UNIT-3

Volcanic and Plutonic Geomorphology[2hrs]

Introduction
What is a volcano?
A conical mountain formed around a vent where lava,
pyroclastic materials, and gases are erupted.”
Volcanoes are eruptions of hot molten lava and ash that rises
from deep beneath the earth's crust.
Terminologies :
 Magma – hot, liquid rock beneath the Earth’s surface.
 Lava – hot, liquid rock that reaches (and goes above) the
Earth’s surface.
 Magma chamber: The subterranean cavity containing the
gas-rich liquid magma which feeds a volcano.
 Conduit: A passage followed by magma in a volcano.
 Vent: The opening at the earth's surface through which
volcanic materials issue forth. 1
 Cone: A volcanic cone built entirely of loose fragmented
material (pyroclastics) and (or) lava flows erupted from the
vent. Erupted material builds up with each eruption forming
the cone.
Volcanic materials :
Three types of material expelled from volcanoes
A. Lava (“the liquid”) Molten rock
B. Ash and pyroclastic material (“the solid”)
C. Volcanic gases (“the gases”)
A. Lava (“the liquid”) Molten rock
1) Pahoehoe lava --------------->
• Basaltic lava
• Low viscosity
• Cools moderately slowly
• Ropelike appearance
2
2) Aa lava ------------->
(pronounced aa-aa)
Basaltic lava
Higher viscosity
Solidifies while flowing
Angular pieces

3) Pillow lavas -------->

Lava extruded
underwater
Cools and contracts
Spherical masses
Ocean floor
B. Ash and pyroclastic material (“the solid”) -----

-------->
Airborne material ejected by a volcano
Classified based on size:
-Volcanic ash
Fine ash - <0.06mm
Coarse ash – 0.06mm to 2mm
Composition = rock, mineral,
and volcanic glass.
- Cinders
2 mm and 64 mm
Composition - same as ash
Hazardous when falling
C) Bombs -------->
Larger than 64mm
Molten rock solidifies
in the air Shapes vary

C. Volcanic gases
(“the gases”) Volatiles
H2S – Hydrogen sulfide
H2O – Water vapor
SO2 – Sulfides
CO2 – Carbon dioxide
N2 – Nitrogen
HCl – Hydrochloric Acid
 Igneous intrussions : are of two types
1. Extrusive Forms
2. Intrusive Forms
1.Extrusive Forms :
a.Lava Flows : Lavas are emitted either from individual cones or
from fissures, usually tabular bodies of area extent in proportion to
their thickness and elongated in main direction of flows. The forms
of lava flow depends chiefly on the fluidity of the magma again
depends its composition and the temperature or eruption. The
basic lava, such as basalt are mobile and flow greater distances.
Whereas acid magmas such as trachytes, Rhyolites are sluggish in
their flow and remain heaped in the bodies.
b. Pyroclastic Deposits : The explosive action that place in
volcanic eruption produces fragment type of igneous material
ejected to greater distance. There forms are volcanic dusts,
volcanic tuffs. Volcanic bombs .
 2. Intrusive Forms : Intrusive bodies are parallel to the bedding
plane of the rocks. They are called concordant form, if the
intrusive are perpendicular to the bedding places are called
discordant forms of Igneous rocks.
Concordant  Sill  Phacolith
 Laccolith  Concordant
 Lopolith batholiths.
Discordant  Dyke  Discordart
 Cone Sheets batholiths
 Volcanic Rocks  stocks & bosses
 Ring dyke  conolith
Concordant Forms :
If the intrusion is parallel to the structure of the country rocks
called concordant forms.
1. Sills : Sills are relatively thin tabular sheets of magma, which are
penetrated along approximately horizontal to bedding plane. They
show nearly parallel and lower margins are considerable distance
and but they then out in distance, the shape is flaty lenticulare
Then thickness vary from few inches to hundreds of feet. Sills
produce baking effects on rocks both sides , where as incase of
lava flows , baking effect can be seen only in the lower sides . Lava
shows vesicular characteristic on the upper surface , where as
sills present no such characteristic. Sills cool down slowly
produce medium or coarse grained igneous rocks.
Sills are grouped into three types based on their ejecting
Sills Laccolith

2. Laccoliths : It is a concordant intrusive mush room like bodies

, which have a convex upper surface and relatively flat. Magma of
considerable viscosity injected to stratified rocks does not spread
very far, but tends to heap itself up above the orifice of irruptions.
The body may be termed laccoliths. If the ratio of diameter
 to the thickness is less than ten. If the ratio is greater than ten ,
the body should be called sill. Thus a bun shaped mass of
Igneous rocks is formed which has a flat base and a domed top
the strata above it are lifted up in the form of an inverted bowl
3. Lopolith : It is a concordant intrusive bowel like bodies. The
name lopolith has been given to massive intrusions of basic rock
which are generally concordant have a vesicular shape and
centrally sunken like saucer or basin. The thickness is
approximately one tenth to one twentieth of the diameter. Thus
lopoliths are reverse of laccoliths in shape in their form.
Lopolith Phacolith
 4. Phacolith :- It is a concordant intrusive lens shaped form found
in the folded regions , the crest & trough are occupied by
intrusive materials are phacolith The forms of igneous intrusion
in folded region are not so simple and regular as those of unfolded
regions, most of phocolith are commonly small in dimension.
Discordant Forms :
If the intrusion is cut across the structure of pre existing
country rocks called discordant intrusive bodies. Refer examples
are given below
Dyke : The intrusion of magma into more or less vertical fissure,
which cut across the bedding or other structure of the invaded
rocks results in the formation of dykes. Thus they are narrow,
elongated, parallel sided walls of igneous rock. The thickness may
vary from 1 cm to 100’s of meters. Dykes tend to occur as s series
or swarms which are parallel to one direction or radical to a centre.
 Dyke Ring dyke

Ring dyke : Ring dyke is a dyke of accurate out crop with a full
development would have a closed ring shaped out crop. Ring dyke
are usually thick and may consist of course grained plutonic rocks.
They are arranged in concentric series with screens of country
rock separating the individual of the complex
Cone Sheets : Cone sheets complexes are assembly of inclined
dyke like masses with accurate out crop, the member of which dip
at an angle of 30o-40o towards common centre. The arrangements
suggest that the partial un filling of a member of co-axial cone
shaped fractures with inverted apexes united underground.
Cone Sheet Volcanic Neck Conelith Batholiths

Volcanic Neck : These are igneous masses which seal up the vent
of ancient volcanoes. They may completely occupy the cylindrical
channel.
Conolith : Irregular bodies of intrusion are call conolith.
Batholiths : are known to be largest kind discordant intrusive
bodies which are spread over very large area covering several
kilometers . These are large intrusive of igneous rocks, which
are general granite in components. In plain view their outline is
irregular and the area of outcrop exceeds 100 sq kms. Most of
batholiths increase in size with depth and they are thought to be
bottomless as show in fig.
 Volcanic Landforms:
Extrusive Igneous
Cinder Cones , Shield Volcanoes, Strato ( Composite)Volcanoes
Lava Domes , Caldera , Volcanic Necks , Volcanic Hot-Spots
Cinder Cones(also called Tephra Cones) :
Mainly acidic or SIALIC magma is extruded. The rock cools
quickly in the form of cinder and ash. This results in steep sides
and a narrow neck. This volcano can become plugged easily and
thus is explosive in nature.
CINDER CONE: ARIZONA
Cinder cones
Cinder cones are mounds of basaltic fragments.
Streaming gases carry liquid lava bombs into the
atmosphere that rain back to earth around the vent to form
a cone.
 SHIELD CONE
• Mainly basic or SIMATIC magma is extruded. The rock cools
very slowly and forms low cones and wide sheets of lava. Free
flows and slow cooling means low explosiveness.
- large volcanoes with broad summit areas and low-sloping sides
- low viscosity basaltic lava flows
 SHIELD CONE: Mauna Kea Hawaii
Hawaiian
shield volcanoes also have
flank vents, which radiate
from the summit and take
the form of en-echelon
fractures or fissures, called
rift zones, from which
lava flows are emitted. This
gives Hawaiian shield
volcanoes like Kilauea and
Mauna Loa their
characteristic oval shape in
map view.
Strato ( Composite)Volcanoes :
Formed by the mixture of SIALIC AND SIMATIC magma. This
builds up alternate layers of cinder ash and lava. As a result,
both great width and height are attained, making the world’s
largest volcanoes.
Most common in oceanic-continental subduction zones, where
there is a mixture of simatic and sialic rock
Also known as – Strato Volcanoes
built by multiple eruptions, sometimes recurring over hundreds of
thousands of years, sometimes over a few hundred.
COMPOSITE CONE: Mt Fuji
Volcanic Domes (also called Lava Domes) :
Lava domes are rounded, steep-sided mounds built by very viscous
magma that is resistant to flow and builds up forming a dome.
The magma does not move far from the vent before cooling and it
crystallizes in very rough, angular basaltic rocks. A single lava
dome may be formed by multiple lava flows that accumulate over
time. This lava dome began forming after the Mount St. Helen’s
eruption in 1980
 Caldera :
Calderas are bowl-shaped collapse depressions formed by volcanic
processes. Calderas most likely result from one of three collapse type
events:
1. Collapse of the summit following an explosive eruption of silica-
rich pumice and ash pyroclastics
2. Collapse of the summit following the subterranean or fissure
drainage of the magma chamber
3. Collapse of a large area following the discharge of silica-rich
pumice and ash along ring fractures that may or may not have been
previously active volcanoes

Crater Lake in Oregon is

the collapsed caldera of
Mount Mazama and is
now filled in with water.
 Volcanic Necks :
Volcanic necks are remnant cooled lava pipes that are exposed after
the exterior volcanic mountain is weathered and eroded.
Volcanic necks are a good example of differential weathering. The
magma cooled in the interior pipes is more resistant than the
ejected deposits that accumulate on the exterior. As a result, when
the volcanic mountain erodes, it leaves behind the remnant more
resistant volcanic neck.

Shiprock,
New Mexico
Volcanic Hot Spots :
Volcanic hot-spots occur where a mass of magma ascends
toward the earth’s surface as a mantle plume, releasing basaltic
magma that generates volcanic activity at a locally specific site.
Hot-spots do not occur along plate boundaries but instead form
as intraplate volcanic features characterized by magma
upwelling. Once a hot spot is generated it may stay active for
millions of years.
Hot spots may produce thermal effects in the ground water and
the crust producing geothermal power often in the form of
steam. In Iceland and Italy geothermal power is used to generate
electricity for industrial and municipal use.
The Hawaiian Islands formed over the last 5 million years from a
hot spot in the Pacific Ocean. As the Pacific plate moves over the
hotspot, it generates a chain of islands that emerge as seamounts
above the ocean’s surface. Hot spot activity is currently most
active on the big island, Hawaii.
Nihau Kauai
Oahu

Oldest Islands
Molokai

Maui
Lanai

Kahoolawe
Hawaii

Youngest Islands
 INTRUSIVE FORMS:
• When magma goes into the lithosphere but
does not reach the surface
• The magma will fill cracks and force spaces
open with the lithosphere
• These formations are often sought after for
their mineral concentrations.
 INTRUSIVE FORMS:
• DIKE: magma cools in a vertical crack forming a
wall
• SILL: magma cools in a space between
sedimentary layers forming a thin sheet
• LACCOLITH: feature created when magma fills a
hollow or cavern. The form the surface takes when
pushed up from underneath by magma (called a
laccolithic dome)
• BATHOLITH: Larger version of a laccolith. When
so much magma has intruded that the intrusion
has no known depth. B.C.’s coast has a huge
granite batholith.
DIKE: Ship Rock N.M.
SILL: in Scotland
LACCOLITH
LACCOLITH: Utah
BATHOLITH
BATHOLITH: Half Dome Yosemite
Nat’n Pk Cal.
Resurgent Domes
After the formation of a caldera by collapse, magma is so
metimes re-injected into the area below the caldera.
This can result in uplift of one or more aras within the cal
deraTo form a resurgent dome. Two such resurgent dom
es formed in the yellowstone Caldera, as shown above.
If magma leaks back to the surface during this resurgent
doming, then eruptions of small Volcanic domes
can occur in the area of the resurgent domes.
Geysers, Fumaroles and Hot Springs :
Hot springs or thermal springs are areas where hot water comes t
o the surface of the Earth. Cool groundwater moves downward
and is heated by a body of magma or hot rock. A hot spring
results if this hot water can find its way back to the surface,
Usually along fault zones.
A fumarole is vent where gases, either from a
magma body at depth, or steam from heated
groundwater, emerges at the surface of the
Earth. Since most magmatic gas is H2O vapor,
and since heated groundwater will produce
H2O vapor, fumaroles will only be visible if the
water condenses. (H2O vapor is invisible,
unless droplets of liquid water have condensed).
Minerals dissolved in the high temperature water are often precipit
ated when the water cools at the surface. This produces
spectacular deposits of travertine (chemically precipitated
calcite, or siliceous sinter.

A geyser results if the hot spring has a plumbing system that allows
for the accumulation of steam from the boiling water. When
the steam pressure builds so that it is higher than the pressure of
the overlying water in the system, the steam will move rapidly
toward the surface, causing the eruption of the overlying water.
Some geysers, like Old Faithful in Yellowstone Park, erupt at
regular intervals. The time between eruptions is controlled
by the time it takes for the steam pressure to build in the underlying
plumbing system.