Fundamentals

M15
GAS TURBINE ENGINE
Rev.-ID: 1
Author: DaC
For Training Purposes Only
ELTT Release: Jul. 09, 2013

M15.15
Power Augmentation Systems

EASA Part-66
CAT B1

M15.15_B1 E
Training Manual

For training purposes and internal use only.

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Lufthansa Technical Training
GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS
M15.15

M15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE

M15.15 POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Operation and Application
M15.15

OPERATION AND APPLICATION

Introduction
In the 40−ies of the last century with the introduction of the first single−flow
turbine jet engines, used mainly for military purposes, the advantages as well
the disadvantages of this new engine type versus the piston engine became
obvious.
The disadvantages were for example a still rather limited life of the first series
engines, which exceeded barely 25 hours and also the operating
disadvantages, as for example the significantly poorer acceleration capability
and the resulting outcome of a long takeoff distance.
At high temperatures and high altitude airports, there was also a large amount
of power loss.
This loss in power, caused by the low air density, had to be compensated by
suitable methods if the maximum takeoff weight could not be reduced. Possible
methods are:
S increasing the engine speed
S increasing the fuel flow
S increasing the air density
It is not always possible to compensate this loss of power by increasing the
engine speed because of mechanical limitations (overspeed limits). Especially
on older engines it is also difficult to increase the fuel flow, because additional
heat cannot be withstood by the turbine materials. Therefore a suitable method
therefore is the incraese of the air density.
To overcome these drawbacks, three methods have been developed:
S Temporary injection of water or water−methanol mixtures, to increase
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

engine performance at high temperatures.

S Temporary intense thrust augmentation by installing an afterburner or a
reheat system in the exhaust system of the engine.
S Extension of the power level range of the engine to reach a short−term
emergency or contingency rating in the event of an engine failure on a
twin engine aircraft.

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GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Operation and Application
M15.15

possibilities to increase
the density

water / water-methanol afterburner system emergency / contingency

injection ratings
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

Figure 1 Power Augmentation Systems

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GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Water /Water−Methanol
M15.15

WATER / WATER−METHANOL INJECTION

Coolant
The injection of a coolant is a method to maintain the required take−off power
or for short−term increase of the thrust at high ambient temperatures and / or
high altitude runways.
The following coolants are used most frequently:
S demineralized or distilled water or
S water-methanol mixtures
Ordinary water is not permitted, because its high mineral content could cause
deposits on the turbine blades which would lead to efficiency losses. Also, the
materials would be damaged by the minerals.

Fluid Heat of vaporization Temperatur Calorific value

kJ/kg BTU/lb. _C _F kJ/kg BTU/lb.
Water 2257 970 100 212 0 0
Methanol 1118 481 65 149 19 900 [ 9 000

Pure water is − as the table shows − preferred because of its greater cooling
effect as compared to water−methylalcohol mixtures.
On the other hand, the proportion of methanol in water, which may be
approximately between 35 and 50 percent, prevents icing effects of the stored
liquid.
This was a not unimportant aspekt, if the coolant – as it was usually the case
with larger commercial aircraft − was not only used once to increase the
take−off thrust, but also had to be stored and transported during the flight.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

For some applications the injection proved to be beneficial because the burned
methanol often could close the gap between the actual and the required power
output without any additonal fuel injection.

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GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Water /Water−Methanol
M15.15

PERCENT OF STATIC THRUST

115 W/O WATER INJECTION (DRY)
WITH WATER INJECTION (WET)

100

(FG )
85 APPROX. 15% OF THRUST RECOVERY

70
EFFECT OF WATER INJECTION
ON THRUST VS. OAT

FRT DRY ½ ¾ FRT WET

OAT
115
PERCENT OF STATIC THRUST

100

APPROX. 15% OF THRUST RECOVERY

(FG)

85

70 EFFECT OF WATER INJECTION

ON THRUST VS. RUNWAY ALTI-
TUDE

RUNWAY
ALTITUDE
115
PERCENT OF STATIC THRUST
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

100
115
APPROX. 15% OF ADDED THRUST
(FG )

85
100

85
70
ADDED THRUST WITH WATER
INJECTION

WATER
INJECTION
Figure 2 Effects of Water Injection
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Lufthansa Technical Training
GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Water /Water−Methanol
M15.15

Operation and Application

General
The air density can be increased by cooling the air that passes through the
engine. This is performed very efficiently with water sprayed into
S the engine air intake / compressor inlet,
S the front of the combustion chamber, or
S both positions maintained above

Compressor Inlet Water Injection

With the injection of the air into the compressor, the heat of the air which is
required for its heating and evaporation during compression will be removed.
By cooling the air the density of the medium is increased.
The outlet air temperature of the compressor is reduced. That allows the
increase of fuel supply to maintain a constant turbine inlet temperature.
The increase in compressor outlet pressure leads to an increased turbine inlet
pressure and the exhaust system.
The mass flow rate through the engine is increased by the amount of the
supplied water.

Combustion Chamber Water Injection

Due to the evaporation of the water, the temperature near the combustion
chamber decreases, so that more fuel can be supplied without exceeding the
predetermined TIT.
The gas exit velocity is increased due to higher volume mass flow and thus
leads to a higher thrust.
The increased mass flow rate also has the effect of thrust enhancement
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

because of the water supply.

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GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Water /Water−Methanol
M15.15

48,000
WET (WITH WATER INJECTION)
DRY (WITHOUT WATER INJECTION)

44,000
86_F (30_C)
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
AND BELOW
80_F (26.7_C)
40,000 AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
AND BELOW
NET THRUST (LBS.)

36,000

100_F
(38_C)

32,000
120_F
(49_C)
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

28,000

24,000
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4

MACH NUMBER (M)

Figure 3 Effect of Water Injection (Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7F)

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Lufthansa Technical Training
GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Water /Water−Methanol
M15.15
In principle it is possible to increase the thrust by 10 to 30 percent by the
injection of a coolant into the engine.
However, the injection of coolant also has disadvantages:
S In general, the installation of a water injection system increases the weight
and complexity of the propulsion system.
S The injected quantity of cooling fluid must be carefully adjusted to the power
stage of the engine, at which the injection is to occur.
In case of injection at the combustion chamber entrance., the associated
increase in pressure in the combustion chamber may cause unstable work
of the compressor.
S A uneven distribution of the injected fluid can lead to thermal stresses in
the components. The result would be a reduction of lifetime.
S When using pure water, the danger of icing can not be excluded.
Therefore, the amount of liquid should be dimensioned so that it is
sufficient, but not more than necessary for the intended application.
In general, the draining of the liquid container and the piping is provided by
the use of a drainage system, which is activated manually or automatically.
S Corrosion phenomena could not be excluded altough distilled water was
used.
S During injection processes into the compressor section, an air offtake for
aircraft purposes (e.g. for the supply of the air condition) is not permitted.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Water /Water−Methanol
M15.15

WATER SUPPLY

FUEL SUPPLY
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

Figure 4 Water Injection Methods

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GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Water /Water−Methanol
M15.15
Water Injection System (B747 JT9D-7A)
The following explanations refer to the early versions of the Boeing 747 with
the Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A high bypass turbo fan engines.
The engines have a combustor water injection system which may be used only
at takeoff and climb settings for a maximum duration of 2.5 minutes.
To prevent icing at higher altitudes the whole amount of water has to be used
or the system has to be drained immediately after takeoff.
The water injection system consists of several subsystems, which are
described in the AMM-Chapter 82:
S Water Storage 82−11−00
S Water Distribution System 82−21−00
S Water Drain System 82−31−00
S Water Pressure and Flow Indicating System 82−41−00
S Water Quantity Indicating System 82−42−00
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Water /Water−Methanol
M15.15

WATER INJECTION ENGINE MOUTED COMPONENTS:

SERVICE PANEL
1 – FUEL CONTROL UNIT (FCU)
2 – CHECK VALVE
3 – WATER FLOW REGULATOR
4 – WATER SHUTOFF VALVE
5 – DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE (DCV)
6 – FUEL/WATER NOZZLES

WATER INJECTION PANEL (P4)

ENGINE 3
PRESSURE THRUST LEVER
FILL FITTING
6
FILL LINE
1
MANUAL
TANK SELECT- Pb
FILL VALVE 3
OVERFILL
WATER QUANTITY PROBE (3−WAY VALVE) 5 2
LINE

4
DRAIN VALVE
WATER PUMP ENG 4
ANTI-SIPHON
VALVE TANK
FLOW/PRESSURE ACCESS
SWITCH

WATER TANK
WATER PUMP ENG 1
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

PUMP DRAIN & CHECK ANTI-SIPHON-

VALVE ENG 2 VALVE

TANK VENT
ENG 1 AMBIENT-
CROSSFEED LINE VENT
PRESS. SW. ENG 1

DRAIN LINE

FLOW SW. ENG 1 DRAIN MAST WATER CROSSFEED

(HEATED) LINE DRAIN VALVE
ENG 4

CAPTAINS CENTER INSTRUMENT PANEL (P2)

Figure 5 Water Injection System Schematic (Boeing 747 with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A Engines)
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GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Afterburner System
M15.15

AFTERBURNER SYSTEM

General
There are occasions when more than the full thrust of an engine is required for
short periods, such as to reduce the length of the takeoff run, to increase the
rate of climb, or to provide an extra burst of speed during a combat mission. It
would not be economical to install a larger engine, and thus penalize the
aircraft with added engine frontal area, weight, and size, just to satisfy a
periodic need for more thrust. The solution is an afterburner.
Afterburning, also called ’augmenting’, is a method by which the thrust of a
basic engine may be augmented by an additional 50 percent or more.
Afterburning is often called ’reheating’ in Great Britain. Afterburners are mainly
used on engines that power military fighter aircraft. However, the engines of
supersonic commercial transports also use afterburners.
Afterburning consists of the introduction and burning of fuel in an area behind
the engine turbine. This increases the temperature and therefore the volume
of the exhaust gas which further accelerates the exhaust gas leaving the jet
nozzle. The area in which reheating takes place is usually called the jet pipe.
As the temperatures in the jet pipe can exceed 1700°C, the walls must be
cooled sufficiently. The burners are arranged so that the flame is kept in the
centre of the jet pipe. Some of the turbine exhaust gas flow passes along the
inner liners of the jet pipe acting as an insulation layer between the flame and
the jet pipe liners.
One disadvantage of afterburner systems is that they add weight to the engine
and if not used, the afterburner equipment in the jet pipe causes addiditional
friction and exhaust flow vortices. This results in a slightly lower thrust
compared to a similar engine without afterburning equipment in the jet pipe.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

Fundamentally, an afterburner is a ramjet engine attached to the turbine

exhaust case of a turbojet or turbofan engine.

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POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Afterburner System
M15.15

Fuel Nozzle Jet Pipe Variable Area Nozzle

FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

Flame Holder

Figure 6 Afterburner
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POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Afterburner System
M15.15
The remarkable thing about an afterburner is its simplicity. It consists of only
four fundamental parts:
S the afterburner duct also called the jet pipe,
S the fuel nozzles or spray bars,
S the flame holders,
S an ignition system and
S a variable area nozzle.
Because the requirements of the exhaust nozzle area vary significantly,
depending on whether or not the afterburner is operating, a variable area
exhaust nozzle must be used.

Operation
When using an afterburner on a mixed exhaust turbofan to augment the thrust
generated by both the primary and secondary airstreams, the pressure of these
two airstreams as they enter the afterburner must be properly matched.
The afterburning duct must be shaped in such a way that it does not interfere
with the normal pressures within the engine.
Similar to the situation in the combustion chamber, the gasses leaving the
engine turbine with approximately 250 - 400 m/sec are far too fast for safe
combustion. Firstly the velocity is decreased by a divergent section of the jet
pipe and afterwards so called flame holders create a region of turbulence to
decrease the gas velocities for stable combustion.
When the afterburner is operating, fuel is introduced through the fuel nozzles or
spray bars. The fuel is burned within the duct, causing additional expansion of
the gases after they leave the basic engine. This increases their velocity and
mass. The increase in mass occurs because an added weight of fuel is burned
in the afterburner.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

Increasing the velocity and the mass increases the thrust.

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POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Afterburner System
M15.15

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

c
[m/s]
1600

T p
[K] [MPa] 1400

2400 1200

1,1

2000 1000

0,9

1600 800

0,7
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

1200 600

0,5

800 400

0,3

400 200

0,1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Figure 7 Real Parameter History in a TJE/AB (flight conditions, H[11 km, vF[2160 km/h)
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POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Afterburner System
M15.15

Ignition
For safe operation of the system the fuel/air mixture must ignite under all
conditions of flight. Considering the high temperatures of the exhaust gasses
leaving the turbine, it may be assumed that the mixture would ignite instantly.
However it has been found that proper ignition will not take place at
temperatures below 800° C. With normal outside air temperatures and
pressures spontaneous ignition would take place, but it would not take place at
high altitude where atmospheric pressure is low. Therefore ignition is supported
by either:
S catalytic ignition
S spark ignition or
S hot shot ignition.

Catalytic Ignition
This system creates an flame to support ignition. The flame is ignited as a
result of a chemical reaction of the fuel / air mixture that is sprayed onto a
platinium/rhodium element located in the centre of afterburner fuel nozzles.
After ignition the flame than propagates to the outward fuel nozzles and flame
holders.
Spark Ignition
This system uses a conventional igniter plug located next to the centre fuel
nozzles. As with the engine ignition system, this igniter plug receives high
energy from an external ignition unit.

Hot Shot Ignition

This system provides in ignition flame by spraying an additional supply of fuel
into the main combustion chamber generating a hot streak of flame that passes
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

through the main combustion chamber and through the engine turbines into the
afterburner system. This type of ignition however needs to be time limited
because of the addition thermal stress imposed to the turbines.

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POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Afterburner System
M15.15

Fuel Supply Fuel Supply

Fuel Supply
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

Figure 8 Afterburner Ignition Systems

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GAS TURBINE ENGINE EASA PART-66 M15
POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Afterburner System
M15.15

Afterburner Exhaust Nozzle

Because the exhaust gases expand in the afterburner when the afterburner is
operating, the area of the exhaust nozzle must be larger when the afterburner
is in use than when it is not. This necessitates either a two−position nozzle or a
nozzle whose area varies automatically in proportion to the total thrust being
produced by the basic engine and the afterburner, together.
A simple arrangement of clamshell doors that opened and closed as the
afterburner was turned on and off was used on the early−model,
centrifugal−compressor turbojets. Today’s engine control systems also use the
variable−area exhaust nozzle to control engine pressure ratio between idle and
intermediate power prior to afterburner initiation.
When afterburning is initiated, the pressure in the jet pipe increases. This
pressure increase affects the operation of all the engine components. The
compressors tend to surge, the combustor tend to overheat and the turbine
speed decreases because of the smaller pressure drop across the turbine. To
prevent these operational disadvantages, the exhaust nozzle area must be
increased by a variable exhaust nozzle system. With an increased exhaust
nozzle area the pressure in the jet pipe can be decreased to the pressure
before afterburning was turned on and the engine remains in a stable operating
condition.
A similar unstable operation will occur if afterburning is turned off. Because of
the open exhaust nozzle during afterburner operation, the pressure in the jet
pipe would decrease too much if the nozzle remains in it’s open position. This
can lead to a turbine overspeed condition or also to a flame out condition
because of the increasing gas flow velocities in combustor and turbine.
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

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POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Afterburner System
M15.15

Variable Area Nozzle

FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!

Figure 9 Afterburner Exhaust Nozzle

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M15.15 B1 E

TABLE OF CONTENTS
M15 GAS TURBINE ENGINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
M15.15 POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . 1
OPERATION AND APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
WATER / WATER−METHANOL INJECTION . . . . . . . . . 4
COOLANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
OPERATION AND APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
AFTERBURNER SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
IGNITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
AFTERBURNER EXHAUST NOZZLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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M15.15 B1 E

TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Power Augmentation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 2 Effects of Water Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 3 Effect of Water Injection (Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7F) . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 4 Water Injection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 5 Water Injection System Schematic (Boeing
747 with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A Engines) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 6 Afterburner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 7 Real Parameter History in a TJE/AB (flight
conditions, H[11 km, vF[2160 km/h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 8 Afterburner Ignition Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 9 Afterburner Exhaust Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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TABLE OF FIGURES

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TABLE OF FIGURES

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TABLE OF FIGURES

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