Module- 6

Temperament and Moral

Development
Temperament
 Temperament is considered as the innate, early-emerging, and relatively stable
individual differences in how people react to and self-regulate in response to stimuli in
their environment.

 These differences often manifest in various aspects such as emotional arousal,

attention, and motor action.

 Temperamental traits are thought to be relatively stable across the lifespan and are
believed to lay the foundation for the development of an individual's adult personality.

Reactivity in temperament refers to the variations in the speed and intensity with which
individuals respond to stimuli. Some individuals may react quickly and intensely, while others
may have a slower and less intense response to the same stimuli.

Self-regulation, on the other hand, involves the strategies and mechanisms individuals use
to modulate or control their reactivity. This can include methods to calm oneself down or to
enhance arousal, depending on the demands of the situation.

The structure of temperament

Thomas and Chess's model of temperament
Thomas and Chess's model of temperament, which includes nine dimensions, provides a
comprehensive framework for understanding individual differences in temperament.

1. Activity Level: The ratio of active periods to inactive ones.

Some infants may be highly active, while others may have more periods of calmness and
inactivity.

2. Rhythmicity: The regularity of body functions, such as sleep, wakefulness, hunger,

and excretion.

A baby with a regular sleep-wake cycle and feeding schedule demonstrates high rhythmicity.

3. Distractibility: The degree to which stimulation from the environment alters

behavior.

Some children may easily shift their attention away from a task, while others remain focused
despite environmental stimuli.
 4. Approach/Withdrawal: Response to a new object, food, or person.

A child's reaction to meeting a new person or encountering a new toy, which can vary from
eager exploration to withdrawal.

5. Adaptability: The ease with which a child adapts to changes in the environment.

Some children may quickly adjust to changes in routine or environment, while others may find
it challenging.

6. Attention Span and Persistence: The amount of time devoted to an activity.

Children with longer attention spans may engage in activities for extended periods, while
others may quickly lose interest.

7. Intensity of Reaction: The energy level of response, such as laughing, crying,

talking, or gross-motor activity.

Some individuals may react to stimuli with high intensity, expressing strong emotions, while
others may have more subdued reactions.

8. Threshold of Responsiveness: The intensity of stimulation required to evoke a

response.

Some individuals may respond to subtle cues, while others may require more intense stimuli
to react.

9. Quality of Mood: The amount of friendly, joyful behavior compared to unpleasant,

unfriendly behavior.

Children with a generally positive mood may exhibit more friendly and joyful behavior, while
those with a more negative mood may display more unpleasant behavior.

Based on the evaluation of in-depth behavioural descriptions of infants and children derived
from parent interviews along these dimensions, specific traits grouped together to produce
three distinct child types:

 Easy Child (40%):

 Quickly establishes regular routines in infancy.

 Generally cheerful.

 Adapts easily to new experiences.

 Difficult Child (10%):

 Has irregular daily routines.

 Is slow to accept new experiences.

 Reacts negatively and intensely.

  Slow-to-Warm-Up Child (15%):
 Inactive.

 Shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli.

 Negative in mood.

 Adjusts slowly to new experiences.

 Unclassified (35%):
 Does not fit into the easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm-up categories.

 Displays unique blends of temperamental characteristics.

Mary Rothbart's model of temperament

Mary Rothbart's model of temperament, which builds upon Thomas and Chess's work and
incorporates insights from other researchers, proposes a more concise list of six dimensions
organized into two main categories: Reactivity and Self-Regulation.

Reactivity Dimensions:
1. Activity Level: Level of gross-motor activity.

2. Attention Span/Persistence: Duration of orienting or interest.

3. Fearful Distress: Wariness and distress in response to intense or novel stimuli,

including time to adjust to new situations.

4. Irritable Distress: Extent of fussing, crying, and distress when desires are
frustrated.

5. Positive Affect: Frequency of expression of happiness and pleasure.

Self-Regulation Dimension:
6. Effortful Control: Capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant, reactive response to
plan and execute a more adaptive response.

Rothbart emphasizes that individuals differ not only in their reactivity but also in the self-
regulatory dimension of temperament, specifically effortful control.

Attachment
Development of Attachment
Attachment is described as a strong, affectionate tie with special people that brings
pleasure and joy during interactions and provides comfort during times of stress.

Formation of Attachment: By the second half of the first year, infants typically become
attached to familiar caregivers who have consistently responded to their needs.
Infant Behavior towards Attachment Figures: Infants often display positive behaviors
when interacting with attachment figures, such as smiling, exploring their features, and
seeking physical closeness during times of anxiety.

When babies of this age sees their mother entering the room, the baby breaks into a broad,
friendly smile. When she picks him up, he pats her face, explores her hair, and snuggle
against her body. When he feels anxious, he crawls into her lap and clings closely.

Freud's Perspective: Freud initially suggested that the emotional tie between the infant
and the mother serves as the foundation for all later relationships.

Contemporary View: Contemporary research challenges Freud's notion, emphasizing that

the contribution of attachment to long-term development depends not only on early
experiences but also on the ongoing parent-child relationship.

Theoretical Debates: Attachment has been the subject of intense theoretical debate,
with psychoanalytic perspectives highlighting the role of feeding in building emotional bonds,
and behaviorism emphasizing feeding as a means to satisfy primary drives (babyÕs hunger)
and reinforce secondary drives (the infant learn to prefer her soft caresses, warm smile
and tender words of comfort), because these events are paired with tension relief.

Importance of Feeding: While feeding is considered an important context in building a

close relationship, attachment is not solely dependent on hunger satisfaction.

Harlow's experiment with rhesus monkeys demonstrated that attachment goes beyond
mere feeding, as the monkeys preferred a soft, comforting surrogate mother over a wire
mesh mother that provided food.

Diverse Attachment Figures: Human infants can form attachments to various family
members, including fathers, grandfathers, and siblings, challenging the idea that attachment
is solely based on feeding.

Role of Infant Characteristics: Criticisms of psychoanalytic and behaviorist accounts of

attachment include the limited focus on the caregiver's contribution, with little attention
given to the importance of infant characteristics in the attachment relationship.

Bowlby’s ethological theory

Bowlby's theory is grounded in the evolutionary perspective, suggesting that the
infant's attachment to the caregiver is an innate response that developed to ensure
the survival of the species.

Psychoanalytic Influence: He emphasized the profound implications of the quality of

attachment for a child's feelings of security and capacity to form trusting relationships.

Inspiration from imprinting: Bowlby drew inspiration from ethologist Konrad Lorenz's
studies of imprinting. He proposed that, like other animal species, human infants possess
built-in behaviors that keep caregivers nearby for protection and support in exploring and
mastering the environment.
Biological Roots of Attachment: While acknowledging that contact with the caregiver
ensures feeding, Bowlby stressed that feeding is not the sole basis of attachment. Instead,
he argued that the attachment bond has strong biological roots, best understood in an
evolutionary context that prioritizes the species' survival through safety and competence.

According to Bowlby, the infantÕs relationship with the parent begins as a set of innate
signals that call the adult to the babyÕs side. Over time, a true affectionate bond forms,
supported by new emotional and cognitive capacities as well as by a history of warm, sensitive
care.

Four Phases of Attachment Development:

1. Preattachment phase

2. “Attachment-in-the-making” phase

3. “Clear-cut” attachment phase

4. Formation of a reciprocal relationship.

1. Pre-attachment phase (birth- 6 weeks)

Built-in Signals: Newborns instinctively use behaviors like grasping, smiling, crying, and
gazing into adults'eyes help bring newborn babies into close contact with other humans.
These behaviors are not consciously controlled but are innate responses.

Initiating Close Contact: When an adult responds to these signals, the infant is comforted
by the proximity and encourages the adult to remain nearby.

Recognition of Caregivers: Infants in this phase start recognizing their caregivers,

particularly their own mother. They become familiar with their mother's voice, smell, and will
soon recognize her face.

Lack of Attachment: Despite recognizing their caregivers, infants in the pre-attachment

phase are not yet attached in the sense that they do not display distress or protest when
left with an unfamiliar adult. The comfort and security provided by the caregiver are
essential, but there is not yet a clear attachment bond.

2. “Attachment-in-the-making” phase (6 weeks to 6-8 months)

It is a critical period during which infants begin to distinguish between familiar caregivers
and strangers. This phase marks a progression from the pre-attachment phase and lays the
foundation for the formation of a more specific and emotionally significant attachment bond.

Differentiated Responses: Infants in the attachment-in-the-making phase start to

exhibit distinct responses to familiar caregivers compared to strangers.

For example, they may smile, laugh, and babble more freely when interacting with their
mother.
Behavioral Changes: The infant's behavior becomes more attuned to the caregiver. They
may quiet more quickly when picked up by their mother, indicating a level of comfort and
security in her presence.

Learning through Interaction: As infants interact with the caregiver, they begin to
understand that their actions can influence the behavior of those around them. The
caregiver's responses to the infant's signals contribute to the development of a mutual
understanding.

Development of Trust: During this phase, infants start to develop a basic sense of trust.
They form an expectation that the caregiver will respond to their signals and provide
comfort. This trust is fundamental to the later establishment of a secure attachment.

Limited Protest to Separation: Despite the emerging trust, infants in this phase still do not
protest strongly when separated from the caregiver. While they may prefer the familiar
caregiver, they have not yet developed a strong emotional response to separations.

3. “Clear-cut” attachment phase (6-8 months to 18 months-2 years)

Attachment Evident: Attachment to the familiar caregiver becomes evident during this
phase. Infants show a clear preference for and reliance on their primary caregiver.

Separation Anxiety: Infants in the clear-cut attachment phase display separation anxiety.
They become upset and distressed when the familiar caregiver leaves their sight. Separation
anxiety varies among infants, influenced by individual temperament and situational factors.

Development of Object Permanence: The appearance of separation anxiety suggests that

infants have developed a clear understanding that the caregiver continues to exist even when
out of view. This understanding is linked to the development of object permanence, the
awareness that objects (and people) continue to exist even when not seen.

Role of Object Permanence: Babies who have not yet mastered Piagetian object
permanence typically do not exhibit strong separation anxiety. This reinforces the idea that
the anxiety is connected to the infant's realization that the caregiver persists even when
temporarily absent.

Maintaining the Caregiver's Presence: In addition to protesting the caregiver's

departure, older infants and toddlers actively strive to maintain the caregiver's presence.
They approach, follow, and may climb on the caregiver, expressing a desire for physical
closeness.

Use of Secure Base: Infants use the caregiver as a secure base for exploration. They may
venture away from the caregiver to explore the environment but frequently return to seek
reassurance and comfort. The caregiver's presence provides a sense of security, allowing the
infant to explore and learn about the world.
 4. Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on)
Cognitive and Language Development: Toddlers, by the end of the second year, undergo
rapid growth in representation and language skills. This development allows them to
comprehend and express their thoughts and feelings more effectively.

Understanding of Caregiver's Movements: Toddlers in this phase begin to understand

some of the factors that influence their caregiver's coming and going. They can predict when
the caregiver will return.

Decline in Separation Protest: With a better understanding of the caregiver's

movements and increased predictability, separation protest begins to decline. Toddlers
become more capable of coping with their caregiver's absence.

Negotiation and Communication: Toddlers start to negotiate with the caregiver, using
requests and persuasion to influence the caregiver's goals.

For example, a 2-year-old may ask for extra time with their parents before they leave, using
language to express their needs. This negotiation allows the child to spend extra time with
her parents, making her more resilient in withstanding their absence.

Reduced Physical Dependency: As children age, they become less dependent on the
physical proximity of caregivers and more reliant on a sense of confidence that caregivers
will be accessible and responsive in times of need.

Internal Working Model: Bowlby proposed that, through experiences in these phases,
children construct an enduring affectionate tie, forming an internal working model or set of
expectations about the availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing
support during the times of stress, and the selfÕs interaction with those figures.

Role in Personality Development: The internal working model becomes a vital part of a
child's personality, guiding future close relationships. As children grow, they continually
update and revise the model based on cognitive, emotional, and social development, as they
interact further with parents, and as they form other close bonds with siblings, adults and
friends.

Measuring the security of attachment

Mary Ainsworth Experiment
The Strange Situation procedure, developed by Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues in 1978,
is a widely used and influential laboratory technique for assessing the quality of attachment
in infants and toddlers, typically between 1 and 2 years of age.

Secure Base Exploration: Ainsworth and her colleagues reasoned that securely
attached infants and toddlers would use their caregiver as a secure base for
exploration in an unfamiliar playroom. This means that in the presence of the
caregiver, the child feels secure enough to explore the new environment.
 Parental Departure and Reunion: The procedure involves a series of eight short
episodes. One of the key episodes includes the parent leaving the infant or toddler
alone in the unfamiliar environment, and then the parent returns after a brief
separation. The behavior of the child during the separation and reunion is carefully
observed.

Episodes Events Attachment behaviour

1 Researcher introduces parent and baby to
playroom and then leaves.

2 Parent is seated while baby plays with toys Parent as a secure base
3 Stranger enters, is seated, and talks to parent. Reaction to unfamiliar adult

4 Parent leaves room. Stranger responds to baby Separation anxiety

and offers comfort if baby is upset.

5 Parent returns, greets baby, and offers comfort Reaction to reunion

if necessary. Stranger leaves room.
6 Parent leaves room. Separation anxiety
7 Stranger enters room and offers comfort. Ability to be soothed by
stranger

8 Parent returns, greets baby, offers comfort if Reaction to reunioun

necessary, and tries to reinterest baby in toys.
Reaction to reunion
Observing the responses to these episodes, researchers have identified a secure
attachment pattern and three patterns of insecurity; a few babies cannot be classified.

1) Secure attachment
 These infants use the parent as a secure base.

 When separated, they may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is
absent and they prefer her to the stranger.

 When the parent returns, they actively seek contact, and their crying is reduced
immediately.

2) Avoidant attachment.
These infants seem unresponsive to the parent when she is present. When she leaves, they
usually are not distressed, and they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the
parent.

During reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, they often
fail to cling.

3) Resistant attachment.
Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore.
When the parent leaves, they are usually distressed, and on her return they combine
clinginess with angry, resistive behavior, struggling when held and sometimes hitting and
pushing.

Many continue to cry and cling after being picked up and cannot be comforted easily.

4) Disorganized/disoriented attachment.
This pattern reflects the greatest insecurity.

At reunion, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviors—for example, looking away
while the parent is holding them or approaching the parent with flat, depressed emotion.

Most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly after having calmed
down or display odd, frozen postures.

Attachment Q-Sort
The Attachment Q-Sort is an alternative method for measuring the security of attachment
in children between 1 and 4 years of age, and it relies on home observations. This method
provides a more comprehensive assessment of attachment-related behaviors in everyday life
compared to the Strange Situation.

Procedure: The Attachment Q-Sort involves either the parent or a highly trained observer
sorting 90 descriptors of child behaviors.

These descriptors are statements such as "Child greets mother with a big smile when
she enters the room," "If mother moves very far, child follows along," and "Child uses
motherÕs facial expressions as a good source of information when something looks
risky or threatening."

Categories: The descriptors are sorted into nine categories, ranging from "highly
descriptive" to "not at all descriptive" of the child. This sorting process captures a wide
array of attachment-related behaviors.

Scoring: After sorting, a score is computed, indicating the level of security in the
attachment relationship. The score can range from high to low in terms of attachment
security.

Comprehensive Assessment: The Attachment Q-Sort is considered to tap into a broader

range of attachment-related behaviors than the Strange Situation, providing a more
comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the parent-infant relationship in everyday life.

Limitations
 Time-Consuming Nature: One drawback of the Q-Sort method is that it is time-
consuming. It requires a nonparent informant, either the parent themselves or a
trained observer, to spend several hours observing the child before sorting the
descriptors.

 Inability to Differentiate Types of Insecurity: Another limitation is that the Q-Sort

method does not differentiate between types of insecurity. It provides a general
 assessment of attachment security but does not distinguish between specific insecure
attachment patterns, such as insecure-avoidant or insecure-resistant/ambivalent.

Piaget’s theory of moral development

To study childrenÕs idea about morality, Piaget relied on open-ended clinical interviews

Research Methodology:
 Reliance on open-ended clinical interviews.
 Questioning 5 to 13-year-old Swiss children.

 Focus on understanding children's perceptions of rules, particularly in the game of

marbles.

 Use of stories to explore characters' intentions, right or wrong actions, and

consequences of their behavior.

Study Scenario:
 Notable story involving two boys, well-intentioned John breaking 15 cups on his way to
dinner, and ill-intentioned Henry breaking 1 cup while stealing jam.

 Children asked to evaluate and explain which boy is naughtier and why.

Identified Stages of Moral Understanding:

 Piaget discerned two broad stages of moral development based on children's responses.
 The stages reflect evolving perspectives on morality in the studied age group.

a) Heteronomous morality (5-10yrs)

Heteronomous morality implies being under the authority of another.

View of Rules:
 Children in this stage perceive rules as handed down by authorities (e.g., God, parents,
teachers).

 Rules are seen as permanent, unchangeable, and requiring strict obedience.

Factors Limiting Moral Understanding:

1. Power of adults to insist on compliance fosters unquestioning respect for rules and
enforcers.

2. Cognitive immaturity, particularly the limited capacity of children to consider

alternative perspectives.

Realism in Moral Understanding:

 Young children exhibit realism, viewing rules as external features of reality rather
than flexible, cooperative principles.

 They believe everyone sees rules in the same way.

Judgment of Wrongness: Focus on outcomes rather than intent in judging the wrongness
of an act.
In the John and Henry story, younger children may consider John naughtier, despite
innocent intentions, because he broke more cups.

b) Autonomous morality /morality of cooperation (about 10 yrs

& older)
Transition from Heteronomous to Autonomous Morality:
 Cognitive development, gradual release from adult control, and peer interaction
contribute to the transition.

 Shift from viewing rules as fixed to perceiving them as flexible, socially agreed-on
principles.

Flexible and Socially Agreed-On Principles: Children recognize rules as adaptable and
subject to revision based on the will of the majority.

Peer Interaction and Conflict Resolution:

 Interaction with peers as equals facilitates conflict resolution in mutually beneficial
ways.
 Introduction of a standard of fairness known as reciprocity in which they express the
same concern for the welfare of others as they do for themselves. .

Crude Reciprocity to Ideal Reciprocity:

 Initially, children grasp reciprocity as a "crude" tit-for-tat understanding (e.g., "You
scratch my back, I will scratch yours").
 Progression to ideal reciprocity as a more sophisticated concept involving mutuality of
expectations.

Understanding Rules and Justice:

 Recognition that rules can be interpreted and revised to consider individual
circumstances.
 Realization that such interpretation ensures just outcomes for all.

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Research Methodology:
 Kohlberg employed a clinical interviewing procedure to study moral development.
 Utilized an open-ended approach in presenting hypothetical moral dilemmas
(asked what the main actor should do and why).

Clinical Interview Process:

 Kohlberg's Moral Judgement Interview involved individuals resolving dilemmas that posed
conflicts between two moral values.

 Participants were asked to justify their decisions in response to these moral dilemmas.

Heinz Dilemma:
 The most well-known dilemma in Kohlberg's research is the "Heinz Dilemma."
 The dilemma involves a conflict between the value of obeying the law (not stealing) and
the value of human life (saving a dying person).

In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. There was one drug the doctors thought
might save her. A druggist in the same town had discovered it, but he was charging ten times
what the drug cost him to make. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to every- one he
knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together half of what it cost. The druggist
refused to sell the drug for less or let Heinz pay later. So Heinz got desperate and broke
into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have done that? Why or
why not?

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Understanding

Extension of Age Range:
 Kohlberg extended the age range beyond Piaget's study, including participants into
adolescence.
 Administered the Moral Judgement Interview to 10, 13, and 16-year-old boys.

Longitudinal Study:
 Followed participants longitudinally, reinterviewing them at 3 to 4-year intervals over
the next 20 years.
 Aimed to analyze age-related changes in moral judgment.

Kohlberg identified a six-stage sequence of moral development based on his longitudinal

study. These stages represent different levels of moral understanding and reasoning.

Kohlberg organized the six stages into three general levels of moral development.

1. Pre-conventional Level
2. Conventional Level
3. Post-conventional Level

Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality

 Morality is externally controlled.

 Similar to Piaget's heteronomous stage, children accept rules from authority figures,
judging actions based on consequences.

 Behaviors that result in punishment are viewed as bad, and those that lead to rewards are
seen as good.

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation.

 Difficulty considering multiple points of view in moral dilemmas.

 As a result, they ignore peopleÕs intentions and instead focus on fear of authority and
avoidance of punishment as reasons for behaving correctly.
Prostealing: "If you let your wife die, you will get in trouble. You'll be blamed for not
spending the money to help her, and there'll be an investigation of you and the druggist for
your wife's death."

Antistealing: "You shouldn't steal the drug because you'll be caught and sent to jail if you do.
If you do get away, [you'd be scared that the police would catch up with you any minute."

Stage 2. Instrumental Purpose Orientation

 Awareness that people can have different perspectives.
 View right action as flowing from self-interest, understanding remains concrete.

Prostealing: "The druggist can do what he wants and Heinz can do what he wants to do.... But
if Heinz decides to risk jail to save his wife, it's his life he's risking; he can do what he
wants with it. And the same goes for the druggist; it's up to him to decide what he wants to
do."

Antistealing: "[Heinz] is running more risk than it's worth [to save a wife who is near death]."

Level 2 - Conventional morality

Individuals regard conformity to social rules as important, not just for self-interest, but for
societal harmony, positive human relationships and societal order.

Stage 3. The “good boy-good girl” orientation, or morality of

interpersonal cooperation.
 Desire to obey rules for social harmony, especially in close personal ties.

 Individuals want to maintain the affection and approval of friends and relatives by
being a “good person”- trustworthy, loyal, respectful, helpful and nice.

Prostealing: "No one will think you're bad if you steal the drug, but your family will think
you're an inhuman husband if you don't. If you let your wife die, you'll never be able to look
anyone in the face again."

Antistealing: "It isn't just the druggist who will think you're a criminal, everyone else will
too. After you steal it, you'll feel bad thinking how you brought dishonor on your family and
your- self."

Stage 4. The Social Order Maintaining Orientation:

 Consideration of societal laws.

 Moral choices extend beyond close ties; rules must be enforced for societal order and
cooperation.

 They believe that laws cannot be disobeyed under any circumstances because they are
vital for ensuring societal order and cooperative relations between individuals.
Prostealing: "He should steal it. Heinz has a duty to protect his wife's life; it's a vow he took
in marriage. But it's wrong to steal, so he would have to take the drug with the idea of paying
the druggist for it and accepting the penalty for breaking the law later."

Antistealing: "It's a natural thing for Heinz to want to save his wife but.... Even if his wife is
dying, it's still his duty as a citizen to obey the law. No one else is allowed to steal, why
should he be? If everyone starts breaking the law in a jam, there'd be no civilization, just
crime and violence." (Rest, 1979, p. 30)

Level 3 - Post-conventional morality

Individuals move beyond unquestioning support for their society's rules, defining morality
through abstract principles.

They define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations
and societies.

Stage 5. The social contract orientation

 Laws seen as flexible instruments for human purposes.
 Emphasis on fair procedures, imagining alternatives to their own social order.
 When laws are consistent with individual rights and the interests of the majority, each
person follows them because of social-contract orientation- free and willing participation
in the system because it brings about more good for people than if it did not exist.

Prostealing: "Although there is a law against stealing, the law wasn't meant to violate a
person's right to life. Taking the drug does violate the law, but Heinz is justified in stealing
in this instance. If Heinz is prosecuted for stealing, the law needs to be reinterpreted to
take into account situations in which it goes against people's natural right to keep on living."

Stage 6. Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

 Highest stage where right action is defined by self-chosen ethical principles valid for all
humanity.
 Abstract values such as equal consideration and respect for the worth and dignity of each
person.

Prostealing: "If Heinz does not do everything he can to save his wife, then he is putting some
value higher than the value of life. It doesn't make sense to put respect for property above
respect for life itself. [People] could live together without private property at all. Respect
for human life and personality is absolute, and accordingly [people] have a mutual duty to
save one another from dying." (Rest, 1979, p.37)