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Program: B.Tech

Subject Name: Design And Analysis of Algorithms

Subject Code: CB402
Semester: 4th

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QUE 1- What is an algorithm?(Answer)
Summary - An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure used to solve a problem or
perform a task. It's a precise set of instructions that can be executed by a computer or a
person to achieve a desired outcome.

QUE 2- Explain asymptotic notations.(Answer)

Summary - Asymptotic notations, like Big O, Omega, and Theta, describe the behavior
of functions as their inputs approach infinity. Big O notation, for instance, signifies the
upper bound of a function's growth rate, indicating how quickly the function's value
increases as the input size grows.

QUE 3- Show that 10n^2 + 5 ∈ O(n^2).

Summary - To show that 10 𝑛^2 + 5 is in O(n^2), we need to find constants c and 𝑛0 (n
not) ​such that 10 𝑛^2 + 5 ≤ 𝑐𝑛^2 for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛 0 n ≥ n 0 ​. By choosing 𝑐 = 11 and 𝑛 0 = 1,
we see that 10 𝑛^2 + 5 ≤ 11 𝑛^2 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1, thus proving the statement.

QUE 4- How to find the upper bound of recurrence relations?(Answer)

Summary - To find the upper bound of recurrence relations, you can use techniques
like the Master Theorem or substitution method. The Master Theorem provides a
framework for solving recurrence relations of certain forms, while the substitution

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method involves guessing a bound and then proving it by induction.

QUE 5- Describe the Finite Force method.

Summary - The Finite Force method is a heuristic technique used in optimization
problems. It involves systematically trying all possible solutions within a finite set to find
the best solution. While effective for small problem sizes, it becomes impractical for
larger or continuous solution spaces.

QUE 6- Write an algorithm for selection sort.

Summary - Here's an algorithm for selection sort:
SelectionSort(array)
n = length of array
for i from 0 to n-1
min_index = i
for j from i+1 to n-1
if array[j] < array[min_index]
min_index = j
swap array[i] and array[min_index]

QUE 7- Differentiate between Branch and Bound and Greedy algorithms.(Answer)

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Summary - Branch and Bound algorithms systematically search through a problem's
solution space, using a bounding function to prune branches.
Greedy algorithms, on the other hand, make locally optimal choices at each step,
aiming to reach a global optimum. Branch and Bound is more exhaustive but
guarantees an optimal solution, while Greedy algorithms are simpler but may not always
find the best solution.

QUE 8- Solve the Knapsack problem with a capacity of 10.(Answer)

Summary - To solve the Knapsack problem with a capacity of 10, you can use dynamic
programming. Create a table to track the maximum value achievable for different
capacities and items, then fill it iteratively based on whether including an item would
exceed the capacity or not.

QUE 9- Define a Decision Tree.(Answer)

Summary - A Decision Tree is a tree-like model used in decision analysis and machine
learning. It represents decisions and their possible consequences, with nodes
representing decision points, branches representing possible choices, and leaves
representing outcomes or final decisions.

QUE 10- Design a BFS algorithm for graph connectivity.(Answer)

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Summary - Here's a BFS algorithm for graph connectivity:

BFS(graph, start)
queue = [start]
visited = set()
while queue is not empty
node = queue.dequeue()
if node not in visited
visit(node)
visited.add(node)
for neighbor in graph.neighbors(node)
queue.enqueue(neighbor)

QUE 11- Explain Class NP.(Answer)

Summary - Class NP refers to a set of decision problems that can be verified by a
nondeterministic Turing machine in polynomial time. This class encompasses problems
for which solutions can be verified efficiently but not necessarily found efficiently.

QUE 12- What is NP-Complete?(Answer)

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Summary - NP-Complete problems are a subset of NP problems that are at least as
hard as the hardest problems in NP. They have the property that if any NP-Complete
problem can be solved in polynomial time, then all NP problems can also be solved in
polynomial time.

QUE 13- Discuss Graph Coloring.(Answer)

Summary - Graph coloring is a problem of assigning colors to vertices of a graph such
that no two adjacent vertices have the same color. It's used in scheduling, map coloring,
and optimization. The minimum number of colors needed for a graph is its chromatic
number.

QUE 14- Explain Hamilton Cycle.(Answer)

Summary - A Hamilton Cycle in a graph is a cycle that visits every vertex exactly once
and returns to the starting vertex. It's a fundamental problem in graph theory and has
applications in optimization and routing.

QUE 15- Briefly explain Strassen's matrix multiplication.(Answer)

Summary - Strassen's matrix multiplication is an algorithm that reduces the number of
multiplications required for matrix multiplication from 𝑂(𝑛^3) to approximately 𝑂 (𝑛^2.81)

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using a divide-and-conquer approach.

QUE 16- Describe the concept of Divide & Conquer.(Answer)

Summary - Divide & Conquer is a problem-solving paradigm where a problem is
divided into smaller subproblems, solved recursively, and then combined to solve the
original problem. It's used in algorithms like merge sort, quicksort, and Strassen's matrix
multiplication.

QUE 17- Design an algorithm for Merge Sort.(Answer)

Summary - Here's an algorithm for Merge Sort:
MergeSort(array)
if length of array <= 1
return array
mid = length of array / 2
left = MergeSort(first half of array)
right = MergeSort(second half of array)
return Merge(left, right)

Merge(left, right)
result = []

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 while left is not empty and right is not empty
if first element of left <= first element of right
append first element of left to result
remove first element from left
else
append first element of right to result
remove first element from right
append remaining elements of left and right to result
return result

QUE 18- Explain the Greedy Technique for Prim's Algorithm.(Answer)

Summary - The Greedy Technique for Prim's Algorithm starts with a single vertex and
incrementally adds the closest vertex not yet in the spanning tree, creating the minimum
spanning tree. At each step, it chooses the smallest edge that connects the current tree
to an outside vertex. This process continues until all vertices are included, ensuring that
the tree remains connected and has the minimum possible total edge weight among all
spanning trees of the graph.

QUE 19- Compute the shortest path using dynamic programming.(Answer)

Summary - Dynamic programming computes the shortest path by storing intermediate

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results in a table. It starts with the source node having a distance of 0 and updates the
shortest distances to all other nodes iteratively. At each step, it considers the shortest
path from the source to a node through previously visited nodes. The final table
contains the shortest path distances from the source to all nodes in the graph.

QUE 20- Apply Floyd's algorithm for finding all pairs of shortest paths.(Answer)
Summary - Floyd's algorithm finds all pairs of shortest paths in a weighted graph by
iteratively updating the shortest path distances between every pair of vertices. It starts
with initial distances and gradually improves them until no further improvements can be
made, ensuring that the resulting table contains the shortest paths between all pairs of
vertices.

QUE 21- Construct a solution for the 4-Queen's problem.(Answer)

Summary - The 4-Queen's problem involves placing four queens on a 4x4 chessboard
such that no two queens threaten each other. A solution can be constructed using
backtracking, where queens are placed row by row, ensuring no conflicts with previously
placed queens.

QUE 22- Apply the substitution method for finding the upper bound.(Answer)

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Summary - The substitution method for finding the upper bound involves guessing a
solution and then proving it correct. It's often used in recurrence relations, where an
initial guess for the upper bound is refined and verified through mathematical induction
or other proof techniques.

QUE 23- Analyze the time complexity of selection sort.(Answer)

Summary - The time complexity of selection sort is 𝑂(𝑛^2 ), where n is the number of
elements in the array. This is because it requires n − 1 comparisons in the first pass,
n−2 in the second pass, and so on, resulting in a quadratic time complexity.

QUE 24- Apply selection sort to a list of items.(Answer)

Summary - Applying selection sort to a list of items involves iteratively selecting the
smallest (or largest) element and swapping it with the element in the current position.
This process continues until the entire list is sorted, resulting in a sorted list in
ascending (or descending) order.

QUE 25- Design a Binary Search algorithm.(Answer)

Summary - A Binary Search algorithm searches for a target value in a sorted array by
repeatedly dividing the search interval in half. It compares the target value with the
middle element and narrows down the search range until the target is found or the
interval is empty.
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QUE 26- Derive the complexity of the Binary Search algorithm.(Answer)
Summary - The complexity of the Binary Search algorithm is 𝑂 ( log ⁡𝑛 ) O(logn), where
𝑛 n is the number of elements in the sorted array. This logarithmic complexity arises
from halving the search interval at each step, leading to a highly efficient search
process.

QUE 27- Discuss finding maximum and minimum elements in an array

recursively.(Answer)
Summary - Finding the maximum and minimum elements in an array recursively
involves dividing the array into smaller subarrays until single elements remain, then
comparing and merging the maximum and minimum values from each subarray until the
overall maximum and minimum are determined.

QUE 28- Trace the process for finding max and min elements in a
dataset.(Answer)
Summary - The process of finding the max and min elements in a dataset involves
comparing elements pairwise and updating the maximum and minimum as necessary.

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This process continues until all elements are compared, resulting in the identification of
the maximum and minimum values.

QUE 29- Explain worst-case complexity for finding max and min
elements.(Answer)
Summary - The worst-case complexity for finding max and min elements is 𝑂 ( 𝑛 ) O(n),
where 𝑛 n is the number of elements in the dataset. This occurs when the maximum or
minimum element is located at the end of the dataset, requiring comparisons with all
other elements.

QUE 30- Define the concept of backtracking.(Answer)

Summary - Backtracking is a problem-solving technique that involves exploring all
possible solutions to a problem by making choices and backtracking when a chosen
path leads to a dead end. It's commonly used in problems with a large search space,
such as finding solutions to puzzles or optimization problems.

QUE 31- Explain the concept of constructing a solution recursively.(Answer)

Summary - Constructing a solution recursively involves breaking down a problem into
smaller subproblems of the same type and solving them recursively until reaching base
cases that can be solved directly. The solutions to subproblems are then combined to

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form the solution to the original problem.

QUE 32- Discuss the concept of time complexity in algorithms.(Answer)

Summary - Time complexity in algorithms refers to how the algorithm's running time
grows as the input size increases. It's a measure of the number of operations an
algorithm performs relative to the input size and is typically expressed using Big O
notation.

QUE 33- Explain the concept of space complexity in algorithms.(Answer)

Summary - Space complexity in algorithms refers to the amount of memory an
algorithm requires to solve a problem as the input size increases. It considers factors
such as the size of data structures, recursion depth, and temporary variables used
during computation.

QUE 34- Describe the process of algorithm analysis.(Answer)

Summary - Algorithm analysis involves evaluating an algorithm's performance in terms
of time and space complexity, determining its efficiency and scalability. This process
includes studying how an algorithm's resource usage changes with different input sizes
and identifying its strengths and limitations.

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QUE 35- Differentiate between best-case, worst-case, and average-case
complexities.(Answer)
Summary -
● Best-case complexity is the minimum time or space required by an algorithm
when given the most favorable input.
● Worst-case complexity is the maximum time or space required when given the
least favorable input.
● Average-case complexity is the expected time or space required over all possible
inputs, often based on probability distributions.

QUE 36- Explain the concept of Big O notation.(Answer)

Summary - Big O notation describes the upper bound or worst-case scenario of an
algorithm's time or space complexity. It provides a simplified way to express how an
algorithm's performance scales with input size, focusing on the dominant term that most
significantly affects the resource usage.

QUE 37- Define the concept of Omega notation.(Answer)

Summary - Omega notation ( Ω ) describes the lower bound or best-case scenario of
an algorithm's time or space complexity. It signifies that an algorithm's performance will
not exceed a certain level, indicating the minimum amount of resources required for a
given problem size.
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QUE 38- Describe the Theta notation in algorithm analysis.(Answer)
Summary - Theta notation ( Θ) in algorithm analysis represents the tight bound
between the upper and lower bounds of an algorithm's time or space complexity. It
signifies that an algorithm's performance matches a specific growth rate, providing a
precise characterization of its resource usage.

QUE 39- Explain the Master Theorem for analyzing algorithm complexity.(Answer)
Summary - The Master Theorem is a mathematical tool for analyzing the time
complexity of divide-and-conquer algorithms. It provides a formulaic approach to
determine the time complexity of algorithms that follow specific recursive patterns, such
as those found in merge sort, quicksort, and certain tree traversal algorithms.

QUE 40- Discuss the concept of dynamic programming.(Answer)

Summary - Dynamic programming is a problem-solving technique that involves
breaking down a problem into smaller subproblems, solving each subproblem only
once, and storing the solutions to avoid redundant computations. It's particularly
effective for optimization problems where solutions to subproblems contribute to the
optimal solution of the overall problem.

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QUE 41- Explain the concept of Memorization in dynamic programming.(Answer)
Summary - Memorization in dynamic programming refers to storing computed solutions
to subproblems in a table or array for future reference. This technique avoids
recalculating solutions for previously solved subproblems, reducing the overall
computational complexity of the algorithm.

QUE 42- Describe the process of solving problems using dynamic

programming.(Answer)
Summary - Solving problems using dynamic programming involves defining a recursive
relation for the problem, identifying overlapping subproblems, applying memorization to
store and retrieve solutions efficiently, and constructing a bottom-up or top-down
approach to compute the optimal solution.

QUE 43- Define the concept of graph traversal.(Answer)

Summary - Graph traversal is the process of visiting all vertices and edges of a graph
systematically. It's used to explore and analyze the structure of graphs, identify paths
between vertices, and solve various graph-related problems.

QUE 44- Explain the Breadth-First Search algorithm.(Answer)

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Summary - Breadth-First Search (BFS) is a graph traversal algorithm that explores
vertices level by level, starting from a selected vertex. It systematically visits all
neighboring vertices of the current vertex before moving to deeper levels, ensuring the
shortest path to each reachable vertex is discovered.

QUE 45- Describe the Depth-First Search algorithm.(Answer)

Summary - Depth-First Search (DFS) is a graph traversal algorithm that explores
vertices as deeply as possible along each branch before backtracking. It traverses
along a single path until it reaches a dead end, then backtracks to explore other paths,
effectively searching the entire graph in a systematic manner.

QUE 46- Differentiate between BFS and DFS algorithms.(Answer)

Summary - BFS and DFS differ in their exploration strategies within a graph. BFS
explores vertices level by level, ensuring shortest paths are discovered first, while DFS
explores as deeply as possible along each branch before backtracking, often used in
problems like cycle detection or topological sorting.

QUE 47- Discuss the concept of spanning trees in graphs.(Answer)

Summary - Spanning trees in graphs are subgraphs that contain all vertices of the
original graph while forming a tree structure without any cycles. They represent the

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minimum connected structure of a graph, essential for network design, optimization, and
analysis.

QUE 48- Explain the concept of minimum spanning trees.(Answer)

Summary - Minimum spanning trees (MSTs) are spanning trees with the minimum
possible total edge weight in a weighted graph. They connect all vertices with the least
amount of edge weight, crucial for efficient network design and resource allocation.

QUE 49- Describe Kruskal's algorithm for finding minimum spanning

trees.(Answer)
Summary - Kruskal's algorithm finds the minimum spanning tree of a connected,
weighted graph by iteratively adding the smallest edge that does not form a cycle until
all vertices are connected. It employs a greedy strategy, considering edges in
non-decreasing order of weight, and ensures an optimal solution for the minimum
spanning tree.

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