ASSIGNMENT NO.

1
RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION
(Professional)

Course ID: AIOU8604

Tutor Name:
DR. MUHAMMAD SHAKIR
Submitted By:
MUQADAS ZIA
ID 0000757601
B.Ed. 1.5yrs
Semester 1st
Spring 2024

Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

Q.no.1: Discuss scientific method as a tool of acquiring knowledge.
Compare it with various steps in the research process.

Answer:
The modern scientific movement began when man created a new means of information
acquisition around the seventeenth century. The scientific method was founded when Francis
Bacon refuted the deductive approach to conclusions based on reliable premises, and he
suggested drawing broad conclusions from data that was observed.

Bacon's method of accumulating random data produced heaps of cumbersome material. To

construct a more practical approach of gaining dependable knowledge, such men as Newton,
Galileo, and their successors eventually integrated the inductive and the deductive cognitive
processes. The contemporary scientific method of study is the result of this synthesis of
observation and reason.

 Steps in the Scientific Method

When applying the scientific method, man engages in reflective thinking, moving back and forth
between deduction and induction. John Dewey examined the stages of activity involved in the
act of reflective thinking in How We Think in 1910.
The discussion that follows divides the act of problem solving into five stages:

1. A felt difficulty

Every man comes across some experience, hurdle, or unsolvable issue.

a. He doesn't have the resources to achieve his goals.
b. He finds it challenging to determine an object's identity.
c. He is unable to explain a sudden occurrence.

2. Location and dominion difficulty

Man observes and collects evidence that help him pinpoint his problem more clearly. This is the
section in which the scientist states the issue that has to be resolved.

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 3. Suggested solutions of the problem—hypotheses

Based on his initial examination of the available information, man conjectures intelligently about
potential fixes for the issue. Hypotheses are the speculative assertions—generalizations he makes
to account for the facts that are giving rise to the problem.

4. Deductively reasoning out the consequences of the suggested solutions

Man uses deductive reasoning to conclude that specific outcomes ought to occur if each
hypothesis is correct.

5. Testing the hypotheses by action

Man verifies every hypothesis by looking for concrete proof that will demonstrate whether or not
the expected outcomes really come to pass. Through this approach, he determines which
hypothesis best fits the observed data and, consequently, provides the most dependable solution
to his issue.

 Illustration of the Scientific Method

Later chapters will cover the five phases or processes of reflective thinking in more detail. For
now, though, this humble example should help you better understand how information is
obtained in science.
After his vacation, a man returns to find his garden damaged (felt difficulty-step 1). Upon
surveying the garden, he notices a bent fence, crushed flowers, and uprooted stakes—specific
details that allow him to pinpoint the exact level of difficulty—step 2. He wonders if the kids of
the neighbors may have ruined the garden on purpose as he looks for an explanation for these
facts (hypothesis or generalization explaining the data-step 3).
His theory defies current understanding because he did not witness the kids carry out the event.
He comes up with a second theory as well, one that could account for the data: perhaps the
garden was destroyed by a strong storm. As a result, he holds off on passing judgement and
looks for evidence.
The guy uses inference to work out the implications of his first hypothesis (step 4), which states

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that since the kids destroyed the garden, they had to be at home while he was on vacation. When
he questions the neighbors to test his theory (step 5), he finds out that the kids were at camp
when he was on vacation.
He must therefore disprove his first theory since it conflicts with the verifiable facts. He then
uses deductive reasoning to determine the implications of his second hypothesis (step 4); if a
strong storm obliterated the garden and most likely devastated other gardens in the area. Step 5:
He looks at other gardens and discovers they have also been damaged in order to test this
concept. He looks through the newspapers and discovers a story about a storm that devastated a
lot of the gardens in his neighborhood.

The garden was uprooted by wind and hail, according to a neighbor who saw it happen. The
individual comes to the conclusion that his second hypothesis makes sense in light of the
available evidence.

Man, therefore, proceeds by reflective thought from specific facts to general explanations of
these events, and from his general explanations to a quest for facts to corroborate them. He keeps
switching between deductive and inductive methods of solving the issue until he comes up with a
plausible explanation for the data. Researchers adhere to protocols that resemble those of a
gardener, but they do so in a more methodical way.

 Applicability of the Scientific Method

Researchers employ the scientific method as a tool to address a variety of issues. This approach
is used by an employee conducting pure research to uncover fresh information regarding the
secrets of the cosmos. It is used by an employee doing applied research to create a new product
that will treat an existing ailment.
The goals of study in pure science and the motivations driving the effort may differ significantly
from those found in applied science, as noted by former Yale University president J. R. Angell.
However, the methods used in the two circumstances can be virtually identical (4:27). Research
advancements in both pure and applied fields can be attributed to the scientific method.

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 Progress Made in Acquiring Knowledge

Over the millennia, man has made significant steps towards improving means of information
acquisition and, as a result, has learned to face the unknown with greater humility. Modern
researchers are less assertive since they are aware that several long-held hypotheses have been
disproved by the dramatic advancements in science over the past century. Because he is
conscious of the provisional, evolutionary nature of information, he is more inclined to question
conventional wisdom when he starts to doubt its reliability. He doesn't assert that his findings are
unquestionable after conducting an inquiry; instead, he allows others to corroborate, alter, or
dispute them.

Although the scientific method does not produce definitive answers, Cohen and Nagel note that
it is a more dependable approach to information acquisition than certain other approaches that
make such claims.

 Comparison between Research and Scientific Method

Obtaining information and data about an event through methods that may not adhere to scientific
conventions is known as general research. The researcher's experience and feelings may be taken
into consideration. Application scope is constrained. On the other hand, Scientific research is an
organized methodical, and logical process used to gather data, investigate topics, and advance
knowledge. It calls for exacting protocols and fact-based, real-world research. When compared
to general research, scientific studies are more general and aim to draw assumptions from their
findings.
The scientific method is an exhaustive, methodical, and cross-disciplinary approach to research.
It has influenced the concept of "critical thinking," which is shared by many academic fields and
involves reasoning and logic. In scientific study, especially in the social sciences, other
techniques of inquiry like deduction, induction, abduction, and hypothetical-deductive
approaches are also employed. These approaches are complimentary tools that help researchers
in different domains solve problems and create new knowledge

~*~
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Q.no.2: Compare and contrast the types of research. Why and
where we use these types (basic, applied action) research to discuss
educational phenomena.

Answer:
Depending on the viewpoint that informs the initiation and conduct of the research, it can be
divided into a number of categories. In general, the classification is based on the following
viewpoints:
 Utilization of research study
 Research objectives
 The mode of inquiry used in the research

1. Classification based on Application:

a. Pure / Basic / Fundamental Research:

A study project that is undertaken to examine a topic or issue from a fresh

perspective is referred to as fundamental or pure, as the name implies. It includes formulating
and evaluating theories and hypotheses that constitute an intellectual challenge to the researcher
but may or may not have immediate or long-term practical applications.
The goal of acquiring pure research knowledge is to broaden the set of research techniques
already in use. While theoretical, pure research is universal in nature.

b. Applied / Decisional Research:

Applied research is done on the basis of pure or fundamental research to solve
specific, practical questions; for policy formulation, administration and understanding of a
phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive.
The purpose of doing such research is to find solutions to an immediate issue, solving a
particular problem, developing new technology and look into future advancements etc. This
involves forecasting and assumes that the variables shall not change.

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 Key Differences between Basic and Applied Research
a) Research aimed at adding to the body of current scientific knowledge is referred to as
basic research. Conversely, the term "applied research" refers to scientific research that
helps with problem-solving in the actual world.
b) Applied research takes a practical approach, whereas basic research is exclusively
theoretical.
c) Basic research has a wider scope of application than applied research since the former
can be applied to any problem, while the latter can only be used to the particular
problem for which it was conducted.
d) The development of scientific knowledge and predictions is the main goal of
fundamental research. Applied research, on the other hand, focuses on using basic
science to assist build technology and techniques.
e) The primary objective of basic research is to supplement the body of knowledge that
already exists. On the other hand, the goal of applied research is to solve the issue being
studied.

2. Classification based on Objectives:

1) Descriptive Research:
This research explains views about a topic, explains a scenario, problem,
phenomena, service, or program, or gives information on the living conditions of a community. It
aims to respond to inquiries including who, what, when, where, and how related to a certain
study question or issue.

This kind of study aims to gather any data that may be quantitatively expressed and utilized for
statistical analysis of a certain issue or target audience. Observing and relating a research topic or
issue without changing or modifying the variables is the goal of descriptive research. As a result,
these investigations are typically observational or correlational.

This type of research is conclusive in nature, rather than nosy. e.g. explaining
details of budget allocation changes to departmental heads in a meeting to assure clarity and
understanding for reasons to bring in a change.

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 2) Co relational Research:
In this kind of non-experimental method of inquiry, two variables are measured,
and the statistical relationship between them is understood and evaluated without the impact of
any other variables. This is done in order to determine whether there is a relationship or
interdependence between two or more situational elements. The mind is capable of learning to
recognize the sound of an ice cream or candy vendor's bell, for instance. The merchant is closer
to us if the bell sounds louder. Based on our recollections and the flavor of these delicious foods,
we conclude this conclusion. The goal of co-relational research is to identify variables that
appear to interact with one another so that changes in one variable can generally be predicted
based on changes in the other.

3) Explanatory Research:
The study whose basically aims to develop, expand, test, or explain why certain
things happen. It is mostly focused on presenting, understanding, and showing what we already
have. It involves turning over one hundred rocks in order to perhaps uncover one or two valuable
jewels. Explanatory survey research can investigate the elements that influence customer
satisfaction and clarify the relative importance of each element, or it can try to model the
characteristics that cause consumers to switch from local shops where they have been making
purchases up until now to department stores.

4) Exploratory Research:
In the subjective sense, exploratory research is done with the goal of
improving the final study design, defining objectives, and coming up with a solution for an issue
that hasn't been thoroughly examined. The optimal study design, data gathering technique, and
subject selection are all aided by exploratory research.

In this type of research, the researcher begins with a broad concept and employs this research as
a means of pinpointing problems that may serve as the focal point for subsequent study. Since it
is used to address what, why, and how issues, it is frequently referred to as interpretive research
or the grounded theory approach.

For instance, the owner of a fast-food restaurant believes that expanding the selection of snacks
will increase sales, but he is unsure and wants more details. In order to find out what people

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think of the current menu and what else they would like to see on it, the owner begins
researching the local competitors. He also speaks with friends, family, and other current clients
to see if he can increase sales.

Comparison between Types of Research:

(i) Applied v/s Fundamental:

There are two types of research: fundamental (basic or pure) and applied (or
action). The goal of applied research is to solve a pressing issue that a society, industry, or
business is facing, while the primary goals of fundamental research are theory development and
hypotheses.
Examples of fundamental research include studies concerning pure mathematics or certain
scientific phenomena. Research studies on human behaviour that are conducted with the
intention of drawing generalizations about human behaviour are also examples of fundamental
research; on the other hand, applied research is research that aims to draw specific findings in
response to real world social or commercial issues. Therefore, the main goal of applied research
is to find a solution for a pressing practical issue, while the main goal of fundamental research is
to find information that may be applied widely and adds to the body of organized scientific
knowledge already in existence.

(ii) Quantitative v/s Qualitative:

The measurement of quantity or amount is the foundation of quantitative inquiry.
It works with phenomena that have a quantitative expression. For instance, examining the
volume of inquiries received for reservations for rooms made via the internet, email, phone,
letter, or other means; these can also come from companies, government agencies, travel and
tour firms, etc.
Conversely, qualitative research focuses on qualitative phenomena, meaning those that have to
do with quality or kind. For instance, researching the stress levels and causes of staff members'
inconsistent performance across shifts in the same hotel department. When shift timings alter, the
same people could behave differently. It may entail conducting research on how consumer tastes
vary with the seasons.

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 ~*~
Q. 3 Define the concepts of history and historical research. What is
the important of internal and external criticism in historical
research? Also, distinguish primary source of data from the
secondary source of data with examples?

Answer
Historical research methods involve the application of historical materials and methodologies to
the study of education. This approach is particularly valuable for uncovering solutions to
contemporary issues by drawing on historical experiences.

Distinction from Other Research Methodologies

Unlike most scientific research, especially within the behavioral and social sciences, historical
research is fundamentally distinct. It is so different, in fact, that it often seems out of place in the
broader context of research methodologies. Nevertheless, it is included because the review of
existing research literature a necessary step before conducting other types of research essentially
constitutes a historical study.

Moreover, many educational concerns are best addressed through historical research. The
quantity and quality of research on the history of education have significantly increased over the
past two decades, as evidenced by the works of scholars like Best (1983) and Warren (1978).

The Importance of History in Education

History represents a significant record of human achievement. It provides a truthful,

comprehensive narrative that explores the relationships between people, events, times, and
places, rather than merely listing chronological events.

By examining history, we attempt to make sense of the past and understand the present in
relation to previous developments and events.

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Contextualizing Historical Research

When conducting historical research on individuals, it is essential to consider how these

individuals interacted with the institutions, ideologies, and movements of their time. The specific
focus of the research merely establishes the key areas to which historians will pay particular
attention.

Benefits of Historical Research in Education

1. Appreciation for Excellence: It fosters a deep appreciation for outstanding teachers and
a respect for solid academic work.

2. Identification of Trends: The history of education enables educational professionals to

identify trends and superficial developments.

3. Contextual Understanding: A thorough understanding of the history of education helps

educators contextualize current issues within their historical development and origins.

4. Evaluating Contemporary Issues: Speculative assumptions about past educational

experiences can be invaluable in evaluating contemporary educational concerns and
problems.

Characteristics of Historical Research

Historical research has certain characteristics which are given below:

1 It is based on reports of observations which cannot be repeated.
2 It is liable to be subjective.
3 In history, rational process of analysis and inference is verbalized.
4 Science predicts the future course of events, and history uses preserve evidence to
retrodict the past.
Historical Research Main Steps
Historical research involves three basic steps. These consist of the following:

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1. Gathering information from Primary and Secondary sources.

2. Evaluating the information both Internally and Externally.

3. Presenting the information, which raises issues with structure, explanation, and interpretation.

 Historical Criticism (Internal & External)

It's been observed that the historian doesn't frequently employ the direct observation technique.
It is impossible to step back into the past at will. Since the historian needs to go deeply into the
data. To separate actual facts from the false, irrelevant, or misleading information obtained from
the accounts of individuals who saw or took part in these events, the data needs to be thoroughly
examined.
Historical evidence is reliable, useable data used in historical study. The body of verified data
can be acknowledged as a reliable and appropriate foundation for evaluating and confirming a
hypothesis. Historical data are subjected to two forms of criticism in order to accumulate
historical evidence: Internal and External.

A. External Criticism

The validity or genuineness of data is established via external criticism.

Many evaluations of authenticity can be used.
Complex tests of signature, handwriting, script, type, spelling, language usage, documentation, k
nowledge available at the time, and consistency with what is known may be necessary to determi
ne the age or authorship of documents.
Tests on ink, paint, paper, parchment, linen, stone, metals, or wood may be conducted, both
physically and chemically.

B. Internal Criticism

Evaluating the accuracy or value of historical records or relics remains a challenge even
after their authenticity has been confirmed. Do they paint a true picture, even though they might
be sincere? What about the authors or artists? Were they impartial, truthful, and genuinely
knowledgeable about the facts, or were they overly hostile or overly sympathetic to present an

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accurate picture? Were they compelled in any way to change the account?
Were they under stress, fear, or conceit? How long did they take to write down their testimony,
and could they recall the details of what had happened?
Did they concur with other qualified witnesses?

Although it is frequently challenging to provide an answer to these queries, the historian must be
certain that the information is true and correct. At that point, he or she is allowed to present them
as historical data that merits careful examination.
Examples of how to test evidence for authenticity are provided below. The first is an illustration
of scholarly historical critique, conducted by biblical scholars and scientists, wherein historical
texts were shown to be authentic.

Difference between Primary & Secondary Sources of data

In collecting data of historical research, the sources are normally classified into two main
categories - primary sources and secondary sources.

i. Primary source

Original records that serve as the first eyewitnesses to a situation are known as primary sources.
On the other hand, some contain data in the form of testimonials, either written or spoken, or
records kept or written by real participants or witnesses to an incident. As an illustration,
charters, official documents, constitutions, rulings from courts, letters, diaries, memoirs, photos,
movies, artworks, novels, and recordings, among other materials. Additional primary sources
include tools, weaponry, household items, clothing, relics, and corpses.

ii. Secondary source

Information from sources other than those who witnessed the first event directly is referred to as
a secondary source. He wasn't present for the first event, nor was he an eyewitness. The
information provided is actually secondary. The majority of history textbooks and encyclopedias
are classified as secondary sources. Due to their ability to provide information regarding primary
sources, secondary sources can occasionally be highly beneficial.
The mechanical problem of documentation, the logical problem of topic selection, the logical

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problem of topic and subtopic arrangement, and the philosophical problem of interpretation are
also involved in preparing a historical report.

In historical study, one should, however, adhere to the following rules.

1 As much as feasible should be done with the main sources.
2 Research methodology shouldn't be subject to personal bias.
3 The interaction of education with other social forces and institutions needs to be
appropriately acknowledged.
4 In a given situation, the important facts need to be separated from the range of
insignificant data.
5 The information has to be combined and incorporated into relevant generalizations.
6 Care should be used when interpreting the terms and idioms in consideration of how they
were used in the past.
However, the domains of biography, the history of establishments and organizations, the
evolution of ideas throughout time, sources and influences, and legal foundations can all be
included within the purview of historical inquiry.

~*~

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Q. 4 Distinguish experimental research from non-experimental
research studies How experimental research is conducted? And why
do we use experimental studies to address the social issues?
Answer

There is a general misconception around research that once the research is non-experimental,
then it is non-scientific, making it more important to understand what experimental and
experimental research entails. Experimental research is the most common type of research,
which a lot of people refer to as scientific research.

Non experimental research, on the other hand, is easily used to classify research that is not
experimental. It clearly differs from experimental research, and as such has different use cases.

 Experimental Research

Experimental research employs a scientific approach by manipulating one or more control

variables and observing the effects on the research subjects.

This method is notable for its ability to control variables, making it a popular choice in both
physical and social sciences, despite its complexity. In the field of information, experimental
research is more prevalent in information systems studies than in library and information
management.

This research method is typically used to explore cause-and-effect relationships between specific
variables. The type of experimental research selected can significantly impact the experiment’s
outcomes, leading to the categorization into three primary types:

i. Pre-experimental
ii. Quasi-experimental
iii. True experimental research.

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 1) Pre-experimental Research

Pre-experimental research is the simplest form of experimental research. It involves observing

dependent variables in a group or groups after administering an independent variable, which is
assumed to cause changes.

Pre-experimental research can be further divided into three types:

 One-shot case study research

 One-group pretest-posttest research
 Static-group comparison

2) Quasi-experimental Research

Quasi-experimental research resembles true experimental research but differs in that it uses
carefully selected subjects rather than randomized ones.

Common types of quasi-experimental research include:

 Time series
 Nonequivalent control group design
 Counterbalanced design

3) True Experimental Research

True experimental research, often referred to simply as experimental research, is the most
accurate type. It involves manipulating a control group and comparing it to a group of randomly
selected subjects, recording the effects of this manipulation.

True experimental research can be categorized into the following groups:

 Posttest-only control group

 Pretest-posttest control group
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  Solomon four-group

 Non-Experimental Research

Non-experimental research is a type of research that does not involve manipulating control or
independent variables. Instead, researchers observe and measure variables as they naturally occur
without any intervention. This method is often used when:

 The researcher does not have a specific hypothesis about a causal relationship between
variables.
 Manipulation of the independent variable is impossible.
 Subjects cannot be randomly assigned to conditions.
 The research focuses on broad, exploratory questions.
 The study examines non-causal relationships between variables.
 Limited information is available about the research subject.

There are three main types of non-experimental research: cross-sectional research, correlational
research, and observational research.

 Cross-sectional Research

Cross-sectional research compares two or more pre-existing groups of people under the same
criteria. This approach is considered non-experimental because the groups are not randomly
selected, and the independent variable is not manipulated. For instance, an academic institution
may reward its top-performing students with scholarships based on their class of degree. Each
faculty places students into eligible and ineligible groups according to their academic
performance Since a student’s class of degree cannot be manipulated, this placement is cross-
sectional.

 Correlational Research

Correlational research examines the statistical relationship between two variables. It is classified
as non-experimental because it does not involve manipulating the independent variables. For

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example, a researcher might investigate the relationship between a student's family income and
their academic grades. By distributing questionnaires to gather information about family income
and comparing it with students' CGPAs, the researcher can determine whether these factors are
positively correlated, negatively correlated, or have no correlation.

 Observational Research

Observational research involves observing the behavior of subjects in their natural or laboratory
settings without manipulating any variables. For example, an investigation into the crowd effect
might examine why people choose to queue at one ATM when another nearby ATM is unused.
The crowd effect suggests that newcomers will likely join the existing queue. Observational
research, being descriptive in nature, often provides insights into behavior without experimental
intervention.

Differences Between Experimental and Non-Experimental Research

 Definitions

Experimental research manipulates control variables to measure effects on dependent variables.

Non-experimental research observes variables without manipulation. The key difference is the
control of variables.

 Examples

Experimental research includes lab experiments, such as combining chemicals to observe

reactions. Non-experimental research investigates the characteristics of substances without
altering them, like studying ammonia’s properties.

 Types

Experimental research includes pre-experimental, quasi-experimental, and true experimental.

Non-experimental research includes cross-sectional, correlational, and observational.
Experimental research types are further subdivided, while non-experimental types are not.

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 Characteristics

Experimental research is quantitative, controlled, and involves multiple variables. Non-

experimental research can be quantitative or qualitative, with uncontrolled variables and cross-
sectional issues. Control over independent variables is a key distinction.

 Data Collection/Tools

Experimental data is collected through observations, simulations, and surveys. Non-experimental

data comes from observations, surveys, and case studies. Experimental research often involves
objective, structured observations.

 Goal

Experimental research aims to measure cause-and-effect relationships. Non-experimental

research describes phenomena without establishing causality, focusing on “what” happens rather
than “why.”

 Uses

Experimental research drives scientific discoveries and problem-solving. Non-experimental

research defines characteristics, trends, comparisons, and validations. Validation of experimental
findings often involves non-experimental methods.

 Advantages & Disadvantages

Experimental research is structured and minimizes errors. Non-experimental research reflects

real-life situations. Experimental research allows for variable manipulation, while non-
experimental research avoids bias from lack of randomization.

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Experimental research is prone to human error and bias. Non-experimental research may yield
unclear or error-prone results. Experimental settings often eliminate extraneous variables, which
can affect real-world applicability.

 Variables

Experimental research controls and manipulates variables. Non-experimental research observes

variables without manipulation due to ethical constraints.

 Setting

Experimental research is conducted in controlled environments. Non-experimental research

occurs in natural settings, providing real-life relevance.

 Cause-Effect Relationship

Experimental research establishes cause-effect relationships. Non-experimental research

observes and describes variable relationships without measuring changes.

 Comparison

Experimental research does not compare variables. Non-experimental research compares and
describes relationships between variables.

 Quantitativeness

Experimental research is quantitative. Non-experimental research can be quantitative or

qualitative, such as correlational (quantitative) or observational (qualitative) studies.

 Cross-section

Experimental research is single-sectional, while non-experimental research is cross-sectional,

examining different groups within subjects.

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 Conclusion
Understanding the differences between experimental and non-experimental research helps
researchers choose the appropriate method. Experimental research manipulates variables;
non-experimental research does not.

How Experimental Research Conducted?

To conduct effective research, you must understand the research process steps and follow them.
Here are a few steps in the research process to make it easier for you.

 Step 1: Identify the Problem:

The first step involves formulating a research question or identifying an
issue. A well-defined problem guides the entire research process. Approaches to gain insight
include:

 Preliminary surveys
 Case studies
 Interviews
 Observational surveys

 Step 2: Evaluate the Literature:

Conduct a thorough literature review to understand previous
research, methodologies, and conclusions. This helps identify precise aspects of the problem
and builds consistency with existing knowledge.
 Step 3: Create Hypotheses:
Formulate a hypothesis based on the research topic, defining logical
relationships between variables. This helps focus efforts and align with research objectives.
 Step 4: The Research Design:
Plan the approach to achieve research objectives and answer
questions. The design aims to minimize resources while acquiring meaningful evidence. It
includes:

 Exploration and Surveys

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  Experiments
 Data Analysis
 Observation

 Step 5: Describe Population

Define the study group based on the research topic and purpose. This could be
specific demographics like age, gender, location, or ethnicity, ensuring results can be
generalized.
 Step 6: Data Collection
Collect data to answer the research question. Data sources include:

 Primary: Experiments, questionnaires, observations, interviews

 Secondary: Literature surveys, official and unofficial reports, library resources

 Step 7: Data Analysis

Analyze the collected data based on the planned approach. This
involves categorizing, coding, and tabulating data to draw statistical conclusions using
various methods.
 Step 8: Report-writing
Prepare a detailed report of the findings. The report should include:

 Layout: Title, date, acknowledgments, preface, table of contents, and list of

tables/graphs/charts.
 Introduction: Purpose, methods, scope, and limits of the study.
 Summary of Findings: Non-technical summary and recommendations.
 Principal Report: Main body divided into clear sections.
 Conclusion: Restate findings and final results.

Use of Experimental Studies in Social issues

To address social and economic challenges using experimental research, begin by defining
the problem and formulating a specific research question, such as exploring the effects of cash transfers
on poor households. Next, develop a hypothesis and design an intervention, like providing a monthly

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payment of $100 for one year. Design the experiment carefully, a control group, and a representative
sample. Implement the experiment ethically, collecting data on key variables, including independent (cash
transfers) and dependent (income, well-being) variables. Analyze the data using descriptive statistics to
test your hypothesis, ensuring to assess statistical significance and confidence intervals. Finally, report
your findings clearly, discussing the experiment's limitations and implications, to provide a
comprehensive understanding of the research outcomes.

~*~
Q. 5 Define descriptive research, what are its major forms?
Strengthen your answer with the example of Case Studies, Causal
Comparative studies and correlation studies.
Answer
Descriptive research is a research methodology where the investigator neither
manipulates variables nor arranges events to occur. Instead, it involves studying events that have
already happened or would have happened regardless of observation. This approach is used to
examine various phenomena, such as the administrative machinery for educational planning in
different regions or the causes of low female participation rates by studying community attitudes
toward female education. The researcher observes and analyzes existing conditions without
causing any changes.

Descriptive research, as defined by Best, is about describing and interpreting "what is." It focuses
on existing conditions or relationships, prevailing practices, beliefs, attitudes, ongoing processes,
effects being felt, or developing trends. The essence of descriptive research is to provide a
detailed, factual description of what exists in a particular area of study.

For instance, when investigating the causes of low female participation rates in education, a
researcher might assess the roles of parental attitudes, poverty, the availability of female
teachers, the distance of schools from homes, and the functionality of curricula. Data could be
collected through questionnaires administered to parents, teachers, community leaders, and out-

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of-school girls. The researcher would then compare these views, analyze the data, and interpret
the results to draw meaningful conclusions.

 Major Forms of Descriptive Research

Different writers classify descriptive research in various ways. Van Dalen categorizes it into
three types:

1. Survey studies
2. Inter-relationship studies
3. Developmental studies

Some studies fall exclusively within one of these categories, while others may exhibit
characteristics of more than one.

Detailed descriptions of these research categories are provided in the following sections.

 Survey Studies

According to Carter V. Good, the purposes of a descriptive survey study are:

1. To secure evidence concerning an existing situation or current conditions.

2. To identify standards or norms for comparison with present conditions.
3. To determine how to proceed, having established the current status and future goals.

Researchers conducting surveys in educational organizations gather detailed descriptions of

existing phenomena to justify current conditions and practices or to plan improvements. The
objectives include ascertaining the status and evaluating it against established standards. Survey
studies typically collect data from numerous cases at a specific time, focusing on generalizations
based on this data rather than individual characteristics.

For example, a survey study might be conducted to assess the quality of education in a region by
gathering data from a large number of schools. The data collected would then be used to

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compare the current educational standards with the desired benchmarks, identifying areas that
need improvement.

 Interrelationship Studies

Educationists collect facts to accurately describe the current status and trace interrelationships
between these facts, providing deeper insights into phenomena. Van Dalen includes three types
of studies in this category:

1. Case Studies
2. Causal Comparative Studies
3. Correlation Studies

Below is a detailed discussion of each type:

1) Case Study

A case study focuses on a single case or a few cases, providing a personalized and detailed
description and analysis of a person, event, institution, or community. This type of study, called
'idiographic,' aims to understand individual behavior or attitudes without generalizing findings.
The purposes of case studies include:

 Providing hypotheses that are difficult to study in other contexts.

 Testing hypotheses in unique situations.
 Offering new insights, modifying existing beliefs, and identifying knowledge gaps.
 Demonstrating theoretical models in concrete scenarios.

Case study data can come from interviews, questionnaires, personal documents (e.g., diaries,
letters), and various measurements. Unlike surveys, which gather data from many cases, case
studies intensively examine a limited number of representative cases, offering in-depth insights.

For example, a student might conduct a case study to determine if the programs offered by the
EPM Department of Allama Iqbal Open University meet their training objectives. This study

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would include a detailed background of the department, its aims, programs, admission
procedures, evaluation methods, and future plans, providing insights for potential improvements.

2) Causal Comparative Studies

Causal comparative studies explore not only what a phenomenon is but also how and why it
occurs. This method is used when controlling variables is difficult, as in social sciences.
Researchers observe phenomena and trace back possible causes, comparing instances where the
phenomenon occurred with those where it did not.

For example, to determine the causes of riots in educational institutions, a researcher would
compare institutions with and without riots, identifying factors that account for the differences.
Although lacking the control of experimental studies, causal comparative studies offer valuable
insights into real-world problems.

3) Correlation Studies

Correlation studies describe phenomena by determining the extent to which two variables are
related. The researcher observes both the independent and dependent variables in their natural
settings. For example, a study might explore the relationship between I.Q. and academic
achievement by measuring both in a random group.

Correlation can be positive, negative, or nonexistent, and ranges from perfect negative to perfect
positive. However, correlation does not imply causation; the meaning of the relationship is
interpreted through logical analysis, subject to the same limitations as causal comparative
studies.

Correlation methods can also be applied in planning and management, such as studying the
relationship between teacher commitment and drop-out rates or the distance of schools from
homes and female participation rates.

 Developmental studies

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The concept of development, originally biological, is now applied to physical systems, social institutions,
cultural systems, and ideas. Developmental studies aim to discover the origin, direction, trend, pattern,
rate, and causes of growth and inter-relationships affecting growth (Good, 159:267-8). These studies use
longitudinal and cross-sectional techniques.

In educational planning and management, two types of developmental studies are commonly
used: growth studies and trend-projection studies.

i. Growth Studies

Planners need to be aware of changes in areas affecting their field, understanding the interrelated
factors influencing educational growth at various stages of economic development. They must
know when aspects of growth first become observable and how they progress to optimal
development.

ii. Trend-Projection Studies

Also known as predictive studies, trend-projection studies use longitudinal data to analyze past
events, the current situation, and predict future developments. This research provides valuable
data for planning programs, though predictions are estimates and subject to various factors that
can influence growth and development.
For instance, a trend-projection study might analyze past enrollment trends in a
school district and use that data to predict future enrollment patterns. This information could then
be used to plan for future resource allocation, such as hiring additional teachers or expanding
facilities.

The Role of Descriptive Research in Educational Planning

Descriptive research plays a crucial role in educational planning by providing detailed insights
into existing conditions, relationships, and trends. By understanding what is happening in the
educational landscape, planners and policymakers can make informed decisions about where to
allocate resources, how to improve programs, and what changes need to be made to achieve
desired outcomes.

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For example, a descriptive research study might reveal that a particular region has low female
participation rates in education due to a combination of factors, such as parental attitudes,
poverty, and the distance of schools from homes. Armed with this information, policymakers can
develop targeted interventions to address these barriers, such as providing transportation for
girls, offering financial assistance to families, and raising awareness about the importance of
female education.

~*~

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