POPULATION

- A population is a group of individuals of same or volume.

species that live in a given geographical area, share E.g. population density of Siberian cranes at
or compete for similar resources and potentially Bharatpur wetlands in any year is <10. It is
reproduce. millions for Chlamydomonas in a pond.
- E.g. All the cormorants in a wetland, rats in an Population size is also measured in % cover or
biomass.
abandoned dwelling, teakwood trees in a forest
tract, bacteria in a culture plate and lotus plants in E.g. In an area, 200 Parthenium plants and a huge
a pond etc. banyan tree are seen. In such cases, measuring %
- Population ecology is an important area of cover or biomass is meaningful to show
ecology as it links ecology to population importance of banyan tree.
genetics & evolution. Total number is a difficult measure for a huge
Population Attributes population. In such cases, relative population
• Birth rates: Refer to per capita births. density (without knowing absolute population
E.g. In a pond, there are 20 lotus plants last year density) is used. E.g. Number of fish caught per
and through reproduction 8 new plants are added. trap indicates its total population density in the
lake.
• Hence, the current population = 28
In some cases, indirect estimation of population
The birth rate = 8/20 = 0.4 offspring per lotus per
year. sizes is performed. E.g. Tiger census in national
• Death rates: Refer to per capita deaths. parks & tiger reserves based on pug marks & fecal
E.g. 4 individuals in a laboratory population of 40 pellets.
fruit flies died during a week.
Hence, the death rate = 4/40 = 0.1 individuals per POPULATION GROWTH
fruit fly per week.
• Sex ratio: A population has a sex ratio. The population size changes depending on factors
E.g. 60% of the population is females and 40% like food availability, predation pressure & weather.
males. Changes in population density give some idea about
• Age pyramid: It is the structure obtained when the population – whether it is flourishing or
the age distribution (% individuals of a given age declining.
or age group) is plotted for the population. 4 basic processes that fluctuate the population
For human population, age pyramids generally density:
show age distribution of males and females in a a. Natality (B): It is the number of births in a
combined diagram. population during a given period.
b. Mortality (D): It is the number of deaths in a
population during a given period.
c. Immigration (I): It is the number of individuals
of the same species that have come into the
Representation of age pyramids for human habitat from elsewhere during a given time
population period.
d. Emigration (E): It is the number of individuals
of the population who left the habitat and gone
• Population size or population density (N): It is elsewhere during a given time period.
the number of individuals of a species per unit area
Natality & immigration increase the population
density and mortality & emigration decrease the 0.0205 The integral form of the exponential
population density. growth equation is
Nt = N0 ert
Where,
Nt = Population density after
time t N0 = Population
density at time zero r =
intrinsic rate of natural
increase
e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
- If N is the population density at time t, then its
density at time t +1 is
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
Population
Population density increases if B+I is more than growth
D+E. Otherwise it will decrease. curves
- Under normal conditions, births & deaths are
important factors influencing population density.
Other 2 factors have importance only under
special conditions. E.g. for a new colonizing a = exponential growth (J-shaped curve)
habitat, immigration may be more significant to b = logistic growth (Sigmoid curve)
population growth than birth rates.
b. Logistic growth
- There is no population in nature having unlimited
GROWTH MODELS
resources for exponential growth. This leads to
a. Exponential growth
competition among individuals for limited
- Resources (food & space) are essential for the resources.
unimpeded population growth. - Eventually, the ‘fittest’ individuals survive and
- If resources are unlimited, each species shows its reproduce.
full innate potential to grow in number. Then the - In nature, a given habitat has enough resources to
population grows in an exponential or geometric support a maximum possible number, beyond
fashion. which no further growth is possible. It is called
- If population size = N, birth rates (per capita carrying capacity (K).
births) = b and death rates (per capita deaths) = d, - A population with limited resources shows
then the increase or decrease in N during a unit initially a lag phase, phases of acceleration &
time period t (dN/dt) will be deceleration and finally an asymptote. This type
dN/dt = (b – d) × of population growth is called Verhulst-Pearl
Logistic Growth. It is described by following
N Let (b–d) = r,
equation:
then dN/dt = rN
The r (‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’) is an
important parameter for assessing impacts of any
biotic or abiotic factor on population growth. Where, N = Population density at time t
r value for the Norway rat = r = Intrinsic rate of natural
0.015 r value for the flour increase K = Carrying capacity
beetle = 0.12 - Since resources for growth for most animal
r value for human population in India (1981) = populations are limited, the logistic growth model
 is more realistic. of predator. Therefore, predators in nature are
‘prudent’.
Life History Variation Importance of predators:
- Populations evolve to maximise their reproductive
▪ Predators control prey populations.
fitness or Darwinian fitness (high r value). Under
When certain exotic species are introduced into a
a particular set of selection pressures, organisms
geographical area, they spread fast due to the
evolve towards the most efficient reproductive
absence its natural predators. E.g. Prickly pear
strategy.
cactus introduced into Australia (1920’s) caused
- Some organisms breed only once in their lifetime
havoc by spreading. Later, it was controlled by
(Pacific salmon fish, bamboo) while others breed
introducing a cactus-feeding predator moth.
many times (most birds and mammals).
▪ Predators are used in Biological control methods.
- Some produce a large number of small-sized
▪ Predators maintain species diversity in a
offspring (Oysters, pelagic fishes) while others
community by reducing competition among prey
produce a small number of large-sized offspring
species.
(birds, mammals).
E.g. the predator starfish Pisaster in the rocky
- These facts indicate that life history traits of
intertidal communities of American Pacific
organisms have evolved due to limited abiotic and
Coast. In an experiment, all these starfishes were
biotic components of the habitat.
removed from an enclosed intertidal area. It
caused extinction of over 10 invertebrate species
Population Interaction
within a year, due to interspecific competition.
- Organisms interact in various ways to form a
biological community. Defenses of prey species to lessen impact of
- Interaction between two species is called predation:
Interspecific interactions. They include ▪ Camouflage (cryptic colouration) of some insects &
Specie Specie frogs.
Name of interaction sA sB ▪ Some are poisonous and so avoided by the
Mutualism: Both species are predators.
benefitted (+) + +
▪ Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its
Competition: Both species are predator bird. It is due to a special chemical in its
harmed (-) - -
Predation: One (predator) is body. It is acquired during its caterpillar stage by
benefitted. Other (prey) is + - feeding on a poisonous weed.
harmed ▪ Thorns (Acacia, Cactus etc.) are the most
Parasitism: One (parasite) is
benefitted. Other (host) is + - common morphological means of defense of
harmed plants.
Commensalism: One is ▪ Many plants produce chemicals that make the
benefitted. Other is unaffected + 0
herbivore sick, inhibit feeding or digestion,
(0)
Amensalism: One is harmed. disrupt its reproduction or kill it. E.g. Calotropis
Other is unaffected - 0 produce highly poisonous cardiac glycosides.
- In predation, parasitism & commensalisms, the Therefore cattle or goats do not eat it. Nicotine,
interacting species live closely together. caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium, etc. are
defenses against grazers and browsers.
a. Predation
- In a broad ecological context, all carnivores,
b. Competition
herbivores etc. are predators. About 25 % insects - It is a process in which fitness of one species (‘r’
are phytophagous. value) is significantly lower in presence of
- If a predator overexploits its prey, then the prey another species.
might become extinct. It results in the extinction - Interspecific competition is a potent force in
 organic evolution. c. Parasitism
- Competition occurs when closely related species - Many parasites are host-specific (they can
compete for the same limited resources. parasitize only a single host species). They tend to
- Unrelated species can also compete for the co-evolve. i.e., if the host evolves special
resource. E.g. Flamingoes & fishes in some mechanisms against the parasite, the parasite also
shallow South American lakes compete for evolves mechanisms to counteract them to remain
zooplankton. with the same host species.
- Competition occurs in abundant resources also. - Adaptations of parasites: Loss of sense organs,
E.g. In interference competition, the feeding presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on
efficiency of one species is reduced due to the to the host, loss of digestive system, high
interfering and inhibitory presence of other reproductive capacity etc.
species, even if resources are abundant. - Life cycles of parasites are often complex. E.g.
Evidences for competition: ▪ Human liver fluke depends on 2 intermediate
hosts (a snail & a fish) to complete its life cycle.
▪ The Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands
▪ Malarial parasite needs mosquito to spread to other
became extinct within a decade after goats were
hosts.
introduced on the island, due to greater browsing
- Parasites harm the host. They may reduce the
efficiency of the goats.
survival, population density, growth and
Competitive release: It is the expansion of reproduction of the host. They may make the host
distributional range of a species when the physically weak and more vulnerable to predation.
competing species is removed.
Types of parasites:
Connell’s field experiments: On the rocky sea
1. Ectoparasites
coasts of Scotland, there are 2 barnacle species:
- Parasites that feed on the external surface of host.
Balanus (larger & competitively superior) & E.g.
Chthamalus (smaller). Balanus dominates ▪ Lice on humans.
intertidal area and excludes Chthamalus. ▪ Ticks on dogs.
When Connell experimentally removed Balanus, ▪ Ectoparasitic Copepods on many marine fishes.
Chthamalus colonized the intertidal zone. ▪ Cuscuta plant on hedge plants.
- Cuscuta has no chlorophyll and leaves. It
Gause’s ‘Competitive Exclusion Principle’: derives its nutrition from the host plant.
- It states that two closely related species competing - Female mosquito is not considered a parasite,
for the same resources cannot co-exist indefinitely because it needs our blood only for reproduction,
and the competitively inferior one will be not as food.
eliminated eventually. This may be true in limited 2.Endoparasites
resources, but not otherwise.
- Parasites that live inside the host body at
- Species facing competition may evolve different sites (liver, kidney, lungs, RBC
mechanisms for co-existence rather than etc).
exclusion. E.g. resource partitioning. - The life cycles of endoparasites are more complex.
- Resource partitioning: It is the division of limited - They have simple morphological & anatomical
resources by species to avoid competition. For features and high reproductive potential.
this, they choose different feeding times or
Brood parasitism in birds:
different foraging patterns. E.g. MacArthur
showed that five closely related species of - Here, the parasitic birds lay eggs in the nest of
warblers living on a tree could avoid competition its host and lets the host incubate them.
and co-exist due to behavioural differences in their - During evolution, eggs of the parasitic bird
foraging activities. have evolved to resemble the host’s egg in size
 and colour. So the host bird cannot detect and with another flower, it transfers pollen to it.
eject the foreign eggs easily. If the female bee’s colour patterns change slightly
- E.g. Brood parasitism between cuckoo and during evolution, pollination success will be reduced
crow. unless the orchid flower co-evolves to maintain the
d.Commensalism resemblance of its petal to the female bee.
Examples:
• Orchid (+) growing as epiphyte on a mango
branch (0).
• Barnacles (+) growing on the back of a whale (0).
• Cattle egret (+) & grazing cattle (0). The egrets
forage close to where the cattle are grazing. As
the cattle move, the vegetation insects come out.
Otherwise it is difficult for the egrets to find and
catch the insects.
• Sea anemone (0) & clown fish (+). Stinging
tentacles of sea anemone gives protection to fish
from predators.
c.Mutualism
Examples:
• Lichen: It is a mutualistic relationship between
a fungus & photosynthesizing algae or
cyanobacteria.
• Mycorrhizae: Associations between fungi &
the roots of higher plants. The fungi help the
plant in the absorption of essential nutrients
from the soil while the plant provides the fungi
with carbohydrates.
• Mutualism b/w plant & animal through
pollination and seed dispersion:
Examples:
1. Fig trees & wasps. The fig species is pollinated
only by its ‘partner’ wasp species. Female wasp
pollinates the fig inflorescence while searching
for suitable egg- laying sites in fruits. The fig
offers the wasp some developing seeds, as food
for the wasp larvae.
2. Orchids show diversity of floral patterns. They
can attract the right pollinator insect (bees &
bumblebees) to ensure pollination. Not all
orchids offer rewards.
3. ‘Sexual deceit’ of Ophrys (Mediterranean
orchid). One petal of its flower resembles female
bee in size, colour & markings. So male bee
‘pseudocopulates’ with the flower and is dusted
with pollen. When this bee ‘pseudocopulates’
 MODEL QUESTIONS
1. All freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea water or a marine organism in freshwater. Give reason.
2. Observe the figure below:

a. Expand N, B, D, I & E
b. When will population density increase?
c. List two factors which influence population density under normal conditions.

3. Observe the graphical representation of organismic response and name a & b.

4. Different responses made by organism to cope with the stressful situations are given below. Arrange
them in columns. Regulate Change of body temperature according to external environment
Conform Hard and resistant spores /hibernation
Migrate Sweating and shivering to maintain
bodytemperature Suspend Moving to hospitable area
5. Match the following

6. It is common sight in villages where cattle egrets & grazing cattle are found in close association.
a. What kind of interaction do they show?
b. Give an example of such an interaction from plants.