … 𝑖

Form;
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = − 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = − 0.8− 1
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = 0.2
𝑣2 = 0.2 + 𝑣1 … … . . 𝑖𝑖

Put (ii) into (i)

−0.12 = 0.2𝑣1 + 0.4(0.2 + 𝑣1)
−0.12 = 0.2𝑣1 + 0.08 + 0.4𝑣1
−0.2 = 0.6 𝑣1
𝑣1 = −0.2857
𝑣1 = −0.33333𝑚𝑠 −1
Example 2
A truck of mass 1 tone travelling at 4m/s collides with a truck of mass 2 tones moving at 3m/s in the same
direction. If the collision is perfectly inelastic, calculate;
(i) Common velocity
(ii) Kinetic energy converted to other forms during collision

Example 3
Two particles of masses 0.2kg and 0.4kg are approaching each other with velocities 4m/s and 3m/s
respectively. On collision, the first particle reverses its direction and moves with a velocity of 2.5m/s. find
the;
(i) velocity of the second particle after collision
(ii) percentage loss in kinetic energy

Example 4
A bullet of mass 20g is fired into a block of wood of mass 400g lying on a smooth horizontal surface. If the bullet
and the wood move together with the speed of 20m/s. Calculate
(i) The speed with which the bullet hits the wood
(ii) The kinetic energy lost
 The ballistic pendulum

Consider a block of wood of 𝑙−ℎ

mass M hung using an cos θ =
𝑙
inextensible string of length, 𝑙. ℎ = 𝑙 − 𝑙 cos θ
θ ℎ = 𝑙(1 − cos θ)…….. (iii)
If a bullet of mass 𝑚𝑏 , is fired 𝑙
and moves with a uniform 𝑙−h
velocity 𝑢𝑏 towards the block. 𝑙

𝑢𝑏
If the bullet collides and
embeds itself in the block such ℎ
M that after collision both move
Bullet of with a velocity, 𝑣, through a
Block of M
mass 𝑚𝑏 vertical heigh, ℎ, before
wood 𝑣
coming to rest.
If the collision is perfectly
After the two come to rest, the kinetic energy of the block and the bullet just
inelastic, momentum is
after collision is all converted to their potential energy at the height, ℎ
conserved; 1
𝑚𝑏 𝑢𝑏 = (𝑚𝑏 +𝑀)𝑣……..(i) 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑀 𝑣 2 = (𝑚𝑏 +𝑀)𝑔ℎ
2
𝑣 2 = 2𝑔ℎ…….. (ii)
 Put (iii) into (ii)
𝑣 2 = 2𝑔𝑙(1 − cos θ) Examples 1.
𝑣2 A bullet of mass 50g is fired horizontally into a block of wood of mass 8kg which is
cos θ = 1 − suspended by a string of length 2.5m. After collision the block swing upwards
2𝑔𝑙
𝑣2 through an angle 30°. Calculate the velocity of the bullet assuming that it gets
−1
θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1− embedded in the block just after collision.
2𝑔𝑙
Conserving momentum
NB; 𝑚𝑏 𝑢𝑏 = (𝑚𝑏 +𝑀)𝑣
Which 𝑣, is calculated from (i) 50× 10−3 𝑢𝑏 = (50 × 10−3 + 8)𝑣 30°
𝑚𝑏 𝑢𝑏 = (𝑚𝑏 +𝑀)𝑣 𝑣 = 6.2112 × 10−3 𝑢𝑏 𝑙 = 2.5𝑚
𝑙−h
From 𝑙
𝑣2 𝑢𝑏
cos θ = 1 −
2𝑔𝑙
Substituting for 𝑣 ℎ
6.2112 × 10−3 𝑢𝑏 2
Bullet of mass
cos 30 = 1 − M= 8kg
2 × 9.81 × 2.5 𝑚𝑏 = 50𝑔
𝑢𝑏 = 412.7197𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑣
Exercise 1
A steel ball of mass m is attached to an inelastic string of length 0.6m. The string is fixed to a point P so that
the steel ball and the string can move in a vertical plane through P. The string is held out at an angle of 60° to
the vertical and then released. At Q vertically below P, the wall makes a perfectly inelastic collision with the
lump of plasticine of mass 2m so that the two bodies move together after collision.

Exercise 2
A bullet of mass 40g is fired horizontally into freely suspended block of wood of mass 1.96kg attached at the
end of an inelastic string of length 1.8m. given that the bullet gets embedded in the block and the string is
deflected through an angle of 600 to the vertical . Find:
(i) The initial velocity of the bullet
(ii) The maximum velocity of the block

Exercise 3
a) i) State the law of conservation of linear momentum
ii) Use Newton’s laws to derive the law in a(i)

b) Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collision

c) An object X of mass M, moving with a velocity 10m/s collides with a stationary object Y of equal mass. After
collision X moves with speed U at an angle of 30° to its initial direction while Y moves with a speed of Y at an
angle of 90° to the new direction.
(i) Calculate the speeds U and Y
(ii) Determine whether the collision is elastic or not.
Discussed part
An object X of mass M, moving with a velocity 10m/s collides with a stationary object Y of equal mass. After
collision X moves with speed U at an angle of 30° to its initial direction while Y moves with a speed of V at an
angle of 90° to the new direction of X.
(i) Calculate the speeds U and V Conserving vertical momentum
(ii) Determine whether the collision is elastic or not. momentum
0 = 𝑈𝑀𝑠𝑖𝑛 30 − 𝑉𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛60
Before collision X 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 = 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛 30
M 3 1
10m/s 0m/s U m/s 𝑉= 𝑈
2 2
30° 3𝑉 = 𝑈……. (ii)
M M M M
60° After collision
X Y

Conserving horizontal momentum V m/s Y

10𝑀 = 𝑈𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑠 30 + 𝑉𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑠 60 M
3 1
10 = 𝑈+ 𝑉
2 2
20 = 3U + V…….. (i)
 SOLID FRICTION

Friction is the force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact.

Using kinetic theory of matter to explain the origin of friction.

At molecular level, there is no perfectly smooth surface. When molecules marge to form a body, its
surface appears to have projections.

When two surfaces get into contact, their projections entangle forming welded joints.

A sufficient force is required to break the welded joints in order to cause motion. This force constitutes
the friction force. (this also explains the first law of solid friction)
Laws of solid friction.

Friction between two surfaces in contact opposes their relative motion.

Friction between two surfaces does not depend on the area of contact provided the normal reaction is
kept constant.

(𝑓 = 𝜇𝑅). The friction force between two surfaces in contact is proportional to the normal reaction and
independent of the relative velocity of the surfaces.
Explaining the laws of friction using kinetic theory

One
Friction between two surfaces in contact opposes their relative motion.
At molecular level, there is no perfectly smooth surface. When molecules marge to form a body, its
surface appears to have projections. When two surfaces get into contact, their projections entangle
forming welded joints. A sufficient force is required to break the welded joints in order to cause motion.
This force constitutes the friction force.

Two
Friction between two surfaces does not depend on the area of contact provided the normal reaction is kept
constant.

Block of wood Suppose the area of contact

reduces, what do you think will
happen to the friction?

Rough table
Rough table

Rough table
Two
Friction between two surfaces does not depend on the area of contact provided the normal reaction is kept
constant.

While resting on the large surface area, many but shallow welded joints are created resulting into a small
value of breaking force per welded joint. When the area of contact is reduced keeping the weight the same,
fewer but deeper welded joints are created resulting into a large value of breaking force per welded joint. in
both cases, the sum the force required to break the welded joints remain constant. Hence friction not
depending the area of contact for the same value of normal reaction.

Three (assignment)
The friction force between two surfaces in contact is proportional to the normal reaction and independent of the
relative velocity of the surfaces.

Types of solid friction;

1. Static friction
2. Kinetic/ dynamic/ sliding friction
Definitions
Static friction
Is the force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact under attempted motion.

Kinetic/ dynamic/ sliding friction

Is the force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact and moving relative to one another.

Limiting friction force. (this is not a type of friction)

This is the maximum static friction force.
OR
This is the value of static friction just before motion begins. (at the verge of moving)

Coefficient of friction of a surface (𝜇).

𝑓
𝜇=
𝑅
Definition
The coefficient of friction is the ratio of friction force to the normal reaction of a body.

NB;
𝑓 = 𝜇𝑅
 Experimental determination of friction and it coefficient.

Determining limiting friction and it coefficient.

Determining kinetic/sliding/dynamic friction and it coefficient.

 SECTION B (HEAT)

Newton’s law of cooling;

If a body is heated to a temperature θ, and allowed to cool under conditions of forced convection. (under
drought)

Given the temperature of the surrounding (θ𝑜 )

𝑑𝜃
Newton found out that, the rate at which the temperature falls, , is proportional to the excess
𝑑𝑡
temperature above that of the surrounding. (θ- θ𝑜 )
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆θ
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑚𝑐 𝑑𝑡 ∝ −(θ- θ𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡

Stating the law;

Under conditions of forced convection, the rate of heat loss is proportional the excess temperature above
that of the surrounding.
Question
Explain why small bodied people feel coldness to fast compared to large bodied people.

Question
Explain why a newly born baby is wrapped in cotton thick clothes.

Solution
From Newton’s law of cooling
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑚𝑐 𝑑𝑡 ∝ −(θ- θ𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃 𝑘
= − 𝑚𝑐 (θ- θ𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃 𝑘
= − ρ𝑉𝑐 (θ- θ𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜃 𝑘
= − ρ𝐴𝑙𝑐 (θ- θ𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡
This implies that the rate at which the temperature falls is inversely proportional to the surface area of the
body. ie a small surface area will lead to a faster rate of heat loss to the surrounding.
 Plotting a cooling curve. Heating and cooling

Temperature Temperature

θ
Heating Cooling

θ𝑜

Time Time
 The cooling correction ∆θ
Cooling

T
∆θ
0℃ θ
Heating ∆θ′

𝐴1 𝐴2

θ𝑜
Body (rubber) heated to a
temperature of 100℃ 120s 180s Time
0s
Since some heat is lost to
the surrounding, the ∆θ = 𝑘𝐴1……….. (i)
maximum observed ∆θ′ = 𝑘𝐴2 ………….(ii)
100℃
temperature od the liquid T= θ + ∆θ
is less than the would be (i)/(ii)
observed temperature if ∆θ 𝐴1
=
there were no heat losses ∆θ′ 𝐴2
to the surrounding. 𝐴1
∆θ= ∆θ′
𝐴2
 A cooling correction is the extra temperature which is added to the
maximum observed temperature in order decompensate for the heat Cooling
lost to the surrounding.
T
Its normally performed for heat experiments associated with the ∆θ Cooling
′
θ correctio
method of mixtures specifically while determining the specific heat Heating ∆θ′
capacity of a poor conductor. E.g. rubber. Since poor conductors take n
some good time before raising to sufficient temperature, a lot of heat 𝐴1 𝐴2
is lost to the surrounding irrespective of whether all precautions
taken care of.
θ𝑜
Performing a cooling correction
- A rubber piece is heated separately in a water bath to sufficiently high
temperature. 120s
- The rubber piece is quickly transferred to water at room temperature in a
180s Time
0s
calorimeter containing a thermometer placed close to a window (in order to
approximate drought conditions) ∆θ = 𝑘𝐴1……….. (i)
- As the temperature of water rises, its values, θ, are recorded at given time ∆θ′ = 𝑘𝐴2 ………….(ii)
intervals up to a maximum observable temperature.
- The recording is continued for a few degrees as the temperature falls. (i)/(ii)
- A cooling curve is plotted and takes the shape below. ∆θ 𝐴1
- Where, θ𝑜 , is room temperature and T, is the corrected maximum =
temperature and θ′ , is the maximum observed temperature. ∆θ′ 𝐴2
- By counting squares the areas 𝐴1 , and 𝐴2 are calculated.
𝐴1
∆θ= ∆θ′
- The temperature drop, ∆θ′ , is also read from the temperature axis. 𝐴2
𝐴
- The cooling correction ∆θ, is calculated from, ∆θ= 1 ∆θ′
𝐴2
 An experiment to verify Newton’s law of cooling.

- Water is heated until when it boils in a calorimeter. 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜃

∝ ∝ −(θ- θ𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
- A thermometer is lowered into the calorimeter and the Temperature , T
calorimeter is placed close to a window. 𝑑𝜃
- Using a stop clock, as the temperature drops, its different 𝑑𝑡
values, are recorded every after a given time interval. θ P 𝑑𝜃
ቤ=𝑆
- Results are tabulated including values of, θ- θ𝑜 𝑑𝑡 P
- A cooling curve is plotted.
- Tangents are drown at various points of the curve, and
𝑑𝜃
their gradients at the selected temperatures, θ, ,
𝑑𝑡 θ- θ𝑜
determined.
𝑑𝜃
- When graph of , against θ- θ𝑜 , is plotted, a straight line
𝑑𝑡
with a negative gradient is obtained. Time, t
- Since the rate of heat loss is proportional to the rate of
𝑑𝑄
fall of temperature, a graph of 𝑑𝑡 , against θ- θ𝑜 , will take Θ(℃) t(s) 𝑑𝜃 θ- θ𝑜 (℃)
the same shape. (℃𝑠 −1 )
𝑑𝑡
- This verifies that under conditions of forced convection,
the rate of heat loss to the surrounding, is proportional to
the excess temperature above that of the surrounding.
 GAS LAWS P C
Applied on ideal gas. 𝑃𝑉 B
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
There are 3 gas laws. 𝑇
1
1. Boyle’s law 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ∝ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 at constant temperature.
2. Charles’s law (volume ∝ absolute temperature) at constant pressure
3. Pressure law (pressure ∝ absolute temperature) at constant volume.

Stating and verifying Boyle’s law

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas in inversely proportional to its volume at constant temperature.
H H
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙
Metre rule 𝑉∝𝑙 𝑉∝𝑙

Fixed mass of gas Fixed mass of gas

𝑙
Gas pressure h
h 𝑙
A B A B
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵
𝐻 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 + 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝐻 + 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝐻 + ℎ
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝐻 − ℎ
 - An air column is trapped in a J- tube using a mercury column
as shown in the diagram.
- The length of the air column, 𝑙, and the difference in the
mercury column, h, are measured using a metre rule and
H
recorded.
- More mercury is poured into the J tube from the open end.
Metre rule - Time is allowed for the temperature of the trapped air to fall
back to the original value.
Fixed mass of gas - The new length of the mercury column and the
𝑙
Gas pressure corresponding difference in height h, are recorded.
h
A B - The experiment is repeated by adding more mercury for
different values of h and 𝑙.
- Using a Fortin barometer, the atmospheric pressure H, is
measured and recorded.
- The pressure, P, of the gas is computed from P = H + h
1
- Results are tabulated including values of 𝑙 .
1
- When a graph of P against 𝑙 , is plotted, a straight line
through the origin is obtained
- Since the volume, V of the air is proportional to the length of
the air column when the cross sectional area is kept
constant.
1
- A graph of P against 𝑉, takes the same shape.
- This verifies Boyle’s law.
 Charles's law
Stating the law
The volume of a fixed mass of a gas id directly proportional to the absolute temperature at constant pressure.
Procedure
Verifying the law. - A column of air is trapped in glass tube using a sulphuric acid
index.
- A meter scale is attached to the glass tube using pieces of cello
tape.
Meter scale - The set up is vertically lowered in a beaker containing a
Glass tube thermometer and water at room temperature.
- The initial values of temperature, θ, and air column, 𝑙, are
Pieces of cello tape
measured using a thermometer and the meter scale respectively
Thermometer and recorded.
- The temperature of the water is raised by gently heating it using
Sulphuric a Bunsen burner.
acid index Gas - Different values of, θ, are recorded every after a given time
𝑙 interval with their corresponding values if, 𝑙.
- Results are tabulated including values of T=θ+273.16
Water - When a graph of 𝑙,against T is plotted, a straight line through the
origin is obtained.
- Since the volume V of the air column is proportional to, 𝑙, a
Heating graph of V against T take the same shape. This verifies Charles’
source law.
Assignment
State and describe a simple experiment to verify pressure law.

The ideal gas equation (PV = nRT)

Where, n is the number of moles and R the molar gas constant = 8.31 𝐽𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

𝑃𝑉
=𝐾
𝑇
Deriving the ideal gas equation
Charles’ law Pressure law

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇

Gas Frictionless Gas Frictionless Gas Frictionless

piston piston piston
 Charles’ law Pressure law

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑇 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇2

Gas Frictionless Gas Frictionless Gas Frictionless

piston piston piston
Consider a gas of If the temperature of
𝑉1 𝑉2 Now if the
volume, 𝑉1 , at a = …………. (i) the gas is increased to, 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑇1 𝑇 = …………. (iI) temperature of the
temperature 𝑇1 and T, at constant 𝑇 𝑇2
pressure 𝑃1 confined 𝑇1 𝑉2
gas in increased to a
𝑇= ……….. (iv) pressure, the gas
in cylinder with a 𝑉1
𝑃1 𝑇2
= 𝑇………. (iii) value 𝑇2 , maintaining
expands to a volume 𝑃2 the volume constant,
frictionless piston 𝑉2 the pressure of the
(iii) = (iv) gas increases to 𝑃2
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑇2
=
𝑉1 𝑃2

𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑉2
= =𝐾
𝑇1 𝑇2
Example 1

Two cylinders A and B of volumes V and 3V respectively are separately filled with gas. The cylinders are
connected as shown with the top closed. The pressure in A and B are P and 4 P respectively. When the tap is
opened, the common pressure becomes 60kPa. Assuming isothermal(the temperature is maintained constant)
conditions, find the value of P.
Before opening the tap After opening the tap
A B
𝑃𝑉 240000𝑉
𝑛𝐴 = 𝑛𝑇 =
V 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
3V
P 4P 𝑃𝑉
𝑛𝐴 =
60kP 𝑅𝑇
𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 = 𝑛 𝑇
The number of moles don’t change. 12𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉 12𝑃𝑉 240000𝑉
𝑛𝐵 = + =
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉
=𝑛
𝑅𝑇 𝑃 + 12𝑃 = 240000
𝑃 = 18461.5385𝑃𝑎
Example 2
A column of air 10cm long is trapped in a horizontal uniform capillary tube by mercury thread 8cm long, one end of the
tube being closed and the other end opened to the atmosphere. If the atmospheric pressure is 76cmHg, find the length of
air when the tube is placed vertically with its open end upwards.

𝑃𝑎 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
H=76 cmHg
10 cm
8 cm 𝑃𝑉
=𝐾
H=76 cmHg 𝑇

𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
8 cm 𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑃𝑎 = 76 + 8 = 84𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
10 × 𝐴 × 76 84 × 𝐴𝑙
=
𝑇 𝑇
𝑙 cm
760
𝑙= = 9.0476𝑐𝑚
84
Exercise 1
A narrow uniform glass tube contains air enclosed by a thread of mercury 15cm long. When the tube is vertical
with the open and uppermost, the column is 30cm long. When the tube is inverted, the length of the column
becomes 45cm long. Calculate the value of the atmospheric pressure. (75cmHg)

Exercise 2
A Uniform narrow bored tube closed at one end contains some dry air with is sealed by a thread of mercury 15cm
long. When the tube is held vertically with the closed end at the bottom, the air column is 20cm long, but when it is
held horizontally, the air column is 24cm long. Calculate the atmospheric pressure.

Exercise 3
Two bulbs A of volume 100cm3 and B 50cm3 are connected to a three way top which enables them to be
filled with gas or evacuated. The volume of the tubes may be neglected. Initially bulb A is filled with an
ideal gas at 10°C to a pressure of 3.0 x105Pa. Bulb B is filled with an idea gas at 100°C to a pressure of
1.0x105Pa. The two bulbs are connected with A maintained at 10°C at B at 100°C. Calculate the pressure at
equilibrium. (2.45 x 105 Pa.)
 Verification of pressure law

H
Gas pressure= H + h

Metre scale

Mercury Metre scale

reservoir h

Open
movable
limb

Heat
 Exercise 3
Two bulbs A of volume 100cm3 and B 50cm3 are connected to a three way tap which enables them to be
filled with gas or evacuated. The volume of the tubes may be neglected. Initially bulb A is filled with an
ideal gas at 10°C to a pressure of 3.0 x105Pa. Bulb B is filled with an idea gas at 100°C to a pressure of
1.0x105Pa. The two bulbs are connected with A maintained at 10°C at B at 100°C. Calculate the pressure at
equilibrium. (2.45 x 105 Pa.)
The number of moles
A B
The number of moles after opening
before opening 𝑉𝐵 = 50
𝑉𝐴 = 100 100 × 10−6 𝑃
𝑃𝑉
𝑛𝐴 = 𝑛𝐴 =
𝑅𝑇 𝑇𝐴 = 283.16 𝑇 𝐵 = 373.16 283.16 × 8.31

3 × 105 × 100 × 10−6 𝑛𝐴 = 4.2498 × 10−8 𝑃

𝑛𝐴 = 𝑃𝐴 = 3 × 105 𝑃𝐵 = 1 × 105
283.16𝑅
50 × 10−6 𝑃
5.8622 × 10−8 𝑃 = 0.0144 𝑛𝐵 =
1× 105× 50 × 10−6 373.16 × 8.3
𝑛𝐵 = 𝑃 = 2.4564 × 105 𝑃𝑎
373.16𝑅
𝑛𝐵 = 1.6124 × 10−8 𝑃
Total;
30 5 Total;
𝑛= + 𝑛 = 5.8622 × 10−8 𝑃
283.16 × 8.31 373.16 × 8.31
𝑛 = 0.0144
 Kinetic theory of gases

For an ideal gas

Assumption made;
- Gases are made up of tiny particles called molecules which are in a state of continuous random motion.
- The volume occupied by the gas molecules is negligible compared to the volume of the container (free volume).
- The intermolecular forces of attraction between the gas molecules are negligible.
- The collision between gas molecules and the walls of the container are perfectly elastic (or simply
elastic)(momentum is conserved, ke is conserved, bodies separate after collision, the coefficient of restitution is 1)
- The time spent in a single collision is too small/ negligible compared to the time between two successive collisions)
Showing that the pressure p of the gas is given by;

1 2
𝑃= 𝜌𝑐
3

𝑐 2 , is the average of the square speeds.

𝜌, is the density of the gas

From PV= nRT

𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃=
𝑉

1 2 𝑛𝑅𝑇
⇒ 𝜌𝑐 =
3 𝑉
Deriving the formula.

1 2
𝑃= 𝜌𝑐
3
Consider a gas molecule confined in a cube of length 𝑙. Let the molecule be of mass, m, and move with
an average speed, c, in all directions.

If the molecule is moving with a speed, u along the x-axis, speed v, along the y-axis and speed w, along
the z-axis.
𝐹
z 𝑃=
𝐴
∆𝑃 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐹= =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐴
u If the molecule take a time, t to traverse the length of the cube
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
x 𝐹= 𝑡
𝑙
y But since the collision s elastic, momentum is conserved;
Side A has no momentum since it is at rest
mu = -mv
v =-u
 −𝑚𝑢 − 𝑚𝑢 −2𝑚𝑢 2𝑚𝑢
𝐹= = 2𝑙
𝑡 𝑡 𝐹 𝑚𝑢2
this is the force exerted by the wall on to the 𝑃= = 2 = 3 𝑢
molecule. 𝐴 𝑙 𝑙
3
But , 𝑙 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉
Thus the force exerted by the molecule to the 𝑚𝑢2
𝑃=
wall = -F 𝑉

2𝑚𝑢 This is the pressure for a single molecule moving

𝐹= in a single direction.
𝑡
And area of side A = 𝑙 2
For N molecules moving in a single direction each
Thus the pressure exerted on to A by the having an average speed, u, towards side A.
molecule; 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚 𝑢12 + 𝑢22 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑁 2
…….. (i)
2𝑚𝑢
𝐹 The average square speed= mean square speed
𝑃 = = 𝑡2
𝐴 𝑙
2 2 2
𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑁
The time, t, for the to and fro motion of the 𝑢2 =
𝑁
molecule 2 2
𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑁 2
= 𝑁𝑢2 ……. (ii)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝑙
𝑡= =
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑢
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚 𝑢12 + 𝑢22 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑁
2
…….. (i)
Also Nm = total mass of the gas = M

𝑢12 + 𝑢22 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑁
2
= 𝑁𝑢2 ……. (ii) 1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑀 𝑐 2
3
Substitute (ii) into (i)
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑁𝑢2 1𝑀 2
𝑃= 𝑐
3𝑉
Suppose our molecules are moving randomly in all
direction with equal mean speeds; 𝑀
= 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝜌
𝑉
𝑢2 = 𝑣 2 = 𝑤 2
1 2
𝑃= 𝜌𝑐
The average mean square speed; 3
𝑐 2 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 = 𝑢2 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢2 = 3𝑢2
2
1 2
𝑢 = 𝑐
3

Substituting for 𝑢2

1 2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑁 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
3
Kinetic energy of a gas molecule of mass, m.
For 1 mole of gas, n = 1 and N =𝑁𝐴
Where, 𝑁𝐴 , is Avogadro’s number
1 2
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑐
3 2 1
× 𝑁𝐴 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑅𝑇
1𝑀 2 3 2
𝑃= 𝑐
3𝑉 Thus the k.e;
1 3𝑅𝑇
1 𝑚𝑐 2 =
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑀𝑐 2 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 2 2𝑁𝐴
3
Where, n is the number of moles
1 Since R = 8.31 J𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 And 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023
3

1 2 𝑅 8.31 −23 = 𝑘
× 𝑁𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ⇒ = = 1.3804 × 10 𝐵
3 2 𝑁𝐴 6.02 × 1023

2 1 Where; 𝑘𝐵 , is Boltzmann’s constant

× 𝑁 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
3 2
1 3𝑅𝑇 3
1 𝑘. 𝑒 = 𝑚𝑐 2 = = 𝑘 𝑇
Where ; 2 𝑚𝑐 2 , is the k.e of each molecule. 2 2𝑁𝐴 2 𝐵
1 3
𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2 2

Thus it follows that for fixed mass of gas;

𝑐2 ∝ 𝑇

Say if the temperature of a fixed mass of gas is raised from 𝑇1 to 𝑇2 . The mean square speed of the
molecules increases from, 𝑐 21 to 𝑐 2 2 , then;

𝑐 21 = 𝑘𝑇1 …………………………………………(i)

𝑐 2 2 = 𝑘𝑇2 ………………………………………….(ii)

(i)/ (ii)

𝑐 21 𝑇1
=
𝑐22 𝑇2

Also; 𝑐 21 𝑇1
=
𝑐 21 𝑇1 𝑇2
= 𝑐22
𝑐 22 𝑇2
Examples
Calculate root mean square speed of a molecule of an ideal gas at 1270C given that the density of the gas at a
pressure of 1.0x 105 Nm-2 and temperature 00C is 1.43kgm-3.
1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑀 𝑐 2 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
3
𝑐 21 𝑇1 1𝑀 2
= 𝑃= 𝑐
𝑇2 3𝑉
𝑐 22
1 2
𝑃= ρ𝑐
3
2.0979 × 105 273.16
= 1
400.16 1.0x 105 = × 1.43𝑐 2
𝑐2 2 3

𝑐 2 = 2.0979 × 105 𝑚𝑠 −1

𝑐 2 2 = 554.371𝑚𝑠 −1
 Deductions from the kinetic theory.

Proof of gas laws.

For 1 mole of gas, n = 1 and N =𝑁𝐴
Boyle’s law (PV =k) Where, 𝑁𝐴 , is Avogadro’s number

1 2 2 1
𝑃= 𝜌𝑐 𝑃𝑉 = × 𝑁𝐴 𝑚𝑐 2
3 3 2

1𝑀 2 For a fixed mass of gas at constant Assignment

𝑃= 𝑐 temperature;
3𝑉
1 3 1
Use the formula, 𝑃 = 3 𝜌𝑐 2
1 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑀𝑐 2 2 2 To prove Charles’ law and
3 Pressure law.
2 3
1 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑚𝑐 2 3 2
3
1 2 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑃𝑉 = × 𝑁𝑚𝑐 2
3 2
Where, 𝑁𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑇, are all constants
2 1 ∴ 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑘
𝑃𝑉 = × 𝑁𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
3 2
 Avogadro’s Hypothesis.

The hypothesis states that;

Two gases occupying the same volume at the same temperature and pressure have the same
number of molecules.

Consider two gases A and D having number of molecules, 𝑁𝐴 , and 𝑁𝐵

1 3
1 3 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2
𝑚𝑐 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2 2
𝑁𝐴 , 𝑚𝐴 , T, 𝑁𝐷 , 𝑚𝐷 , T, 2 2
2 3
P, V 2 3 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐷 × 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
P, V 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐴 × 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 3 2
3 2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐷 𝑘𝐵 𝑇…….. (ii)
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑇…….(i)
1 𝑁𝐴 𝑚𝐴 2 1 𝑁𝐷 𝑚𝐷 2
𝑃= 𝑐 𝐴 𝑃= 𝑐 𝐷
3 𝑉 3 𝑉
(i) = (ii)
1 1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐴 𝑚𝐴 𝑐 2𝐴 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐷 𝑚𝐷 𝑐 2 𝐷 𝑁𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑁𝐷 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
3 3

2 1 2 1 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝐷
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐴 × 𝑚𝐴 𝑐 2𝐴 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐷 × 𝑚𝐷 𝑐 2 𝐷
3 2 3 2
 Dalton’s law of partial pressures.

What is partial pressure?

Container of Container of
Container of
volume V volume V
volume V

Mixture of Gas 1 Gas 2

gases 1 and 2
Exerting a Exerting a
Exerting a pressure 𝑃1 pressure 𝑃2
pressure P

𝑃1 , is the partial 𝑃2 , is the partial

pressure of gas 1 pressure of gas 2

If follows that,𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
This is Dalton’s law of partial pressures.

Define partial pressure of a gas.

This is the pressure exerted by a single gas if it alone was allowed to occupy a volume/space which was originally
occupied by a mixture of gases of which that gas was part.
 Stating Dalton’s law of partial pressures
The pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.
1
Question; use the formula 𝑃 = 3 𝜌𝑐 2 to derive Dalton’s law of partial pressures
Consider a mixture of gases 1 and 2 at a temperature T contained in a container of volume V, at a pressure P. if, 𝑃1 ,
and 𝑃2 , are the partial pressures of the gases, then;

Mixture of
1 2 1𝑀 2 1 2 1𝑀 2
gases 1 and 2 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑐 = 𝑃 = 𝑐
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑐 = 𝑃 = 𝑐 3 3𝑉
3 3𝑉
V, P 1 𝑁2 𝑚2 2
1 𝑁1 𝑚1 2 𝑁2 , 𝑚2 , T, 𝑃2 = 𝑐 2
𝑁1 , 𝑚1 , T, 𝑃1 = 𝑐 1 3 𝑉
From; 3 𝑉
Where, 𝑁1 , is the number Where, 𝑁2 , is the number
1 3 𝑃1 , V 𝑃2 , V
2
𝑚𝑐 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 of molecules of gas 1 of molecules of gas 2
2 2 each of mass 𝑚2
each of mass 𝑚1
2 3 1 1
𝑃1 𝑉 = 3 𝑁1 × 2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇………. (i) 𝑃1 𝑉 = 𝑁1 𝑚1 𝑐 21 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑁2 𝑚2 𝑐 2 2
3 3
2 3 2 1
𝑃2 𝑉 = 3 𝑁2 × 2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇……….. (ii) 2 1 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑁2 × 𝑚2 𝑐 2 2
𝑃1 𝑉 = 𝑁1 × 𝑚1 𝑐 21 3 2
(i) + (ii) 3 2
2 3 2 3
𝑃1 𝑉 + 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑁1 × 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑁2 × 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
3 2 3 2
𝑃1 𝑉 + 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑁1 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑁2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝑃1 𝑉 + 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑁1 + 𝑁2

𝑁1 + 𝑁2 = N, which is the total number of molecules in the volume V

𝑃1 𝑉 + 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇𝑁

𝑅
Putting𝑘𝐵 = 𝑁
𝐴

𝑅
𝑃1 𝑉 + 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑇𝑁
𝑁𝐴
𝑁𝐴 = 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑁 = 𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑁𝐴 1
=
𝑁 𝑛

𝑅 𝑅
𝑃1 𝑉 + 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑇𝑁 = 𝑇𝑛𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 = 𝑃𝑉
𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐴

𝑃1 𝑉 + 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑃𝑉
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝑃
 VAPOURS

A vapour is a gas from a liquid or simply the gaseous form of a liquid. When a liquid is heated, the temperature
gradually rises. In this process the liquid begins to evaporate.

As the rate of evaporation increases, condensation begins, the rate condensation now also begins to increase.
At this moment we have what we call a vapour which is not saturated (unsaturated vapour).

A time comes when the rate of condensation equates to the rate of evaporation. At this moment we say the
vapour is in dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid. This is called saturated vapour.

Definitions

A saturated vapour is a vapour which is in dynamic equilibrium with its own

liquid.

Unsaturated vapour is a vapour which is not in dynamic equilibrium with its

own liquid.

Heat
The vapour exerts a presure called vapour pressure.

In practice a liquid will only boil if the pressure of its vapour has equated to the pressure above the liquid.

NB;
The pressure above a liquid may be due to a gas above it (gas pressure). Imagine water poured into a
flask. Above the water there is air. And this air exerts its own pressure we may call air pressure. If you
want to heat the water to boil. Heat must be supplied until when the pressure due to the water vapour
becomes to the air pressure.

In all cases, by the time the liquid is yet to boil, dynamic equilibrium has been already achieved, ie the
water vapour is now exerting saturated vapour pressure.

In conclusion we may say, boiling occurs when the saturated vapour pressure is equal to the pressure
above the liquid.

Where saturated vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by a saturated vapour.

 SATURATED VAPOUR PRESSURE (SVP)

This is the pressure exerted by a saturated vapour.

When a vapour is saturated, it doesn’t obey gas laws. Thus the equation of state (PV=nRT) doesn’t
apply. This is because a saturated vapour doesn’t obey the kinetic theory of ideal gases.

Effect of increase in volume on the value of SVP

Pressure
When the volume is increased, the Isothermal for
pressure above it lowers, and the vapour unsaturated vapour
loses its saturation. Now more liquid
molecules have to evaporate until when SVP
the original rate of evaporation is
reinstated. Thus the original saturated
vapour pressure value is reattained again.

In short, increase or decrease in volume,

doesn’t affect the value of SVP. Volume
Heat
Effect of increase in temperature on the value of SVP

When temperature is increased, the rate of evaporation increases. The dynamic equilibrium is disturbed
and the vapour is no longer saturated.

For the vapour to be saturated again, time must be allowed for the rate of condensation to equate to the
new rate of evaporation. This new increased rate will call in a new value(higher than before) of SVP. Thus
SVP increases with increase in temperature

Pressure NB

Unsaturated vapour obey’s gas laws.

Saturated vapour

unsaturated vapour

Temperature
Example 1
A closed vessel contains air and little water. The temperature of water is 200C and the pressure
in the vessel is 76cmHg. Calculate the new pressure when the temperature of the vessel is
raised to 400C, water still being present. (S.V.P of water at 200C and 400C is 2.0cmHg and
8.0cmHg respectively)
At 40

At 20 P = SVP + air pressure (𝑃2 )

76 = SVP + air pressure (𝑃1 ) 𝑃𝑉

=𝐾
76 = 2 + 𝑃1 𝑇
For new air pressure
𝑃1 = 74 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
74 × 𝑉 𝑃2 𝑉
=
Heat 293 313

𝑃2 = 79.0512𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔

P =8 + 79.0512
P = 87.0512 cmHg
Ex 1
A column of nitrogen is trapped in a capillary tube of constant cross-sectional area and closed at
one end by a thread of water. The length of nitrogen column is 20.8cm at 250C and 25.5cm at
83.30C. Calculate the saturated vapour pressure of water at 83.30C if its value at 250C is 1.70 x
103 Nm-2, Neglect weight of water thread and assume that atmospheric pressure remains
constant and is 1.01 x 105Nm-2.

Ex 2
Two vessels P and Q each of volume 1.5cm3 are joined in the middle by a closed tap and placed in
the constant temperature bath at 600C. P contain a vacuum while Q contains air and saturated
water vapour. The total pressure in Q is 200mmHg. When T is opened, equilibrium is reached
with the water vapour remaining saturated. If the final pressure in the cylinders is 150 mmHg,
calculate the S.V.P of water at 60℃.

Ex 3
The air column is trapped in a tube of uniform cross section area and closed by a thread of water.
The length, l, of the air column, is 10.0cm at 150C and 12.6 cm at 500C. Calculate the SVP of
water at 500C. If the value at 150C is 1.7 x 103 Pa. (Neglect the weight of the water thread and
assume that the atmospheric pressure = 1.01 x 105 Pa) (1.26x104Pa)
 Experimental determination of SVP of a liquid.

Warm Condenser - The SVP at a given temperature is measured

D
water by taking the difference, h, in the mercury
out
To column.
H vacuum - The atmospheric pressure, H, is measured
pump
Thermometer and recorded using a Fortin barometer.
SVP
- The SVP at that temperature, θ, is calculated
Cold Buffer from SVP= H + h.
h
water chamber
Flask in
C NB;
Water We can study the variation of SVP with
temperature if we adjust the air pressure above
the liquid such that we obtain various boiling
Heat
temperatures.
- The apparatus is set up as shown above.
- The pressure of air above the liquid is adjusted by pumping Assignment
in or out air using the vacuum pump. Explain the effect of changes in altitude on the
- When the liquid is heated, it boils when the SVP is equal to boiling point of a liquid.
the pressure of the air above it as recorded by the
manometer.
- The condenser is there to cool down the vapour back into
liquid in order to avoid unnecessary pressure build up.
Vander Waal’s equation of real gases.

Real gases, have significant intermolecular forces of attraction. Thus molecules in the gas bulk will always pull
any other molecule trying to collide with the container in an opposite direction. This effect reduces the
observable pressure exerted by the gas on the walls of the container.

Vander Waal found out the magnitude of the pulling force depends on the square of the
𝑎
density of the gas and the pressure defect/ reduction was equal to, 𝑉 2 , V, is the volume of the
container and, a, is a constant which depends on the molar mass of the gas.
𝑎
This implies the actual pressure in the gas, 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃 + . Where P is the observable pressure.
𝑉2
Secondly real gases, have molecules which occupy space. Thus
the volume of the molecules is not negligible compared to the
volume of the container. The volume occupied by the
molecules was considered by Vander Waal, as an
element, b. Thus the free volume, 𝑉𝑟 ,of thee container
becomes, 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉 − 𝑏. Where V is the volume of the container.

Now basing on the above assertions, Vander Waal

,proposed a corrected equation for real gases as below
Pr Vr = nRT

𝑎
𝑃+ 𝑉 − 𝑏 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉2
This is the real gas equation

Under some conditions, real gases can behave as ideal gases.

- At very high temperatures, above what Vander Waal, referred to as the critical temperature
of a gas. He defined critical temperature as the temperature of a gas above which it can
not be liquified irrespective of the pressure applied.
Why?
At very high temperatures, the internal energy of the gas is so high such that the molecules
move with high mean speeds. This makes the intermolecular forces of attraction so weak and
negligible. This makes the real gas assume a behavior of an ideal gas.

- At very low pressure.

Why?
This can be achieved when the volume occupied by the gas is too large. This makes the
volume occupied by the molecules too small actually negligible compared to this big volume of
the container. Hence real gasses assuming the behavior of ideal gases.
 Isothermals of a real gas at different temperatures.
𝑇𝑐 , is critical temperature.
Pressure A
C, is the critical point.

- AB we have only liquid. The huge change in pressure causes

a very small change in volume. The fact that liquids are
virtually incompressible.
C 𝑇3 > 𝑇𝑐 - BD we have both liquid and vapour in dynamic equilibrium
(saturated vapour). Pressure assumes to increase with
B D 𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑐 increase in volume which practically impossible. Thus we
E 𝑇1 < 𝑇𝑐 should be having a vapour doesn’t obey gas laws
- DE unsaturated vapour. The pressure drops again with
Volume increase in volume, showing we have a vapour which obeys
gas laws.

C separates real gas behavior from ideal gas behavior.

Vander Waal’s equation only applies below point

C or below the critical temperature. Above 𝑇𝑐 , we
apply the ideal gas equation.
 THERMODYNAMICS

Work done when a gas expands from volume 𝑽𝟏 to volume 𝑽𝟐

Consider a gas initially at a volume, V and a pressure P confined in cylindrical container with a frictionless
piston. If the a force F is used to keep the gas at the volume V, the same force will be exerted by the gas for it
to expand to a new volume V+∆V, at a constant pressure.

F
P, V P, V+∆V
F

∆x
Gas Frictionless piston

The work done by the gas ∆W = F∆x,

Where ∆x, is the distance moved by the piston.

But the force, F, exerted on the piston given by; F = PA

∆W = PA∆x
But 𝐴∆𝑥 = ∆𝑉
∆W = P∆V

This implies Area under element

𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 1
𝑊 𝑉2
∆𝐴 = 𝑎+𝑏 ℎ
2
න 𝑑𝑊 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 P
0 𝑉1 1
∆𝐴 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + ∆𝑃 ∆V
𝑛𝑅𝑇 2
But 𝑃 = 𝑉
1
𝑉2
∆𝐴 = 𝑃∆V+ ∆V∆P
𝑛𝑅𝑇 2
𝑊=න 𝑑𝑉 P +∆𝑃
𝑉 P
𝑉1 ∆V∆P ≈ 0
𝑉2
1 ∆𝐴 = 𝑃∆V=∆W
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 න 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1 𝑉 V
∆V Thus the area under a PV graph is the
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝐼𝑛𝑉2 − 𝐼𝑛𝑉1 work done in expanding a gas.

𝑉2
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐼𝑛
𝑉1
The first law of thermodynamics

Its states that the energy supplied to a gas under ideal conditions is used partly to increase the internal
energy of the gas and partly used to expand the gas.

∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊

NB
If the energy is supplied at constant pressure, the volume changes.
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊

If the energy is supplied at constant volume, the change in volume is zero (∆𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉 = 0)
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈
Thus all the energy goes to increase in the internal energy of gas.

What is internal energy.

This energy possessed by the gas molecules due to motion of the gas molecules and vibration of these
molecules at their mean positions. Thus internal energy depends on the velocity of the molecules hence the
kinetic energy of the molecules and their potential energy which depends on the free volume of vibration.

Thus the internal energy has two components ie, the ke component which depends on the temperature of
the gas and the pe component which depends on the volume occupied by the gas.
 Molar heat capacities

Molar heat capacity at constant volume (𝑪𝒗 ).

This is the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of 1 mole of gas by 1K at constant volume.
∆𝑄𝑣 = ∆𝑈
also
∆𝑄𝑣 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇
∆𝑄𝑣
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑛∆𝑇
Hence the S.I units are; 𝐽𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

Molar heat capacity at constant pressure (𝑪𝒑 ).

This is the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of 1 mole of gas by 1K at constant volume.
∆𝑄𝑝 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊

also
∆𝑄𝑝 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
∆𝑄𝑝
𝐶𝑝 =
𝑛∆𝑇
Hence the S.I units are; 𝐽𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
The relationship between 𝑪𝒑 and 𝑪𝒗
Consider one mole of gas (n =1) gas confined in a container of volume, V. If its temperature
increases from T, to T+∆𝑇. The pressure of the gas changes from P to P+∆𝑃 without change in
volume
∆𝑄𝑣 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 = 𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇

∆𝑈 = 𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇……… (i)

Consider one mole of gas (n =1) gas confined in a container of volume, V. If its temperature
increases from T, to T+∆𝑇. The volume of the gas changes from V to V+∆𝑉 to maintain the
pressure constant.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 Substituting for P∆𝑉 in (iii)
∆𝑄𝑝 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
Initially before expanding 𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 + 𝑅∆𝑇 = 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊 = 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇……. (ii) 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
Divide thru by ∆𝑇
After expanding
Put (i) in (ii) 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝
𝑃(V+∆𝑉)=R(T+∆𝑇)
𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 + ∆𝑊 = 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
𝑃∆𝑉 = R(T+∆𝑇)−PV 𝑪𝒑 − 𝑪𝒗 = 𝑹
𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 + 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇……… (iii)
𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅∆𝑇 − 𝑅𝑇
𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑅∆𝑇
 Specific heat capacity (𝒄𝒑 /𝒄𝒗 ) Vs Molar heat capacity (𝑪𝒑 /𝑪𝒗 )

At constant volume

The specific heat capacity at constant volume is the heat required to rise the temperature of 1kg mass of a gas
at constant volume by 1K.

𝑪𝒗 = 𝒎𝒄𝒗
Where, m, the mass in kg of 1 mole of gas

At constant pressure

The specific heat capacity at constant pressure is the heat required to rise the temperature of 1kg mass of a
gas at constant pressure by 1K.

𝑪𝒑 = 𝒎𝒄𝒑
Where, m, the mass in kg of 1 mole of gas

NB;
The ratio 𝑪𝒑 : 𝑪𝒗 = 𝒄𝒑 : 𝒄𝒗 ≈ 𝟏. 𝟒 is called the ratio of the molar heat capacities (γ)
Question
Explain why the molar heat capacity at constant pressure is bigger than the molar heat capacity at constant
volume.

Example 1
A cylinder contains 4kmoles of Oxygen gas at a temperature of 47°C. The cylinder is provided
with a frictionless piston which maintains a constant pressure of 1x105Pa. The gas is heated
until its temperature is increased to 147°C. (Cp =29.41Jmol-1K-1, R = 8.31Jmol-1K-1) Calculate;
(i) the Amount of heat supplied to the gas (1.176x107J)
(ii) The change in internal energy. (8.436x106J)

Solution
∆𝑄𝑝 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
∆𝑄𝑝 = 4 × 103 × 29.41 × 147 − 47 = 1.1764 × 107 𝐽

∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊 ∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉 1.1764 × 107 = ∆𝑈 + 4 × 103 × 8.31 × 100
∆𝑈 = 8.44x106J
𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇
Exercise 1
One litre of a gas at a pressure of 1.0x105Pa and temperature of 17°C is compressed isothermally to
half its volume. It is then allowed to expand adiabatically to its original volume. Calculate the final
temperature and pressure. (γ = 1.40) (Final pressure = 7.57x104Pa, final temperature =219.8K)

Exercise 2
An ideal gas at a pressure of 2.0x106Pa occupies a volume of 2.0x10-3m3 at 47.5°C. The gas expands
adiabatically to a final pressure of 110x105Pa. (γ = 1.40) Calculate;
(i) the number of moles of the gas (1.5 moles)
(ii) The final volume (5.92x10-4m3)

Various thermodynamic processes

The isobaric process

This is a process which takes place at constant pressure
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊

𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉
Isovolumetric process
This a process which takes place at constant volume. (no work is done by the gas since the volume is constant)
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈
𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 = ∆𝑈

Isothermal process
This a process which takes place at constant temperature. ie the pressure changes with volume. And since PV=K
Such a process obeys Boyle’s law.

Conditions for realizing an isothermal process.

1. The gas vessel must be surrounded by a constant temperature bath
2. The vessel must be thin walled highly conducting for easy heat transfer.
3. The process must take place slowly to allow time for heat exchanges.

A reversible isothermal process.

If a gas expands from pressure 𝑃1 , volume, 𝑉1 , and temperature, 𝑇 to pressure
𝑃2 , volume, 𝑉2 , and temperature, 𝑇 and can be compressed back to pressure 𝑃1 , 𝑉1 , and 𝑇 through exactly the
same steps as it took while expanding, such a process is called a reversible isothermal process.
 For calculations involving adiabatic processes, it can be shown that;
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = constant
𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = constant

PV graph showing the relationship between an adiabatic process and an isothermal process.

P
Description of the graph
Isothermal process The gas is compressed
P2 B (P2, V2, T) isothermally from A (P1, V1, T)
to B (P2, V2, T). Then the gas
undergoes an adiabatic
expansion to C (P3, V3, T1 )
P1 A (P1, V1, T) Adiabatic process
P3
C (P3, V3, T1 ) NB
V2 V3 V1 V We can observe that the adiabatic
curve is steeper than the
isothermal curve.
Assignment
Explain why an adiabatic expansion causes cooling. (3 marks)
 P

P1 A (P1, V1, T) PV graph showing a reversible

isothermal change.

B (P2, V2, T)
P2

V1 V2 V

The adiabatic change.

This is a process which takes place at constant heat. ie no heat is lost or gained by the system.

Conditions for realizing an adiabatic process

1. The process must take place in a thick walled insulating vessel to prevent heat exchanges.
2. The process must take place very first.

NB
No gas laws are obeyed.
Example 1
A vessel containing 1.5x10-3m3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of 8.7x10-2Pa and temperature 25°C
is compressed isothermally to half its volume and then allowed to expand adiabatically to its
original volume. (γ =1.41)
(i) Calculate the final temperature and pressure
(ii) Calculate the work done during the isothermal process.

Adiabatic expansion 𝑉2
Solution 𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐼𝑛
𝑉2 =0.5𝑉1 𝑉1
𝑉1 = 1.5x10−3m3 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑃1 = 8.7x10−2Pa 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 = 25°C 𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝐼𝑛
𝑉1 𝑉1
𝑇1 = 25°C 𝑃2 = 1.74 × 10−1 𝑃𝑎
𝑉3 = 𝑉1
Isothermal compression 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = constant
𝑉2 =0.5𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝛾 = 𝑃3 𝑉3 𝛾
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑘 1.74 × 10−1 × 0.5𝑉1 1.41
= 𝑃3 𝑉11.41
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃3 = 6.5478 × 10−2
8.7x10−2 𝑉1 = 0.5𝑉1 𝑃2
𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = constant
𝑃2 = 1.74 × 10−1 𝑃𝑎
Exercise 1
A cylinder contains 4kmoles of Oxygen gas at a temperature of 47°C. The cylinder is provided with a
frictionless piston which maintains a constant pressure of 1x105Pa. The gas is heated until its
temperature is increased to 147°C. (Cp =29.41Jmol-1K-1, R = 8.31Jmol-1K-1) Calculate;
(i) the Amount of heat supplied to the gas (1.176x107J)
(ii) The change in internal energy. (8.436x106J)

Exercise 2
One litre of a gas at a pressure of 1.0x105Pa and temperature of 17°C is compressed isothermally to
half its volume. It is then allowed to expand adiabatically to its original volume. Calculate the final
temperature and pressure. (γ = 1.40) (Final pressure = 7.57x104Pa, final temperature =219.8K)

Exercise 3
An ideal gas at a pressure of 2.0x106Pa occupies a volume of 2.0x10-3m3 at 47.5°C. The gas expands
adiabatically to a final pressure of 110x105Pa. (γ = 1.40) Calculate;
(i) the number of moles of the gas (1.5 moles)
(ii) The final volume (5.92x10-4m3)